HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Vagaikulam, Tuticorin

LAB MANUAL
ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICES LAB

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Experiments as per the Anna University Syllabus:

1. Study of Electronics components and equipments Resistor, colour coding
and measurement of AC signal parameter (peak peak, rms period,
frequency) using CRO
2. Study of logic gates AND, OR, EOR and NOT.
3. Generation of Clock Signal.
4. Soldering practice Components Devices and Circuits using general
purpose PCB.
5. Measurement of Ripple factor of HWR and FWR.
List of Experiments:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

S.NO
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Study of Electronics components and equipments.

Measurements of AC signal parameters using CRO.
Study of logic gates.
Generation of Clock Signal.
Soldering practice Components Devices and Circuits.
Measurement of Ripple factor of Half wave rectifier.
Measurement of Ripple factor of full wave rectifier

EXPERIMENT
Study of Electronics components and equipments.
Measurements of AC signal parameters using CRO.
Study of logic gates.
Generation of Clock Signal.
Soldering practice Components Devices and Circuits.
Measurement of Ripple factor of Half wave rectifier.
Measurement of Ripple factor of full wave rectifier

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Page
No

STUDY OF ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS

Exp. No:
Date:
AIM
To study about the following Electronic Components and Equipments.
(i)

Resistor colour coding (ii) Usage of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) and Multimeter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Resistor
Capacitors
Inductors
PN junction Diode
Zener Diode
LED
Transistor
CRO
Multimeter

various ranges
various ranges
various ranges
DIN4007
BC547
-

1
1
1
1
1
1

THEORY
(i) ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
It is the branch of science, which relates to the conduction of electricity through a) Vaccum b)
Gases and c) Semi Conductors. The electronic devices are fairly complex. They are made of simple
components such as Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors are come under passive components. Tube
devices and semi conductor devices fall under active components.
RESISTORS:
It is a passive electronic component, which exhibits the property of the resistance. Resistance is
a physical property of the material, which opposes the flow of current. Resistors are used in circuits to
limit the flow of current or to provide a voltage drop.
UNIT: Ohms ()
Types
Resistors are broadly classified into two categories are
1) Fixed Resistors
2) Variable Resistors
Fixed Resistors
Fixed Resistors are those whose values cannot be changed after manufacturing.
Variable Resistors
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Variable Resistors are those whose values can be changed after manufacturing.
RESISTOR COLOUR CODING
Resistance is coded to indicate the value and the tolerance. For axial type resistors, four colour
bands are used as shown in figure. The first three colour bands indicate resistance value and the fourth
one indicates the tolerance. The first colour band gives the first significant digit and the second colour
band gives the second significant digit. Third colour band is the multiplier and gives the number of zeros
that is to be added to the numerical value obtained from the first two bands. The following table gives the
colour and its numerical value.
CAPACITORS
A Capacitor is a component that stores electric energy. It consists of two conducting plates,
separated by an insulator. The conducting surfaces are called electrodes and the insulating medium is
called dielectric.
UNIT: Farads (F)
Types
In general capacitors are classified as
1) Fixed Capacitors
2) Variable Capacitors
Fixed Capacitors
Fixed Capacitors are classified as several types depending upon the dielectric material used.
Some of them are
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Paper Capacitors
Film Capacitors
Mica Capacitors
Glass Capacitors
Ceramic Capacitors
Tantalum Capacitors

Variable Capacitors
Variable capacitors consist of a set of plates and a set of movable plates with respect of fixed
plates.
1) Trimmer Capacitors
2) Ceramic Trimmer Capacitors
3) Mica Trimming Capacitors.

INDUCTORS
Inductor is a component whose construction is simply a coil of wire. The property of a coil by
which it opposes change in the value of current or flux through it due to the production of self induced
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E.M.F is called inductance. An inductor consists of number of turns of wire used to introduce inductance
into an electric current and produces magnetic flux.
UNIT: Henry (H)
Types
1) Fixed Inductors
a) Air - Core Inductor
b) Iron - Core Inductor
c) Ferrite Core Inductor
2) Variable Inductor
ACTIVE COMPONENTS
PN JUNCTION DIODE
A single piece of semiconductor, are half of which is P type and the other half is N- type is
known as PN junction diode. The plane dividing the two halves is known as PN junction diode. Diode is
an electric component which allows current to flow through it in one direction but not in opposite
direction. The current is flowing through a diode, when the voltage on the positive is higher than the
negative. The main function of a diode is rectification.
ZENER DIODE
It is reversed biased PN junction diode, which is operated in break down region. It is used for
meter protection and as voltage regulators.
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
Light emitting diodes have same properties as diode when forward biased. Their threshold
voltage is 1.6v to 2.4v LEDs use a special material, which emits light when current flows through it LED
has a positive terminal (anode) and a negative terminal (cathode) just like regular diode. Often positive
terminal is longer than negative terminal.
TRANSISTORS
It is a three terminal semiconductor device, consisting of two P N functions formed by sand
witching a thin layer of n type semi conductors between two layers of p type semiconductors. This
type of transistor is known as p n p transistor. On the other hand, when a layer of p type
semiconductor is sand witched between two layers of n type semiconductor material, it is known as
n-p-n transistor.
(ii) USAGE OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE AND MULTIMETER
CATHODERAY OSCILLOSCOPE
The CRO is a versatile electronic testing and measuring instrument that allows the amplitude of
the signal which may be voltage, current, power etc.., to be displayed primarily as a function of time. It is
used for voltage, frequency and phase angle. Measurement and also for examining the waveforms from

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AC or very low frequency to very high frequencies. CRO comprises the main sections of i) Horizontal &
Vertical voltage amplifiers ii) Power supply circuits iii) Cathode ray tube.
Applications
1.
2.
3.
4.

Measurement of voltage
Measurement of Current
Measurement of frequency
Measurement of Phase difference

MULTIMETER
An instrument used to measure voltages, currents and resistance known as multi meter. It is an
indispensable instrument and can be used for measuring as well as AC voltages and currents. There are
two types of multimeters. That is analog and digital. The digital multimeter is commonly used in
laboratory and workshop because of its high resistance.
Applications

For checking the circuit continuity.

For measuring DC circuit current flowing through the circuits.
For measuring DC voltages across various resistors in electronic circuits.
For measuring AC voltages across power supply transformers.
For ascertaining whether or not open or short circuits exixts in the circuits.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

What are the two types of components?

Give some examples for active and passive components.
What are the uses of resistor and denote the unit of resistor?
Define fixed and variable resistor.
How many colour bands are there in the resistor and explain each band?
Write down the numbers and multipliers for the following colour codes: Black, Orange, and
Gray.
Give the unit and types of capacitor.
Draw the symbol for resistor, capacitor and inductor.
Define inductance.
Draw the symbol for PN junction diode, Zener diode, transistor and LED.
What is the threshold voltage for LED?
Mention some uses of CRO.
What are the types of multimeter?
State some applications of multimeter.

RESISTOR

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R1
1k
COLOUR CODING
COLOUR
BLACK
BROWN
RED
ORANGE
YELLOW
GREEN
BLUE
VIOLET
GREY
WHITE

NUMBER
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

MULTIPLIER
10
10
10
10
104
105
106
107
108
109

TOLERENCE
BROWN COLOUR
RED COLOUR
GOLD COLOUR
SILVER COLOUR
NO COLOUR

1%
2%
5%
10%
20%

CAPACITOR

C1
0.1F
INDUCTOR

L1
1mH
PNJUNCTION DIODE

D1
1N4001

ZENER DIODE

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D2
02BZ2.2
LED

LED1

TRANSISTORS

Q1

BC547A

N P N Transistor

Q2

BC327

P N P Transistor

RESULT
Thus the study of basic electronic components has been studied.

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MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETERS USING CRO

Exp. No:
Date:
AIM
To measure the value peak, RMS, Peak to Peak, period and frequency of an alternating quantity
by using CRO.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. CRO
2. Function Generator
3. Connecting wires

Dual
-

30MHZ
30MHZ
-

1
1
Few

THEORY
AC FUNDAMENTALS
Alternating quantity
A quantity in which the magnitude and direction of the signal is change with respect to time is
called an alternating quantity. Ex: Sinusoidal Quantity.
Cycle
One complete set of changes in magnitude and direction of any alternating quantity is called a
cycle.
Period
Time taken by an alternating quantity to complete a cycle is called period. Unit of period is
Second.
Frequency
The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is called frequency.
Unit of frequency is Hertz (H).
Peak value or Amplitude
The maximum value that an alternating quantity attains during a cycle is called peak value or
amplitude. These are positive and negative peak values. The magnitude between two peaks is called
Peak Peak value.
Root Mean Square Value (RMS)
It is the value of direct current that flows through the given circuit for a certain amount of time It
produces the heat And it is same as that of an alternating current flowing through the same circuit for the
same RMS value. It can be determined by
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Vrms = v1 + v2+v3+.+ vn

CALCULATION
Frequency = 1/T
Vrms = 0.707 /

v peak

PROCEDURE
Output of the function generator is connected to any one of the channel in CRO through a
probe. Positive is connected to positive and negative is connected to the negative of the
prob.
Now switch on the power supply of CRO and AFO.
CRO is kept in single channel mode and adjust the focus and intensity knobs. If there is
any problem arises adjust the X Y Position knob.
In function generator kept Sinusoidal waveform and adjust the amplitude knob and
frequency knob and maintain it in particular value.
Then we observed the output sinusoidal waveform through CRO.
Now note down the X and Y axis divisions in the CRO monitor. Then calculate the Peak
value, peak peak value of the sinusoidal waveform.
The product of voltage base knob value and the Y axis divisions are given us the peak
value and peak peak value.
The product of time base knob value and the X axis divisions are given us time period.
Reciprocal of this time period is known as frequency of the sinusoidal signal.
RMS voltage is obtained by multiplying the peak voltage with 0.707.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Define alternating quantity.

What is the unit of period?
Define frequency and denote its unit.
State the expansion of rms.
What is amplitude?
What is the value of Vrms?

MODAL GRAPH
V(volt)
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Amplitude

Peak to peak

Time

T(sec)

OUTPUT

In X axis 1box = 1msec

In Y axis 1box = 1volt

OUT PUT
WAVE

AMPLITUDE (V)

TIME PERIOD (ms)

RMS VALUE/ PEAK

AMPLITUDE

FREQUENCY

sinusoidal

100

0.3535

1000Hz

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RESULT
Thus peak value, RMS, peak peak value, period and frequency of the sinusoidal waveform is
observed using CRO.

STUDY OF LOGIC GATES

Exp. No:
Date:

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AIM
Study the operation of logic gates and verify its truth table.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Digital trainer kit

IC 7404 (NOT gate)
IC 7408 (AND gate)
IC 7432 (OR gate)
IC 7486 (Ex-OR gate)
Patch chords

1
1
1
1
1
few

THEORY
Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one output signal gate.
The input and output signal passes through the gates are either low or high voltages that is 0 or 1. It is
called logic circuits. It can be verified using Boolean algebra.
NOT GATE: IC 7404
A NOT gate has the single input and a single output. It is also called as inverter. If the input is 0

(low voltage) then will the output is 1 (high voltage) and vice versa. The Boolean expression is Y= A
.
OR GATE: IC 7432
OR gate have two or more inputs and only one output. Any one (01 or 10) or both of its input is
high (11) then the output is logic 1 (high). The Boolean expression is Y= A+B.
EX OR GATE: IC 7486
It has two or more inputs and single output. Both the inputs are same that is both are high (11) or
low (00) then the output is same (0 or 1). The Boolean expression is Y=

A B + A B .

AND GATE: IC 7408

AND gate has two or more inputs and one output. All the inputs are in high (11) then only the

output is high (1). The Boolean expression is Y = A B.

PROCEDURE
Connections are made as per the circuit diagram for AND, OR, EX OR and NOT gate.
For all ICs pin number 7 is connected to ground and pin number 14 is connected to +Vcc of +5V.
Then give various inputs and note down the output and verify the truth table.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Name some logic gates
2. Which gate is called as inverter?
3. What is the Boolean expression for NOT, AND, XOR and OR, gates.
4. How many inputs and output are given to the EX OR gate?
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5. Write down the truth table for OR gate.

6. Both inputs are high then what is the output of AND gate?
NOT GATE IC 7404

U1A
74S04D
TRUTH TABLE

OUTPUT ( Y

INPUT (A)

1
AND GATE IC 7408

U3
AND2
TRUTH TABLE

OUTPUT

INPUT

A
0
0
1
1

B
0

Y
0

OR GATE IC 7432

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U4
OR2
TRUTH TABLE

OUTPUT

INPUT
B

A
0
0
1
1

Y
0

EX OR GATE IC 7486

U5
XOR2
TRUTH TABLE

OUTPUT

INPUT

A
0
0
1
1

B
0

Y
0

RESULT
Thus the logic gates are studied and their truth tables are verified.
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GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL

Exp. No:
Date:

AIM
Using IC 555 timer generate clock signal in astable mode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Timer IC
Resistors
Capacitors
Power supply
CRO
Bread Board
Connecting wires

IC 555
2.2k, 3.3k
0.1F, 0.01F
0 30 v
0 30 MHz
-

1
1
1
1
1
1
Few

THEORY
Multivibrator is basically a two stage feedback amplifier. The output is feedback to the input of
the timer. The clock signal is internally generated it is not required for the external pulses. It needs only a
power source. The width of the square wave and its frequency depend on the components what we used in
the multivibrator circuit.
ASTABLE FREE RUNNING MODE
The 555timer IC operates like an oscillator. Trigger and threshold inputs (pin 2, 6) are connected
together with the o.1F external capacitor. For monostable multivibrator we did not require this circuit,
we give external trigger to change the state of the output. So it is called free running multivibrator. The
output is determined by the externally connected two resistors and capacitors.
When Q is low or output voltage (Vout) is high, then the discharging capacitor (C2) is cut off
and C1 begins charging towards Vcc through the resistances R1 and R2. The charging time constant is

2
(R1 + R2) C. When the threshold voltage exceeds + 3 Vcc, the comparator 1 has an output and triggers
the flip-flop so that its Q is high and the timer output is low. When Q is high the discharge transistor is
saturates and the 7th pin is grounded. So that capacitor discharges through R1 and R2 resistances.
Discharging time constant is RaC.
When discharging of capacitor the trigger voltage at inverting input of comparators decreases.
When it drops below to

1
3 Vcc, the output of comparator is goes high and this reset the flip-flop. So

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that Q is low and the timer output is high. This proves the auto transition in output from low to high and
then to low. Thus the cycle repeats.
APPLICATION

LED and Lamp flashes

Pulse generation
Logic clocks
Tone generation
Security alarms
Pulse position
Modulation techniques.

FORMULAS
When capacitor C charges

T hig h = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C

V c = Vcc (1 - e tRC )
Overall period of Oscillation is
T=

T hig h + T low

= 0.693 (

R A +2 R B ) C

Frequency of oscillation is given as

F=

1
T

= 1.44 (

R A +2 R B ) C

PROCEDURE

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

Pin number 8 is connected to the supply
Pin number 3 is connected to the CRO for observing the output clock signal.
ON and OFF times are measured from CRO. Time period and frequency are calculated by these
values.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Define multivibrator.
Give the specification for timer IC.
Draw the pin diagram for timer IC.
Why we called astable multivibrator as free running vibrator?
Give some applications of multivibrator.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
VCC
5V
R1
2.2k

U1

XSC1

VCC

R2
3.3k

RST

DIS

THR

TRI

CON

OUT

_
+

PIN DIAGRAM

U1

8
VCC

DIS

THR

TRI

CON

OUT

GND
1

LM555CM

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C2
0.01F

RST

Ext Trig
+

GND

C1
0.1F

Page 18

LM555CM

MODEL GRAPH
V (volt)

T (ms) OUTPUT

T (ms) Capacitor voltage

TABULATION

WAVE

ON TIME
(s)

OFF TIME
(s)

TOTAL
TIME (s)

FREQUENC
Y (Hz)

AMPLITUDE
(volts)

Square
Wave

500

300

800

12500

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OUT PUT

CAPACITOR CHARGING AND DISCHARGING VOLTAGE

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RESULTS
Thus the clock signal was generated by using IC 555 Timer in astable mode.

SOLDERING PRACTICE COMPONENTS DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

Exp. No:
Date:

AIM
Assemble and solder the electronic components on a printed circuit board (PCB) for the given
circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Soldering Rod
Soldering Led
Flux
Resistor
Capacitor
Printed Circuit Board

low (or) 35W

10 / 40 grade
-

1
1
1
As per the circuit
As per the circuit
1

THEORY
Printed circuit board is the board that is used to solder all the components in it. The inter
connection between the components made by in metallic tracks. Etching process in PCB removes all the
excess copper from the base lamination. After this only the printed pattern is left behind. We add Ferric
chloride in 75 degree hot water and prepare the solution. This will be removing the excess copper in the
board. The components are inserted through the hole on the board. Then we are using the led and
soldering rod solder the components in the board. Excess leads of the components will be removed by
wire cutter. If we apply over heat to the components it may damaged. So we carefully solder the
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components. Do not uses more amount of led because it will connect the nearby components. Once we
use the soldering rod we put it on the soldering pad.

PROCEDURE

PCB board is a thick sheet and copper is in both sides of it.

To remove the dust and contamination we use alcoholic spirit or petrol.
Holes position should be marked carefully.
The track is drawn by enamel point or silver pen.
Using driller we put the hole in the marked place. And clean the hole properly.
Then we check the continuity of the track using tester. Multimeter also used to check the
continuity of the board.
Insert all the components in the appropriate place.
Then we paste the soldering paste to all the inserted components.
Using soldering rod and led we solder the components and cut all the excess leads.
Then we check the continuity of the components.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Give expansion for PCB.

How to make the solution to remove the excess copper?
Define Etching process.
How you check the continuity of the board?
What are the components are inserted in the PCB?
If we apply overheat means what will be happened in the circuit board.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
SOLDERING

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R1

R2

1k

1k
C1
0.01F

C1
0.01F
R2
1k

R1
1k

DE SOLDERING
C1
0.01F
R2
1k

R1
1k

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RESULT
Thus the electronic components were soldered and the continuity checked.

MEASURE THE RIPPLE FACTOR OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Exp. No:
Date:

AIM
Design the Half wave rectifier (HWR) with and without filter circuit and to measure the ripple
factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Transformer
Diode
Resistor
Capacitor
CRO
Bread Board
Connecting Probe
Connecting wires

230v / 12 0 12 v
IN 4001
1K
100F
0 30 MHz
-

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Few

THEORY
A rectifier is a circuit to convert the AC voltage signal to DC voltage signal. Half wave rectifier
has one Diode (IN4007). We apply the positive voltage current will be passed through the diode the
circuit will be forward biased and the current is passed through the diode. Now the diode is in ON
condition. So we got the positive cycle of the signal.
Then we applied the negative signal the circuit will be reverse biased so there is no current is
passed through the diode. So the diode is in OFF condition. So we did not have any signal. In the output
we only get the positive half cycle of the signal. It has more ripples. To overcome this we use a capacitor.
This capacitor is act like a filter. After this Filter operation only we get the half wave DC Signal.
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PROCEDURE

Connect the components as per the circuit diagram.

Secondary terminal of the transformer will be connected to diode.
CRO will be connected across the load resistance.
Then we apply AC signal input through transformer.
Then we measure the amplitude and time of the signal.
Then calculate the ripple factor.

RIPPLE FACTOR () =

V ac
V dc

*100

VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.

Define rectifier.
Explain the operation of HWR.
What is the ripple factor for HWR?
What are the types of rectifier?

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITTHOUT FILTER
D1
V1
230Vrms
60Hz
0

T1

XSC1

1N4001
R1
1k

Ext Trig
+
_
B

A
+

10:1

MODEL GRAPH

Vout

INPUT

OUTPUT WITHOUT FILTER

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T(sec)

T(sec)

OUTPUT WITH FILTER

INPUT

OUTPUT

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T(sec)

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

D1
V1
230Vrms
60Hz
0

T1

XSC1

1N4001
R1
1k

C1
0.1F

Ext Trig
+
_
+

10:1

OUT PUT

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A
_

RESULT
Thus half wave rectifier with and without filter is constructed and the output is obtained.

MEASURE THE RIPPLE FACTOR OF FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

Exp. No:
Date:

AIM
Design full wave rectifier with and without filter and to measure the ripple factor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Transformer
Diode
Resistor
Capacitor
CRO

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230v/ 12 0 12 v
IN 4001
1K
100F
0 30MHz
Page 28

1
2
1
1
1

6.
7.
8.

Bread Board
Connecting Probe
Connecting wires

1
1
Few

THEORY
A rectifier is a circuit to convert AC signal voltage to DC signal voltage. Full wave rectifier
conducts both the positive and negative half cycles of the input. In full wave rectifier we used centre
tapped transformer. Now we apply the positive half cycle of the input signal. Now the diode D1 get
forward bias and D2 get reverse biased. That is D1 is in ON condition D2 is in OFF condition. D1 diode
is passed the positive half cycle.
Then we apply the negative half cycle of the input signal. Now the diode D1 get reversed bias and
D2 get forward biased. That is D1 is in OFF condition D2 is in ON condition. D2 diode is passed the
negative half cycle. So we get both positive and negative half cycle of the signal with ripples. We put the
capacitor across the load resistance we get the pure DC signal.

PROCEDURE

Connect the components as per the circuit diagram.

Secondary terminal of the transformer will be connected to diode.
CRO will be connected across the load resistance.
Then we apply AC signal input through transformer.
Then we measure the amplitude and time of the signal.
Then calculate the ripple factor

RIPPLE FACTOR () =

V ac
V dc

*100

VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.

Define rectifier.
Explain the operation of HWR.
What is the ripple factor for HWR?
What are the types of rectifier?

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITTHOUT FILTER

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D1
V1
T2
120 Vrms
60 Hz
0

1N4001

R1
1k

XSC2

TS_MISC_25_TO_1

Ext T rig
+

D2

_
B

A
+

1N4001

MODEL GRAPH
Vout

INPUT

OUTPUT WITHOUT FILTER

OUTPUT WITH FILTER

INPUT

HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Page 30

T(sec)

T(sec)

T(sec)

OUTPUT

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Page 31

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER

D1
V1
T2
120 Vrms
60 Hz
0

1N4001

R1
1k

C1
10F

XSC2

TS_MISC_25_TO_1

Ext T rig
+

D2

_
+

1N4001

INPUT

OUTPUT

HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Page 32

A
_

RESULT
Thus full wave rectifier with and without filter is constructed and the output is obtained.

HOLYCROSS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Page 33