2.

20 Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2011

Lecture 3
c 2011 MIT - Department of Ocean Engineering, All rights reserved.
Copyright

2.20 Marine Hydrodynamics

Lecture 3

1.7 Stress Tensor

1.7.1 Stress Tensor ij
The stress (force per unit area) at a point in a fluid needs nine components to be completely
specified, since each component of the stress must be defined not only by the direction in
which it acts but also the orientation of the surface upon which it is acting.
The first index i specifies the direction in which the stress component acts, and the second
index j identifies the orientation of the surface upon which it is acting. Therefore, the ith
component of the force acting on a surface whose outward normal points in the j th direction
is ij .

X2
22
12

32

21
23

11
13

33

31
X1

X3

Figure 1: Shear stresses on an infinitesimal cube whose surfaces are parallel to the coordinate
system.

Figure 2: Infinitesimal body with surface PQR that is not perpendicular to any of the Cartesian
axis.

Consider an infinitesimal body at rest with a surface PQR that is not perpendicular to any
of the Cartesian axis. The unit normal vector to the surface PQR is n
= n1 x1 +n2 x2 +n3 x3 .
The area of the surface = A0 , and the area of each surface perpendicular to Xi is Ai = A0 ni ,
for i = 1, 2, 3.
X
Newtons law:
Fi = (volume force)i for i = 1, 2, 3
on all 4 faces

Note: If is the typical dimension of the body : surface forces 2

: volume forces 3
An example of surface forces is the shear force and an example of volumetric forces is the
gravity force. At equilibrium, the surface forces and volumetric forces are in balance. As
the body gets smaller, the mass of the body goes to zero, which makes the volumetric
forces
P equal to zero and leaving the sum of the surface forces equal zero. So, as
0, all4f aces Fi = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3 and i A0 = i1 A1 + i2 A2 + i3 A3 = ij Aj . But the area
of each
P surface to Xi is Ai = A0 ni . Therefore i A0 = ij Aj = ij (A0 nj ), where ij Aj is
the
notation (represents the sum of all components). Thus i = ij nj for i = 1, 2, 3,
where i is the component of stress in the ith direction on a surface with a normal ~n . We
call i the stress vector and we call ij the stress matrix or tensor.

1.7.2 Example: Pascals Law for Hydrostatics

In a static fluid, the stress vector cannot be different for different directions of the surface
normal since there is no preferred direction in the fluid. Therefore, at any point in the
fluid, the stress vector must have the same direction as the normal vector ~n and the same
magnitude for all directions of ~n .

Pascals Law for hydrostatics:

ij

no summation
z }| {
=
(pi ) (ij )

p1 0
0
= 0 p2 0
0
0 p3
where pi is the pressure acting perpendicular to the ith surface. If p0 is the pressure acting
perpendicular to the surface PQR, then i = ni p0 , but:
i = ij nj = (pi )ij nj = (pi )(ni )
Therefore po = pi , i = 1, 2, 3 and ~n is arbitrary.

1.7.3 Symmetry of the Stress Tensor

To prove the symmetry of the stress tensor we follow the steps:

j
ij

ji

ji

i
ij

Figure 3: Material element under tangential stress.

P
1. The
of surface forces = body forces + mass acceleration. Assume no symmetry.
Balance of the forces in the ith direction gives:
()(ij )T OP ()(ij )BOT T OM = O( 2 ),
since surface forces are 2 , where the O( 2 ) terms include the body forces per unit
depth. Then, as 0, (ij )T OP = (ij )BOT T OM .
P
2. The
of surface torque = body moment + angular acceleration. Assume no symmetry. Balance of moments about o gives:
(ji ) (ij ) = O( 3),
since the body moment is proportional to 3 . As 0 , ij = ji .

1.8 Mass and Momentum Conservation

Consider a material volume m and recall that a material volume is a fixed mass of material. A material volume always encloses the same fluid particles despite a change in size,
position, volume or surface area over time.
1.8.1 Mass Conservation
The mass inside the material volume is:
M(m ) =

ZZZ

m(t)

Sm(t)

m ( t )

Figure 4: Material volume m (t) with surface Sm (t).

Therefore the time rate of increase of mass inside the material volume is:
ZZZ
d
d
M(m ) =
d = 0,
dt
dt
m (t)

which is the integral form of mass conservation for the material volume m .

1.8.2 Momentum Conservation

The fluid velocity inside the material volume in the ith direction is denoted as ui . Linear
momentum of the material volume in the ith direction is
ZZZ
ui d
m(t)

Newtons law of motion: The time rate of change of momentum of the fluid in the material
control volume must equal the sum of all the forces acting on the fluid in that volume.
Thus:
d
(momentum)i =(body force)i + (surface force)i
dt Z Z Z
ZZZ
ZZ
d
ui d =
Fi d +
ij nj dS
| {z }
dt
m (t)

Divergence Theorems

m (t)

For vectors:

Sm (t)

ZZZ

For tensors:

ZZ

~v .
n dS
| {z ~v}d = |{z}
vj
xj

vj nj

ZZZ

ZZ
ij
d = ij nj dS
xj

Using the divergence theorems we obtain

d
dt

ZZZ
m(t)

ui d =

ZZZ 

ij
Fi +
xj

m(t)

which is the integral form of momentum conservation for the material volume m .

1.8.3 Kinematic Transport Theorems

Consider a flow through some moving control volume (t) during a small time interval t.
Let f (~x, t) be any (Eulerian) fluid property per unit volume of fluid (e.g. mass, momentum,
etc.). Consider the integral I(t):
ZZZ
I(t) =
f (~x, t) d
(t)

According to the definition of the derivative, we can write

d
I(t + t) I(t)
I(t) = lim
t0
dt
t

Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z

1
= lim
f (~x, t + t)d
f (~x, t)d
t0 t

(t+t)

(t)

S(t+t)
( t + t )

( t )

S(t)

Figure 5: Control volume and its bounding surface S at instants t and t + t.

Next, we consider the steps

1. Taylor series expansion of f (~x, t + t) about (~x, t).
f (~x, t + t) = f (~x, t) + t
2.

ZZZ

d =

ZZZ

(t+t)

where,

d +

ZZZ

d =

(t)

ZZZ

f
(~x, t) + O((t)2 )
t

ZZ

[Un (~x, t)t] dS and Un (~x, t) is the normal velocity of S(t).

S(t)

S(t+t)

S(t)

v
U n ( x, t )t + O( t ) 2

dS

Figure 6: Element of the surface S at instants t and t + t.

Putting everything together:

ZZZ
ZZZ
ZZ
ZZZ

d
1
f
2
df + t
d
I(t) = lim
+ t
dSUn f
df + O(t)
t0 t

dt
t

(t)

(t)

S(t)

(t)

(1)

From Equation (1) we obtain the Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT), which is equivalent
to Leibnitz rule in 3D.
d
dt

ZZZ

f (~x, t)d =

ZZZ

(t)

f (~x, t)
d +
t

(t)

ZZ

f (~x, t)Un (~x, t)dS

S(t)

For the special case that the control volume is a material volume it is (t) = m (t) and Un
= ~v n
, where ~v is the fluid particle velocity. The Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT),
then takes the form
ZZZ
ZZZ
ZZ
d
f (~x, t)
f (~x, t)d =
d +
f (~x, t)(~v n
)dS
|
{z
}
dt
t
m (t)

m (t)

Sm (t)

f (vi ni )
(Einstein Notation)

Using the divergence theorem,

ZZZ

ZZ

~}d =
~ n
dS
| {z
|{z}

xi i

i ni

we obtain the 1st Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT)

d
dt

ZZZ
m (t)

f (~x, t) d =

ZZZ 
m (t)

where f is some fluid property per unit volume.


f (~x, t)
+ (f~v) d,
| {z }
t

(f vi )
xi

1.8.4 Continuity Equation for Incompressible Flow

Differential form of conservation of mass for all fluids Let the fluid property
per unit volume that appears in the 1st KTT be mass per unit volume ( f = ):
0

conservation
of mass

d
dt

ZZZ

1st

m (t)

KTT

ZZZ 

+ (~v ) d
t

m (t)

But since m is arbitrary the integrand must be 0 everywhere. (Because if it is not

zero at any point then we can shrink the volume to that point and get a non-zero
result which is a contradiction)
Therefore:

+ (~v ) = 0
t

+ [~v + ~v] = 0
|t {z
}
D
Dt

Leading to the differential form of

Conservation of Mass:

D
+ ~v = 0
Dt

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 Continuity equation Conservation of mass for incompressible flow In

general it is = (p, T, . . .), but we consider the special case of an incompressible
flow, i.e. D
= 0 (Lecture 2).
Dt
Note: For a flow to be incompressible, the density of the entire flow need not be
constant ((~x, t) 6= const). As an example consider a flow of more than one incompressible fluids, like water and oil, as illustrated in the picture below.
Constant

fluid particle
2
fluid particle
1

oil

water

Figure 7: Interface of two fluids (oil-water)

Since for incompressible flows D
= 0, substituting into the differential form of the
Dt
conservation of mass we obtain the
Continuity Equation:

~v
|

{z

vi
xi

=
}

rate of volume dilatation

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1.8.5 Eulers Equation (Differential Form of Conservation of Momentum)

2nd Kinematic Transport Theorem 1st KTT + differential form of conservation
of mass for all fluids. If G = fluid property per unit mass, then G = fluid property
per unit volume

d
dt

ZZZ
m (t)

Gd

1st KT T

ZZZ 

(G) + (G~v ) d
t

m (t)

after some algebra:

ZZZ

G
=

m (t)

+ ~v
t
{z
}
|

=0 from mass conservation




G
+
+ ~v G
d
t
{z
}
|
= DG
Dt

The 2nd Kinematic Transport Theorem (KTT) follows:

d
dt

ZZZ

Gd =

ZZZ

DG
d
Dt

Note: The 2nd KTT is obtained from the 1st KTT (mathematical identity) and the
only assumption used is that mass is conserved.

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 Eulers Equation
We consider G as the ith momentum per unit mass (vi ). Then,
ZZZ 

ij
Fi +
xj

m (t)

conservation
of momentum

d
dt

ZZZ
m (t)

vi d

2nd

KTT

ZZZ

Dvi
d
Dt

m (t)

But m (t) is an arbitrary material volume, therefore the integral identity gives
Eulers equation:

vi

ij
Dvi

+ ~v vi
= Fi +

| {z }
Dt
t
xj
v

vj xi

And in vector tensor form:

D~v

Dt

~v
+ ~v ~v
t

= F~ +

NOTE:
Euler equation is the momentum equation for the fluid in the differential form.
Stress does not make the fluid to accelerate. It is the derivative of stress that makes
the fluid to accelerate.

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