CURRENT TRANSFORMERS STEADY STATE BEHAVIOUR

Current transformers are among the most commonly used items of electrical apparatus and yet,
surprisingly, there seems to be a general lack of even the most elementary knowledge
concerning their characteristics, performance and limitations among those engineers who are
continually using them. The importance of current transformers in the transmission and
distribution of electrical energy cannot be over emphasised because it is upon the efficiency of
current transformers, and the associated voltage transformers, that the accurate metering and
effective protection of those distribution circuits and plant depend.
Current and voltage transformers insulate the secondary (relay, instrument and meter) circuits
from primary (power) circuit and provide quantities in the secondary which are proportional to
those in the primary. The role of a current transformer in protective relaying is not as readily
defined as that for metering and instrumentation. Whereas the essential role of a measuring
transformer is to deliver from its secondary winding a quantity accurately representative of that
which is applied to the primary side, a protective transformer varies in its role according to the
type of protective gear it serves.
Failure of a protective system to perform its function correctly is often due to incorrect selection
of the associated current transformer. Hence, current and voltage transformers must be
regarded as constituting part of the protective system and carefully matched with the relays to
fulfil the essential requirements of the protection system.
There are two basic groups of current transformer, the requirements of which are often radically
different. It is true in some cases the same transformer may serve both purposes but in modern
practice this is the exception rather than the rule:
1. Measurement CT`s - The measuring current transformer is required to retain a specified
accuracy over the normal range of load currents.
2. Protection CT`s - The protective current transformer must be capable of providing an
adequate output over a wide range of fault conditions, from a fraction of full load to many
times full load.
Therefore they generally have different characteristics.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER STANDARDS

Various international standards are available. Such standards give information on the
classification, selection, error and operation of current transformers. They are a valuable source
of reference and can be used in conjunction with the relay manufacturer guide when selecting
the appropriate CT. The list below gives some examples:
IEC
EUROPEAN
BRITISH
AMERICAN
CANADIAN
AUSTRALIAN

IEC 185:1987
IEC 44-6:1992
IEC 186:1987
BS 7625
BS 7626
BS 7628
BS 3938:1973
BS 3941:1975
ANSI C51.13.1978
CSA CAN3-C13-M83
AS 1675-1986

CTs
CTs
VTs
VTs
CTs
CT+VT
CTs
VTs
CTs and VTs
CTs and VTs
CTs
Page 1

Please note that the above are the applicable standards at the time of print of this document and
therefore they may vary.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION

A current transformer consists essentially of an iron core with two windings. One winding is
connected in the circuit whose current is to be measured and is called the primary and the other
winding is connected to burden, and called the secondary. Two of the most basic construction of
current transformers are the bar type and wound type:
1. Bar Type Sometimes referred to as Bushing Type. Such current transformers normally
have a single concentrically placed primary conductor, sometimes permanently built into the
CT and provided with the necessary primary insulation, but very often the bushing of a circuit
breaker or power transformer. At low primary current ratings it may be difficult to obtain
sufficient output at the desired accuracy because a large core section is needed to provide
enough flux to induce the secondary emf in the small number of turns.

PRIMARY

SECONDARY

2. Wound Type With this device it is possible to change the number of primary turns, thus
increasing the CT output voltage with altering the turns ratio. Therefore, for the same output
the wound CT is smaller in CSA than the bar type.

PRIMARY
SECONDARY

Page 2

CURRENT TRANSFORMER POLARITY

There is no official standard when it comes to defining the polarity of current transformers.
However, most Engineers will use P1 and P2 to define the primary winding and S1 and S2 to
define the secondary winding. Generally speaking when P1 goes high S1 goes high. Therefore
when current flows from P1 to P2 it is transferred and flows through the external circuit from S1
to S2. Typically P2/S2 is towards the item of plant being protected.

P2

P1
Ip

S2

S1

CURRENT TRANSFORMER THEORY

The flow current in the primary winding produces an alternating flux in the core and this flux
induces an e.m.f. in the secondary winding which results in the flow of secondary current when
this winding is connected to an external closed circuit. The magnetic effect of the secondary
current, in accordance with fundamental principles, is in opposition to that of the primary and the
value of the secondary current automatically adjusts itself to such a value, that the resultant
magnetic effect of the primary and secondary currents, produces a flux required to induce the
e.m.f. necessary to drive the secondary current through the impedance of the secondary. In an
ideal transformer, the primary ampere-turns are always exactly equal to the secondary ampereturns and the secondary current is, therefore, always proportional to the primary current. In an
actual current transformer, however, this is never the case. All core materials, so far discovered,
require a certain number of ampere-turns to induce the magnetic flux required to induce the
necessary voltage.
The most accurate current transformer is one in which the exciting ampere-turns are least in
proportion to the secondary ampere-turns. Exciting ampere-turns may be reduced in three
principle ways:
1.

By improving the quality of the magnetic material

Cold rolled grain oriented silicon steel (C.R.O.S.S.) has a magnetisation characteristic
with a knee point at 1.6 tesla.
Nickel steel (Proprietary name Mumetal) has a knee point of 0.7 tesla.

2.

By decreasing the mean magnetic path of the core.

3.

By reducing the flux density in the core.

Page 3

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS BASIC FORMULAE

Protective relays are designed to operate from secondary quantities supplied from current
transformers and from voltage (or potential) transformers. The secondary output of these
devices is the information used by the relays to determine the conditions existing in the plan
being protected. It is necessary, therefore, that the secondary output of current and voltage
present a true picture to the relays of the conditions in the primary circuit during faults as well as
during normal loads. Or, alternatively, that their performance be known under extreme
conditions so that any error in reproduction in the secondary circuit can be partially or completely
compensated for in the setting and characteristics of the relay.
In many applications, core saturation will almost inevitably occur during the transient phase of a
heavy short circuit. The performance of the associated instrument transformers during faults is,
therefore, an important consideration in providing an effective relaying scheme. The relays and
their associated current transformers must be considered as a unit in determining the overall
performance of the protective scheme. Consequently, the characteristic of the current and
potential transformers at high currents and low voltage respectively, must be known. In any
current transformer the first consideration is the highest secondary winding voltage possible prior
to core saturation. This may be calculated from :
Ek = 444 x B A f N volts
Where :
Ek = secondary induced volts (rms value, known as the knee-point
voltage)
N = number of secondary turns
f
= system frequency in hertz
A = net core cross-sectional area in square meters.
This induced voltage causes the maximum current to flow through the external burden whilst still
maintaining a virtually sinusoidal secondary current. Any higher value of primary current
demanding further increase in secondary current would, due to core saturation, tend to produce
a distorted secondary current.
The relevant circuit voltage required is typically :
Es = Is (ZB + ZS + ZL)

Equation 1

Where :
Is
ZB
ZS
ZL

=
=
=
=

secondary current of ct in amps (assume nominal value, usually 1A or 5A)

the connected external burden in ohms
the ct secondary winding impedance in ohms
the resistance of any associated connecting leads

In any given case, several of these quantities are known or can usually be estimated in order to
predict the performance of the transformers. From the ac magnetisation characteristic,
commonly plotted in secondary volts versus exciting current, Es can be determined for a
minimum exciting current. The equation for the relevant circuit voltage given above then
indicates whether the voltage required is adequate.

Page 4

EXAMPLE
Assume that a bar primary type 2000/5A (CROSS core) current transformer having a core csa
area of 20 square cm's is available with a secondary resistance of 031 ohm. The maximum
current up to which the transformer must maintain its current ratio is 40,000 amperes. It is
required to determine the maximum secondary burden permissible if core saturation is to be
avoided. Assume that the current transformer core will start to saturate at 16 tesla.
From the data given :
N = 2000/5 = 400 turns
f = 50 Hz
Secondary current (Is) with a primary current of 40,000A is given by :

s = 40,000 x

5
2000

= 100 amps

Knee point voltage Ek is given as follows :

Ek =

4.44 x 1.6 x 20 x 50 x 400

10 4

= 284 volts
Maximum burden permissible (including ct secondary resistance and lead burden) is equal to
284 / 100
= 284 ohms
Consequently, the connected burden including that of the pilots can be as high as 2.84 - 031 = 2
53 ohms for negligible saturation in the core. Thus it may be seen that the secondary burden
and the maximum available fault current are two important criteria in determining the
performance of a given current transformer.
A current transformer may operate satisfactorily :
a)

At a high primary current where the connected secondary burden is low

b)

At a lower primary current where the secondary burden is high.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER MAGNETISATION CURVE

The primary current contains two components. These are respectively the secondary current
which is transformed in the inverse ratio of the turns ratio and an exciting current, which supplies
the eddy and hysteresis losses and magnetises the core. This latter current flows in the primary
winding only and therefore, is the cause of the transformer errors. It is, therefore, not sufficient to
assume a value of secondary current and to work backwards to determine the value of primary
current by invoking the constant ampere-turns rule, since this approach does not take into
account the exciting current. From this observation it may be concluded that certain values of
secondary current could never be produced whatever the value of primary current and this is of
course, the case when the core saturates and a disproportionate amount of primary current is
required to magnetise the core.

Page 5

The amount of exciting current drawn by a current transformer depends upon the core material
and the amount of flux which must be developed in the core to satisfy the burden requirements of
the current transformer. The appropriate current may be obtained directly from the exciting
characteristic of the transformer since the secondary e.m.f. and therefore the flux developed is
proportional to the product of secondary current and burden impedance.
The general shape of the exciting characteristic for a typical grade of CROSS (cold rolled grain
orientated silicon steel) is shown. The characteristic is divided into three regions, defined by
ankle-point and the knee-point. The working range of a protective current transformer extends
over the full range between the ankle-point and the knee-point and beyond, while a measuring
current transformer usually only operates in the region of the ankle-point. The difference in
working ranges between metering and protective current transformers stems from the radical
difference in their functions. Metering current transformers work over the range 10% to 120% full
load and it is even an advantage if the current transformer saturates for currents above this
range in order to provide thermal protection for the instruments. Protection current transformers
on the other hand are required to operate correctly at many times rated current.

Flux Density teslas

knee point

ankle point
MMF ampere-turns per metre

KNEE-POINT
The knee-point of the excitation characteristic is defined as the point at which a 10% increase in
secondary voltage produces a 50% increase in exciting current. It may, therefore, be regarded
as practical limit beyond which a specified current ratio may be maintained.
The current transformer magnetisation curve, is usually expressed in terms of Kv and Ki which
when multiplied by the flux density in teslas and ampere-turns per cm respectively gives
corresponding volts and amperes :
Es = 444

f B A N volts.

Page 6

In this equation, the flux density B is in teslas and the core cross-sectional area is in square
meters.
When the flux density B is in teslas and the cross-sectional area is in square centimetres :

Es = 4.44 x 50 x B x
= 222 B A N 10

But K v =

A
10

xN

-4

Es
B

AN
45

Kv =

The exciting current Ie in amps can be obtained from the MMF using the relationship;
Ie = Ki x

Ki =

MMF

e
MMF

The units of Ki will depend on the units of MMF.

If the MMF is in ampere-turns per meter;
Ki =

L
where L is in metres
N

If the MMF is in ampere - turns per cm;

Ki =

L = mean magnetic path

L
where L is in cms
N

EXAMPLE

Consider the case of a current transformer ratio 100/5A connected to an earth fault relay. Relay
burden at minimum tap setting of 10% of rated current is given as 2 VA. Calculate the required
values of Kv and Ki to provide the necessary output up to 10 times the plug setting, with :
i)

A bar primary type current transformer and with

ii)

A wound primary (5 turns current transformer).

Assume the use of a CROSS core; B = 16 tesla.

Page 7

i)

Ring Type Current Transformer (Bar Primary)

Relay current setting

05 ampere : ie 10% of 5A.

Volts required to operate relay

2
0.5

Volts required at 10 times the

the plug setting

= 4 volts

4 x 10 = 40 volts ignoring lead

burden and CT secondary
winding resistance

Therefore, 40 volts must correspond to the knee-point of the saturation curve which
represents a flux density of 16 tesla.
With a bar primary, secondary number of turns = 20
444 f B A N
444 x 50 x 16 x A x 20 x 10-4. (A in cm)
40
A
=
= 56.3 cm 2
0.71
Assume stacking factor = 092
Ek
40

=
=

Gross CSA = 563/092 = 612 cm

Assuming :
I.D.
=
O.D. =
Depth =

18 cms
30 cms
102 cms

30 cm
18 cm

AN
56.3 x 20
=
= 25
45
45
L
24
Ki =
=
= 3.77 cm / turn
N
20
Kv =

Page 8

10.2 cm

ii)

Wound Primary CT

Assume current transformer is wound with 5 primary turns :

Secondary turns = 5 x

100
5

= 100

40 = 444 x 50 x 16 x 100 x A. 10-4 (A in cm)

A =

11.26
40
= 12.24 cm 2
= 11.26 cm 2 ie, csa =
0.92
3.55

Assuming :
I.D.
=
O.D. =
Depth =

18 cm
30 cm
204 cm

30 cm
2.04 cm
18 cm
AN
11.26 x 100
=
= 25
45
45
L
24
Ki =
=
= 0.754 cm / turn
N
100
Kv =

OPEN CIRCUITED SECONDARY WINDING

The secondary circuit of a current transformer should never be left open-circuited whilst primary
continues to flow. In these circumstances only the primary winding is effective and thus the
current transformer behaves as a highly saturated choke (induction) to the flow of primary
winding current. Thus a peaky and relatively high value of voltage appears at the secondary
output of terminals, endangering life, not to mention the possible resulting breakdown of
secondary circuit insulation.
In those cases where current transformers are associated with the high impedance type earth
fault relay the secondary circuit burden may have ohmic values up to several thousands of ohms.

Page 9

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

The errors of a current transformer may be considered as due to the whole of the primary current
not being transformed, a component thereof being required to excite the core. Alternatively, we
may consider that the whole of the primary current is transformed without loss, but that the
secondary current is shunted by a parallel circuit the impedance of which is such that the
equivalent of the exciting current flows there in. The circuit shown is the equivalent circuit of the
current transformer. The primary current is assumed to be transformed perfectly, with no ratio or
phase single error, to a current IP/N which is often called 'the primary current referred to the
secondary'. A part of the current may be considered consumed in exciting the core and this
current Ie is called the secondary excitation current. The remainder Is is a true secondary
current. It will be evident that the excitation current is a function of the secondary excitation
voltage Es and the secondary excitation impedance Ze. It will also be evident that the secondary
current is a function of Es and the total impedance in the secondary circuit. This total impedance
consists of the effective resistance (and any leakage reactance) of the secondary winding and
the impedance of the burden.

Is
Ip
N

Ip

Ze

Ip
N
Zb
Zs
Ze
Ie
Is
Es
Vt

Ie

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Zs

Es
Vt

Zb

primary current in amperes

current transformer ratio (primary to secondary amperes)
burden impedance of relays in ohms (r + jx)
current transformer secondary winding impedance in ohms (r + jx)
secondary excitation impedance in ohms (jx)
secondary excitation current in amperes
secondary current in amperes
secondary excitation voltage in volts
secondary terminal voltage in volts across the current transformer terminals
(input to the relay or burden)

SATURATION

Beyond the knee-point the current transformer is said to enter saturation. In this region the major
part of the primary current is utilised to maintain the core flux and since the shunt admittance is
not linear, both the exciting and secondary currents depart from a sine wave. For example, in
the case of a wholly resistive burden, correct transformation takes place until saturation flux
density is reached. The secondary volts and current then collapse instantly to zero, where they

Page 10

remain until next primary current zero is reached. This process is repeated each half cycle and
results in a pulse waveform as shown.

Flux
Density

Primary Current
Flux Density
Secondary Current
and Voltage

Flux
Density

Time

Assumed
Magnetisation
Curve

Ampere-Turns
Per Core Length
Mean Magnetic Path

CURRENT TRANSFORMER ERRORS

The error associated with current transformers are the current error and the phase error. The
errors for metering and protection current transformers are quite different, those for protection
transformers being less exacting, as might be expected.
For Classes 0.1 to 1 the current error and phase displacement at rated frequency shall not
exceed the values given in Table 1 when the secondary burden is any value from 25% to 100%
of the rated burden. For Class 3 and Class 5, the current error at rated frequency shall not
exceed the values given in Table 2 when the secondary burden is any value from 50% to 100%
of the rated burden. The secondary burden used for test purposes shall have a power factor of 0
8 lagging, except where a burden is less than 5VA a power factor of 1 shall be used. In no case
shall the test burden be less than 1VA.

TABLE 1
Limits of Error for Accuracy Classes 0.1 to 1

CLAS
S

0.1
0.2
0.5
1

% RATIO ERROR AT
PERCENTAGE OF RATED
CURRENT SHOWN
BELOW
100
20 UPTO
10
UPT
BUS
UPTO
O
NOT
BUT
INCL 100 120
NOT
INCL 20

0.25
0.5
1.0
2.0

0.2
0.35
0.75
1.5

0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0

PHASE DISPLACEMENT AT PERCENTAGE OF RATED

CURRENT SHOWN BELOW
MINUTES
CENTIRADIANS

10
UPTO
BUT
NOT
INCL 20
10
20
60
120

Page 11

20
UPTO
BUS
NOT
INCL
100
8
15
45
90

100
UPT
O
120

10
UPTO
BUT
NOT
INCL. 20

5
10
30
60

0.3
0.6
1.8
3.6

20
UPTO
BUS
NOT
INCL
100
0.24
0.45
1.35
2.7

100
UPT
O
120
0.15
0.3
0.9
1.8

Table 2
Limits of Error for Accuracy Classes 3 and 5
% RATIO ERROR AT
PERCENTAGE OF
RATED CURRENT
SHOWN BELOW
50
120
3
3
5
5

CLASS

3
5

LIMITS OF ERROR FOR PROTECTION CT`s - At rated frequency and with rated burden
connected the current error, phase displacement and composite error shall not exceed the
values given in Table 3. For test purposes, when determining the current error and phase
displacement, the burden shall have a power factor of 0.8 inductive except where the burden is
less than 5VA a power factor of 1.0 is permissible.

TABLE 3
Limits of Error for Accuracy Class 5P and Class 10P

ACCURAC
Y CLASS

CURRENT ERROR
AT RATED
PRIMARY
CURRENT (%)

PHASE DISPLACEMENT AT
RATED PRIMARY CURRENT
MINUTES

5P
10P

1
3

60

CENTIRADIAN
S
1.8

COMPOSITE ERROR
AT RATED
ACCURACY
LIMIT PRIMARY
CURRENT (%)
5
10

Considering the excitation impedance (Ze) as a constant, the vectorial relationships between Ip
and Is' is Ie. Ic constitutes the current error and Iq the component of Ie in quadrature with Is
which results in the phase difference.
If Ze were in fact a constant impedance, the vectorial error Ie of the diagram would be the
composite error, but in practice the magnetising impedance Ze is not constant with the result that
the exciting current Ie contains some harmonics of the fundamental frequency which increases
its rms value and thus increases the composite error. This effect is most noticeable in the region
approaching saturation of the core when the wave-forms of the primary, secondary and exciting
currents would be somewhat as shown.

Page 12

Ip

Zs

Is
Ie
Es

Ze

Zb

Iq

Ip
Ie

Ic
I's
Ep

Es

RATIO ERROR (CURRENT ERROR)

The ratio error is defined as the error in the secondary current due to the incorrect ratio and is
expressed as a percentage, by the expression :
(Kns - p)
100
p
Where :
Kn
Is
Ip

is the nominal ratio (rated primarycurrent/ratedsecondarycurrent)

is the actual secondary current
is the actual primary current

The ratio is considered positive when the actual secondary current of the transformer is
larger than the rated current

PHASE ANGLE ERROR

The phase angle error is the angle by which the secondary current vector, when reversed, differs
in phase from the primary current. This angle is considered as positive if the reversed secondary
current vector leads the primary current.

Page 13

On very low burden power factors the phase angle error may be negative. Only on rare
occasions is it necessary to determine the phase error of a CT used for relaying. These
occasions occur when very low circuit settings ie 1% - 5% of rated current, are used in relays
which are directionalised by voltage transformer inputs. For example, sensitive reverse power
relays may require taking phase error into account in order to ensure correct directional
operation where very low power factor primary currents are involved eg 1% - 3% power when
certain types of prime movers are being motored eg, steam turbines and hydro sets.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER RATINGS

Current Transformer Burden - All c.t. accuracy considerations require knowledge of the c.t.
burden, which is the load applied to the secondary of the c.t. and should preferably be expressed
in terms of the impedance of the load and its resistance and reactance components. In practice
it is usual to quote the relay burdens, in the first place, in terms of V.A. ( volt-amperes ) and

power factor. A burden of 12.5VA at 5A would have an ohmic value of :-

12.5
52

= 0.5 - ohm

CT burdens are usually given in preferred values, such as, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 30VA
Continuous Rated Current - This is the maximum current the current transformer can carry
continuously. It is usually the rated primary current.
Short Time Rated Current This is the amount of current which can flow for a given time period
without any harmful effects. This is usually specified for 0.5, 1, 2 or 3 seconds and with the
secondary short circuited.
Rated Secondary Current This is the maximum continuous current the secondary is rated to
carry. It is usually 1 or 5A.
Accuracy Limit Factor (ALF) - A current transformer is designed to maintain its ratio within
specified limits up to a certain value of primary current, expressed as a multiple of its rated
primary current. This multiple is termed its rated accuracy limit factor.

In determining the accuracy limit factor it is necessary to consider the maximum value of primary
current up to which the current transformer is required to maintain its ratio. (The ratio of
accuracy limit primary current to the rated primary current).

CHOICE OF C.T. PRIMARY RATING

The c.t. primary rating is usually chosen to be equal to or greater than the normal full load current
of the protected circuit. Standard primary ratings are given in B.S. 3938:1973. Generally
speaking, the maximum ratio of c.t.s is usually limited to about 3000/1. This is due to ( i )
limitation of size of c.t. and more importantly ( ii ) the fact that the open circuit volts would be
dangerously high for large c.t primary ratings, such as those encountered on large turbo
alternators, e.g. 5,000 amperes. It is standard practice in such applications to use a cascade
arrangement of say 5,000/20A together with 20/1A interposing auxiliary c.t.

Page 14

CHOICE OF C.T. SECONDARY

The total secondary burden of a current transformer includes not only the internal impedance of
the secondary winding, the impedance of the instruments and relays which are connected to it,
but also of the secondary leads. In modern outdoor switchgear, the distance between the
current transformers and the relay panels may be considerable and with a rated secondary
current of 5 amperes, the impedance of these leads constitutes a considerable burden. Because
the losses vary as the square of the current, they are reduced to 1/25 at 1 ampere and to 1/100
at 0.5A. In most installations, the use of 1 ampere secondaries is sufficient to keep the pilot
losses within reasonable limits and 0.5 ampere should be used only in very special cases. N.B.
The same pilot cable size ( 7/029 or 2.5mm2 ) is used for both 1A and 5A CTs
Generally speaking, the usual value of rated secondary current is 5 amperes provided that the
length of the pilots between the current transformers and the connected apparatus does not
exceed about 25 yards. Up to this length the additional burden to the resistance of the pilots is
reasonably small in relation to the total output of the transformer.

CURRENT TRANSFORMER DESIGNATION

Current transformers are usually designated as either Class `P` or Class `X`:
Class P Usually specified in terms or:

Rated Burden

Class (5P or 10P)

Accuracy Limit Factor

Consider the following example:

15VA 10P20
i.e with an external secondary burden of 15VA the composite error will be 10% or less for
primary currents up to 20 times rated current.
To convert from VA and accuracy limit factor (ALF) into volts, we can use the expression

VK =

VA
. ALF
N

or when the internal voltage drop in the ct needs to be taken into account

VA

VK = (ALF) NR CT +
N

Class X The performance of Class X current transformers of the low (secondary) reactance
type shall be specified in terms of each of the following characteristics :

(i)

Rated primary current

( ii )

Turns ratio. (The error in turns ratio shall not exceed 0.25%)
Page 15

( iii )

Knee-point voltage

( iv )

Exciting current at the knee-point voltage and/or at a stated percentage thereof.

(v)

Resistance of secondary winding

CHOICE OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS SHOULD ALWAYS BE SPECIFIED IN ACCORDANCE WITH
THE PROTECTION RELAY MANUFACTURERS RECOMMENDATIONS.
Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection - Class P method of specification will suffice. A
secondary accuracy limit current greatly in excess of the value to cause relay operation serves
no useful purpose and a rated accuracy limit of 5 will usually be adequate. When such relays
are set to operate at high values of overcurrent, say from 5 to 15 times the rated current of the
transformer, the accuracy limit factor must be at least as high as the value of the setting current
used in order to ensure fast relay operation.

Rated outputs higher than 15VA and rated accuracy limit factors higher than 10 are not
recommended for general purposes. It is possible, however, to combine a higher rated accuracy
limit factor with lower rated output and vice versa. But when the product of these two exceeds
150 the resulting current transformer may be uneconomical, and/or of unduly large dimensions.
Relays With Inverse & Definite Minimum Time Lag Characteristic - In general, for both
directional and non-directional relays class 10P current transformers should be used. However,
where time grading is tight it may be beneficial to use 5P.
Differential Protection - Class X specification are generally applicable to differential/unit
systems where balancing of outputs from each end of the protected plant is vital. This balance,
or stability during through fault conditions, is essentially of a transient nature and thus the extent
of the unsaturated (or linear) zone is of paramount importance. Hence a statement of kneepoint
voltage is the parameter of prime importance and it is normal to derive, from heavy current test
results, a formula stating the lowest permissible value of VK if stable operation is to be
guaranteed, e.g.

VK = KIN (RCT + 2RL + R0)

Where K
IN

- is a constant found by realistic heavy current tests

- rated current of C.T. and relay

RCT -

secondary winding resistance of the line current transformers

RL - lead burden (route length) in ohms

R0 - any other resistance (or impedance) in circuit

Page 16

Rogowski Coils

Invented in 1912, this system may be regarded as a poorly coupled transformer since there is no
magnetic circuit to intensify the flux. Applying a primary current (Ip) gives rise to a magnetising
force creating a flux, which couples with the secondary winding producing a voltage. The voltage
is proportional to the rate at which the flux changes; however, since the flux is set-up by the
current we can say E=M.dIp/dt.
The core can be solid or flexible and of a non-magnetic material, its purpose is to support the
secondary windings. Unlike traditional magnetic CT`s, Rogowski coils are not susceptible to
saturation and remenance. Since there is no inductance they are able to reproduce the primary
signal with less distortion than a traditional ct. The inductance in a traditional ct creates a back
emf which can distort the waveform being transformed.
However, they only produce a small output, which in not a problem for modern relays but was in
the past. Since they differentiate the signal the protective device needs to integrate the signal
before it can be used. Any harmonics on the system are amplified by the harmonic number. They
are also susceptible to noise on the system.

Optical CT`s

Optical ct`(OCT) were first used for high voltage current measurement in the late 1960`s. The
main difference between OCT`s and traditional ct`s is that the power output from OCT`s is
typically a few micro watts as oppose to several watts from a traditional CT.
OCT`s detect rotation of the plane of polarisation of linearly polarised light in proportion to a
magnetic field through the material.
They have a number of advantages over traditional ct`s, such as:
Light weight
Smaller support structure
Noise Immunity
Safe
No Saturation
However, they do have a number of disadvantages:
Detectors can be expensive
Affected by changes in environmental conditions
Delicate

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS STEADY STATE BEHAVIOUR

The voltage transformer (v.t.) is a device which will provide isolation from the high voltages on
the system and can transform (in the case of protection applications) reasonably accurately, the
h.v. system voltage to which it is connected, to a value which is more convenient to handle,
typically 110 / 63.5V.
The accuracy requirement for measuring v.t.s is, of course, far more demanding than that
necessary for protection v.t.s but this aspect is outside the scope of the lecture.

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The diagramillustrate where, on the B H curve, the v.t. is situated. Because the v.t.s main role
is the representation of system voltage, and accuracy is relevant, it can be seen that the flux
density employed is somewhat lower than that used for c.t.s when at their maximum output.

Flux Density
B

Saturation
Cross C.T.s & Power Transformers

1.6

V.T.s

Tesla
1.0

Protection C.T. (at full load)

1000

2000

3000
Magnetising Force
AT/m

PROTECTION APPLICATIONS

Protection v.t.s are of two main types :- Electromagnetic and capacitor :Electromagnetic V.T.s
The equivalent circuit of this type of transformer is shown.
The secondary output voltage Vs is required to be an accurate replica of the input primary
voltage Vp in both magnitude and phase over a specified range of output. Winding impedances
are kept small and the magnetising current is kept low over the required range of operating
voltages and burdens, by ensuring that the normal operating flux density in the core is well below
the saturation level.

NP / NS

LP

RP

= Kn

IP
VP

LS

RS
IS

LM
E P = E S IM
Page 18

Re
IC

VS

ZB

(Burden)

Voltage Transformer Error Specification

Ratio (or voltage) error is defined as :-

(Kn . Vs - Vp)
x 100%
Vp

where Kn = nominal Vp / Vs ratio

The turns ratio will not necessarily be equal to Kn due to the use of compensating turns to
spread the errors over the range of burdens (i.e. ve errors at low burdens and +ve errors at high
burdens).
The phase error is the angle between the primary and secondary voltages. It is positive when
the secondary voltage leads the primary voltage.
For the operation of meters and instruments the accuracy of a v.t. is usually only important at or
about the normal system voltage, so that with a given burden the errors are practically constant.
For protection, however, whilst the accuracy requirements may not be very exacting, the errors
are required to be within certain limits over the wide range of voltage possible under system fault
conditions. This range may be from 5% to 150% or 190% of rated primary voltage for v.t.s
connected between line and earth. This requires a corresponding range of core flux density and
thus appreciable change in the value of the exciting impedance Ze. over this range. This results
in a change in the no-load errors which may increase considerably unless attention is given to
this problem at the design stage.
Protective v.t.s must meet the requirements of Table 7, BS 3941, detailed below :Accuracy Class

3P
6P

Percentage Voltage
(ratio) error
+ or 3.0
+ or 6.0

Phase Displacement
Minutes
Centiradians
+ or 120
+ or 3.5
+ or 240
+ or 7.0

Note - If the v.t. is also required for a measurement function it must, additionally, comply with
BS 3941 : 1975 Table 6 and conform to one of the accuracy classes in it.
For protective v.t.s, the voltage error and phase displacement, at rated frequency, shall not
exceed the values given in Table 7 at 5% rated voltage, and at rated voltage multiplied by the
rated voltage factor (1.2, 1.5 or 1.9) with burdens of between 25% and 100% of rated burden at a
power factor of 0.8 lagging.
At 2% of rated voltage, the limits of error and phase displacement with burdens of between 25%
and 100% rated burden at a power factor of 0.8 lagging shall be twice as high as those given in
table 7.

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Voltage factors. The voltage factor Vf is determined by the maximum operating voltage, which in
turn is dependent on the system and v.t. earthing conditions, together with the permissible
duration of the maximum operating voltage, as given in the table below :Voltage Factor Vf

1.1
1.5
1.9

Duration

Earthing Conditions
v.t. Primary
System
Windings
Non-earthed
Eff or non-eff earthed
Earthed
Effectively earthed
Earthed
Non-eff earthed

Not limited
30 sec
30 sec or 8 hr

Residual voltages. For applications such as directional earth-fault protection residual voltages
are required and are usually provided by windings connected in open delta.

da

dn

Under normal conditions, the three phase-to-earth voltages are of equal magnitude and 120
degrees apart and the residual voltage (of system frequency) is zero, but under earth-fault
conditions the voltage to earth of one phase collapses, either totally or partially depending on the
location of the fault, the voltage applied to the other two phase-to-earth windings is increased
and changed in phase, by amounts dependent on the method of earthing the system neutral, and
a residual voltage Vr appears.
Note that the third harmonic voltages add up in an open delta connected winding, and if present
in the applied voltages will appear at the terminals of that winding.
CAPACITOR V.T.s
At 132kV and high voltages, capacitor v.t.s may be more economic than electromagnetic types,
particularly when the h.v. capacitors can also be employed for carrier-current coupling. In fact,
the main difference between an E.M. and a CAP. V.T. is the addition of a capacitor divider to the
front end of an electromagnetic v.t., which virtually converts it into a capacitor v.t.This diagram
shows the basic circuit usually employed.

C1
VP

C2

L
T
VC2

Vi
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VS

ZB

The line to ground voltage Vp is applied across the capacitor voltage divider comprising C1 and
C2 and the intermediate voltage VC2 is fed to the primary winding of an electromagnetic
transformer T via a tuning inductance L which resonates approximately with C1 + C2 at the
system frequency. The transformer T steps down to the secondary voltage Vs.
There are numerous versions of this basic circuit. The inductance L may be a separate unit or it
may be incorporated in the form of leakage inductance in the transformer T. Because the
capacitors C1 and C2 cannot conveniently be made to close tolerances it is necessary to provide
adjustments of ratio by means of tappings either on the transformer T or on a separate autotransformer in the secondary circuit. Adjustments of the tuning inductance L is also necessary
and this may be effected variously by tappings, by a separate tapped inductor in the secondary
circuit, by adjustment of gaps in iron cores, or by shunting with a variable capacitor.
As for electromagnetic v.t.s, certain types of protection capacitor v.t.s must have magnitude and
phase errors within prescribed limits over a wide range of primary voltage such as from 5 to 150
or 190% of rated voltages. Because the core of the intermediate transformer is usually operated
at a low flux density at normal voltage, little difficulty is experienced in maintaining the required
accuracy at voltages above the nominal value. At very low system voltages, however, the core
flux density falls to a level at which the permeability of the core material is relatively low and thus
the exciting impedance Ze (Fig. 9) is reduced. Because the series reactance in the intermediate
voltage circuit, through which the exciting current Ie must flow, is usually capacitive (a part of the
inductance being in the transformer T and in the secondary circuit) and a positive phase error
(output voltage leading). These increases in errors at 5% of rated voltage may be as great as
+5% in amplitude and +5 degrees in phase in capacitor v.t.s of relatively poor basic accuracy,
but in the transformers now being supplied, which permit variation of the burden from 25% to the
rated value without adjustment (full range transformers), the increase in errors, due to the
smaller series reactance, may be no more than +1.5% and +60 minutes.

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