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Qaseem
Mechanics of Materials -I
BSME 13-17
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Chapter 1: Stress
External Forces:
Surface forces:
Caused by direct contact of bodies.
Body forces:
Caused without contact e.g gravitational, magnetic
Support reactions:
Their cause(supports) arent included in free body diagram.
Always balance forces; not stresses since stress is per unit area (units are N/m2=Pa) and
will sum up to different force magnitudes depending on the area involved.
Stress has same units as that of pressure but pressure is on the outside while stress is in
the inside (in sections)(though it is still caused by external forces)
zy = yz = zy = yz
Fail Stress:
Ex 1.9
Ex 1.10
The stress above which the material would break. Allowable stress is always kept
smaller than fail stress.
Allowable Stress:
The stress which the device is supposed to bear. It is smaller.
Ex 1.16
(imp)
FS = fail / all
P 1-74,
1-80
A = F / all
Chapter 2: Strain
Normal Strain:
Change in length of a line per unit length.
avg =
The exact strain per unit length can be defined by applying limit that
s approaches zero.
Although strain is a dimensionless quantity, it is sometimes expressed in units of length.
Shear Strain:
If we consider two lines perpendicular to each other, than the change of angle between them
that occurs due to stress is called strain.
Denoted by
Numerical Point:
If the strain given is not average, then it is change in length per unit length
with limit s approaching to zero. (strain of dz) In this case, the delta s will be ds
and will have to be integrated along the length of the solid.
Ex 2.1 (avg
and exact
strain)
R=
This length is calculated by the change in the resistance of
the coil.
Caution: The elastic limit of coil should be taken in consideration.
Nominal/Engineering Stress:
It assumes that Stress is constant over the cross sectional area and over the length
It always takes the original Area under consideration(even if it changes)
=
Nominal/Engineering Strain:
It assumes that Strain was constant throughout the region between gauge points. It can be
gotten by gauge or by equation
=
True Stress-Strain:
During a Stress-Strain Diagram, we are calculating stress at every point by taking the A and L
as the original length and area. If we take the area and length of specimen at the instant we
measure load P and change , we would get true stress and true strain.
Since in True Stress, the A has decreased (due to necking), so true stress is greater than
engineering stress. True Stress is equal to the nominal Stress as long as the strain is
small.
Ex 2.4 (shear
strain
proper)
Ex 2.3 (normal
and shear
strain)
Stress-Strain Diagrams:
There are two types of Stress-Strain Diagrams:
1) Conventional Stress-Strain Diagram
2) True
Stress-Strain
Diagram
Elastic Region:
In this region, the material has the capability to revert to original shape. The linear deformation
ends at proportional limit while the elastic region ends at elastic limit.
Yield Stress:
It has two points. Upper and lower. The material has a sudden change in length after which it
approaches lower yield stress. (elastic region).
Strain Hardening: (why true stresses rise)
After the yield stress elongation, plastic behavior is observed. The material has now increased
capacity to bear loads. Thus greater force causes small strain. So
Nominal stress increases.
Cross-sectional area decreases so true stress increases a lot.
This strain hardening ends at ultimate stress point
Necking:
After ultimate stress, a neck starts to form and stress concentrates at that point. Here the strain
hardening isnt present anymore. So
Nominal stress decreases (normal force, normal strain)
cross-sectional area decreases a lot, so true stress increases significantly
Ductile-Brittle Materials:
Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it breaks is called ductile materials.
Otherwise it is brittle.
Its measure is given by percent elongation. (formula is obvious)
It can also be given by percent decrease in area.
Hookes law:
Stress is proportional to Strain within proportional limit.
=E
This E is the Youngs modulus (modulus of elasticity). It
is the slope of stress-strain graph (within proportional
limit).
Strain Energy:
As deformation occurs in a body, it tends to store energy throughout its volume. This is called
strain energy.
When strain is applied on a body, it undergoes deformation due to force. This constitutes work
done which is equal to the strain energy.
- Force is increased uniformly from zero to its final magnitude, so we take average
- Displacement is
, where x can be any axis
Work=Strain Energy=
u=
Note: Strain energy density is the area under the curve at the desired point
Modulus of Elasticity:
It is the youngs modulus. Read the Hooks law above.
Modulus of Resilience:
When the material reaches its proportional limit(not yield point), the strain energy
density at that point is referred to as modulus of resilience
Def: Ability of material to absorb energy without any permanent deformation.
Modulus of Toughness:
The strain energy density at the materials fracture point is referred to as modulus of
toughness (entire area under stress-strain diagram)
Def: Ability of material to absorb energy without fracturing.
Poissons Ratio:
When a deformable body is under axial stress, it deforms longitudinally as well as laterally.
Then the respective strains are
long=
lat=
Note: The formula is only valid for homogenous and isotropic materials
The negative sign is added because if longitudinal is positive, latitudinal will be negative.
Thus the negatives cancel out and ratio always remain positive
1) If latitudinal strain is zero, Poissons ratio will be 0. (very least possible value)
2) Maximum possible value for this ratio is 0.5
G=
Creep:
When a material is subjected to load for a long period of time, it keeps deforming slowly until a
sudden fracture occurs or its usefulness is impaired. This time dependent effect is called creep.
- Generally creep strength (resistance to creep) decreases with high temperature and
high stress
In Diagram, as less strain is applied, the creep time of the
material increases. Thus the stress at which time approaches
infinity is called endurance limit.
Fatigue:
When a material is subjected to repeated cycles of stress or strain, it causes its structure to
break down, ultimately leading to fracture. This is called fatigue.
e.g crankshafts, train shafts, cyclic swing in amusement parks, breakage of wire by to and fro
bending etc. In all cases, the material breaks before its yield stress.
Reason: There are minute imperfections in the structure of material. When subjected to cyclic
loadings, cracks form in the material. These cracks lead to formation of other cracks and even a
ductile material fractures like a brittle one.
Symbols So far
Normal Stress
Modulus of Elasticity
Shear Stress
Normal Strain
Modulus of resilience
Shear Strain
Poissons ratio
Superposition principle:
By subdividing the loading into components, the principle of superposition states that the
resultant stress or displacement at the point can be determined by algebraically summing the
stress or displacement caused by each load component applied separately to the member.
Conditions:
1) The loading must be linearly related to the stress or displacement that is to be
determined.
2) The loading must not significantly change the original geometry or configuration of the
member
In this method, one support reaction is assumed to be none (forced statically determinate) and
change in length is found, then the removed reaction is supposed to be another force causing
change in length. In the end, the net change is set equal to zero.
Thermal Stress:
If heat is applied to the body and the body isnt allowed to expand, then thermal stress is
produced.
Thermal Stress and Thermal strain
can never exist at the same time.
Stress Concentrations:
-
At sharp bends or sudden change in cross sections, the stress gets concentrated
We are concerned with the maximum stress value that can accumulate in a material
For this we have stress concentration factor K
When plastic deformation starts, the irregular stress distribution slowly converts to uniform
stress distribution.
Residual Stress:
-
When stress is applied to a material and it deforms plastically, it reverts back to zero
stress when relaxed.
Some strain still exists at this point.
But If the member is statically indeterminate, then upon
removing the force, the reaction forces would be trying to
bring it to the zero strain.
But the original stress had already equaled to zero, when
the strain wasnt zero. Thus the reaction forces would take the material to a point of
zero strain and negative stress.
This is called Residual Stress
Numerical Point:
First the parts of material deform; both
plastically or one plastically. The sum of change
in length of both parts equals to zero. PL/AE
doesnt apply here
Then the force P is released. Now we
know that they both will revert to original shape
elastically. So we find the forces by using PL/AE.
The sum of change in length of both parts equals
to zero because extension of one is only possible
by compression of other.
Numerically, residual stress is found because during plastic deformation, the maximum stress
can only be the yield stress but during the elastic recovery, stress is greater than yield stress.
This causes an overall residual stress since full recovery isnt possible on removing the force.
Chapter 5: Torsion
Shear Strain:
and
Where T is the torque, J is the moment of inertia. Derivation can be seen from book. Max shear
stress is at the outer surface of the shaft. C is the total radius of the shaft. Rho is the radius at
the point at which we are finding stress.
Tubular Shaft:
Power Transmission:
If a torque is causing a shaft to rotate, then we can find the power transmitted by the formula
OR
Note: If the frequency and power transmission of shaft are known, torque can be found which
lets us calculate the area of cross-section.
Angle of Twist:
For very long pipes like thousands of feets of bore
pipe, it is important to keep angle of twist d in
mind since it increases axially.
Shear Strain increases with distance from
circular center while Angle of twist increases
with axial length
The formula can be derived by equating s=r for both angles and
Now, replacing using hookes law and then replacing shear stress by our formula, we get the
relation
Sign Convention
Use right hand rule for torque. If
thumb points outwards, then
torque is positive else negative.
Anti-Clockwise=positive
but we need a compatibility equation which is obtained by setting the net angle of twist due to
moments at A and B equal to zero
Plastic deformation and residual stresses phenomenon is very similar to the force case. They
will be explained if in assignment.
Stress Concentration:
Just like before, in sudden change areas, stress reaches a max value that is K times the average
stress. We will only be showing graph for one type of change.
Chapter 6: Bending
Beams:
Members that are slender and support loadings that are applied perpendicular to their
longitudinal axis are known as beams.
- Simply Supported beam: Pinned at one end and roller at other end.
- Cantilever beam: Fixed at one and free at other end.
Overhanging beam: one or both its ends freely extended over the supports
Ex 6.2, 6.6
If function change is increasing and function is increasing, the derivative graph will become more
vertical upwards.
- If function change is increasing and function is decreasing, the derivative graph will become more
vertical downwards.
viceversa...
REVERSE: We will need a starting point to plot function from the "change graph".
practice the reverse. Practice doesn't make you perfect but it certainly increases you self-esteem.
Thus in order to master the diagrams, you must have good practice of making integral graphs.
From the figure, we can see that in upper portion, compression takes place while in lower
portion, elongation takes place. Thus there must exist a neutral axis where no change will be
observed longitudinally.
We will base our calculations on some assumptions:
Assumptions:
1) The neutral axis does not undergo any change in length. (it will curve though)
2) All cross-sections of beam remain plain and perpendicular to the neutral axis.
Calculations:
Common Conventions:
Remember:
Normal force is positive when directed out of body. Compressive is negative.
Strain is positive when expansion takes place. Negative in case of compression.
Stress is positive when directed normal to surface.
Make sure the calculated stress and strain are in accordance with these conventions.
Also, we can see that for y positive, we get strain negative and stress negative. Moment is
positive for y pos or neg. The stress strain formulas are in accordance with these.
Since the stress max or c cannot be zero, so First Moment must be equal to zero.
This condition (first moment zero) is only satisfied at centroidal axis.
Unsymmetric Bending:
Now we imply some conditions for beams that are not symmetrical across an axis perpendicular
to the neutral axis.
Imagine a couple moment to be applied on a beam. Thus we can say a few things about it
This term is called Product of Inertia and it is equal to zero in this case.
Moment Arbitrarily Applied:
Moment might not be applied just across z axis. It might be
in the middle of z and y axis. In this case, we add the flexure
formulas of the moment components
Stress Concentrations ?
This chapter is explains the shear force more in detail and how it is applied in crossections.
Now to calculate complimentary shear, we take a section from this cross-section(the shaded
one) (above figure) (we will refer this as section from now on(self-made name))
Now before we took this section, above and bottom forces satisfied Fx=0
(btw since beam isnt moving, the condition must satisfy)
But now we see that moment on both sides differ by dM and thus on the right side, the
forces are greater. (positive moment on right side suggest forces in direction of forces
that are already on the right side)(the internal moment is taken about neutral axis)
So to balance x directed forces, there must be a shear force underneath the section
which is the complimentary shear
(This y bar is the distance of the centroid of our section from the neutral axis)
Didnt we say that shear stress is simply shear force divided by Area???
Yes, that was average shear But actually shear force also causes longitudinal shear
which due to complimentary produces extra transverse shear stress. Thus stress by
shear formula is greater (It is actual)
According to the
complementary property of
shear, these two are equal
This has little affect unless width to height b/h is much greater like this
Beam on right
And also the shear applied is actually average shear stress
3) Shear formula does not give accurate results at sharp corners since stress concentration
is in effect there.
4) Another important limitation is that in members where the boundary isnt rectangular
Fig (a), at the outer areas, we can make two two components of shear stress. and
which act on parallel and perpendicular planes to the boundary. Fig (c). Since boundary
is stress free, so is zero. And shear direction is on perpendicular to the boundary. Fig
(d). Thus we cannot find the shear simply. We can only find shear along the coloured
lines of Fig (a) in this case.
To Summarize, the shear formula does not give accurate results when applied to
members having cross sections that are short or flat, or at points where the crosssection suddenly changes. Nor should it be applied across a section that intersects the
boundary of the member at an angle other than 90.
Now just like we previously formulated, summation of x directed forces will give us this
equation,
Just like before, we introduce Q, divide both sides by dx thus getting shear force V and dF/dx
becomes q i.e shear flow
Note: The concept of Q will only be clear after practicing said numericals.
Clarification of Q: In it, Q=ybar x A. This y is the distance of the centroid of A from the neutral
axis. Carefully note what is A.
Now after calculating shear flow q, this q will be resisted by the number of nails given. Etc.
Self Explanatory
Spherical Vessels:
Some Results:
From the above calculations, we found that an element taken from pressure vessel (cylindrical
or spherical) is subjected to biaxial stress. i.e a Normal Stress existing in only two directions.
Actually a radial stress is also occurring which is equal to P at the inside and reduces to zero at
the outer surface since the gauge pressure there is zero. However for thin walled vessels we
can ignore this component since the circumferential 2 and longitudinal 1 stresses are 5 and 10
times greater than the maximum radial stress P. (r is 10 times remember )
Representation of Stresses:
In an xy plane, the element is arranged, we can represent the stresses by two normal stress
components and one shear stress component (Fig (a))
However we change its orientation, the
stresses will have different values (since
area also plays a role) (Fig (b))
Thus we can say that,
The state of plane stress at the point is
uniquely represented by two normal stress
components and one shear stress
component acting on an element that has a
specific orientation at the point
Stress Transformation:
We will learn how to transform stress components from one orientation (a) to another
orientation (b). This is just like finding x and y components of a resultant vector and a waste of
my time if you ask me.
Not so fast there buddy : Force can be transformed considering its magnitude and direction.
But stress must take care of its area as well.
Ex 9.1 page
440
Furthermore if we put the trigonometric relations in the shear stress transformation formula,
we can find that the shear stress there is zero. So we can say that
No Shear Stress Acts On The Principal Planes.
Mohrs Circle:
It is used to analyze plane stress and understand the principle stress, transformed stress etc.
Recall the stress transformation equations (normal and
shear)
Now we the stresses on the right side are all known constants. So we replace them by R.
This is an equation of Circle. From this we build a diagram called Mohrs circle.
Keeping in mind the two circle equations, we can understand what point represents what.
1)
2) Let we have an element, it will have x, x, xy. Remember that these are not
3)
4)
5)
6)
Figure (a)
x = x
xy = xy
Since there is no change in this case, this is point P (our reference point)
Figure (b) (rotating 90 degree anticlockwise)
x = y
xy = -xy
On the Mohrs circle , we
can see that plotting the
new x xy we get the
point G.
Thus we can see that by
rotating the reference
line by 2, we obtain
transformed values of .
Values of normal stress in y direction can also be obtained by plotting mohrs diagram
for it.
If instead the axis were established positive upwards, then the angle 2 on the circle
would be measured in the opposite direction to the orientation of the plane. (what
the book said :/)
The above Diagram is pretty self-explanatory (look carefully at the subscribts, which planes
shear stress is which) along with these formulas. (circle center will always be at the average
normal stress)
Mohrs circle
Absoulte maximum shear stress