Structure of Complex System

The American Mathematician Warren Weaver

In 1948 defines three types of problems:
Problems of Simplicity: a few variables
Problems of Disorganized Complexity: billions or
trillions of variables.
Problems of organized complexity: Moderate
numbers of variables

System Engineer raises the question of how

deep that understanding of a broad
knowledge needs to be in the development
of a complex system
System Engineer must recognize such
factors as program risks, technological
performance limits, and interfacing
requirements, and make trade-off analyses
among design alternatives.
System building block provide an important
insight by examining the structural
hierarchy of modern systems.

System Complexity
What Makes a System Complex?
How does Complexity evolve?
What are the ways of dealing with Complexity?
Are we gaining or losing?

What Characterizes Complexity?

Complex: composed of interconnected or interwoven parts.
Does not stipulate the number of interconnected parts. A
complex system may consist of a small number of parts
connected in complicated ways.
A large number of disconnected parts is not complex system,
for example a large collection of books.
The items that distinguish a complex system from a
collection of parts are the connections.
The manifestation of a complex system is the dependence
upon the interfaces.
Different configurations of interfaces lead to much different
systems, different arrangements of parts constitute the same
collection

What Makes a System Complex?

1. Impossible for an individual to comprehend all of the
design; exceeds human intellectual capacity
2. Complexity is Inherent, not Accidental
Complex problem domains
Needs and requirements change and evolve
Difficulty expressing needs and requirements
Expansion of previous system

Difficulty managing development

Systems are becoming increasingly large & complex
Coordination of large team efforts very costly

Simplification Approaches
Decomposition:
Algorithmic imperative: by progressive steps in a
hierarchical process
Object-oriented: by tangible entities which exhibit
well-defined behaviors

Abstraction:
Extraction of essential elements
Inherent in models and modeling

1. Complex

Systems decomposition

How decompose, lots of ways, pending idea?

Where do you cut?
Decomposition is hierarchical; what defines the
levels & depths?
Align with specialties, functional vs. physical?
2. Every

cut creates an interface

What are the characteristics of the interfaces

(internal/external), complexity, testability,
responsibility?

3. Optimality

What constitutes the best decomposition?

What is good enough?
How do we recover from a bad choice?
4. What

are the implications for integration &

testing?
How do we handle testing of internal interfaces?

Are We Gaining or Losing?

Arguably, hardware capabilities are increasing at an
exponential rate.
Software is becoming a larger part of modern systems than
it has been in the past and software is more complex
and more opaque.
Technology is compounding with complex systems being
embedded in other complex systems.
Systems engineering practices and procedures and products
appear to be evolving at a much slower rate.

Hierarchic systems are common in both

natural and man-made systems
Physics: atom nucleus neutron, proton,
electron

Organization: director manager general staff

Book: chapter section paragraph

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Model of Complex System:

Consists of a number of major interacting elements

Majority of systems are developed by an integrated acquisition
process

Definition of System Level:

System Subsystems Components Subcomponents Parts

System serves as parts of more complex aggregates or supersystems and perform a significant useful service with only the aid
of human operators and standard infrastructure ( e.g. highways,
fueling stations, communication lines, etc)
Subsystem- performs a closely related subset of the overall system
functions

Component- refer to a range of mostly lower level, middle of

system level. Perform elementary functions.
Parts- perform in combination with other parts

Systems

Communication
systems

Information
systems

Material
processing
system

Aerospace
system

Sub-systems

Signal networks

Databases

Material
preparation

Engines

Components

Signal receivers

Data displays Power

transfer

Thrust
generators

Subcomponents

Signal amplifiers

Cathode ray
tubes

Gear trains

Rocket
nozzles

Parts

Transformer

LED

Gears

Seals

 System Engineers Domain:

- Extends down through the component level
- Is as detailed as a system engineer usually needs to
go
- Extends across several system categories

Design Specialists Domain

- Extends from the part level up through the

component level
- Overlaps the domain of the systems engineers
- Is usually limited to a single technology/discipline

Knowledge domain of systems engineer and design specialist

System Decomposition
External Systems

Enterprise
System/
Functional Options

Domain of the
Systems Engineering

Subsystem
Component/
Building Blocks

Subcomponents

Domain of the
Technical Specialist

Parts

Building Blocks The Concept

A library of commonly occurring system elements
A means for classifying system constituents according to:
functional characteristics
physical characteristics

A useful tool for modeling system architecture and its

synthesis

Useful for visualizing potential architectures of system

concepts

Functional elements
Signal elements: sense and communicate
information
Data elements: interpret, organize, and manipulate
information
Material elements: provide structure and
transformation of materials
Energy elements: provide energy and motive power

Physical elements
Electronic, electro-optical, electro-mechanical,
mechanical, thermo-mechanical, software

Signal Functional Elements

Functional Element

Physical Examples

Input signal

TV camera

Transmit signal

Radio transmitter

Transduce signal

Antenna

Receive signal

Radio receiver

Process signal

Image processor

Output signal

TV display, speaker

Data Functional Elements

Functional element

Physical Examples

Input data

Keyboard

Process data

CPU

Control system

Windows, UNIX

Control Processing

Word Processor, analysis program

Store data

Magnetic disk

Output data

Printer, display

Material Functional Elements

Functional element

Physical Examples

Support material

Airframe, auto body

Store material

Container, enclosure

React material

Autoclave, smelter

Form material

Milling machine, foundry

Join material

Welding, riveting

Control position

Auto tool feed, power steering

Energy Functional Elements

Functional element

Physical Examples

Generate thrust

Rocket, turbojet

Generate torque

Gas turbine

Generate electricity

Power plant, solar cells

Control temperature

Furnace, refrigerator

Control motion

Transmission, power brakes

Functional Element: Signal, Data, Material, Energy

Physical Building Blocks

Category

Component Examples

Electronic

Receiver, transmitter

Electro-optic

Optical sensing, fiber optics

Electro-mechanical

Electric generator, data storage,

transducer

Mechanical

Container, material processor,

material reactor

Thermo-mechanical

Jet & rotary engine, Heating & AC

Software

Operating system, applications firmware

Physical Elements: Electronics, EO, EM, Mechanics, TM, Software

- Identifying actions capable of achieving

operational outcomes
- Facilitating functional partitioning and
definition
- Identifying subsystem and component
interfaces
- Visualizing the physical architecture of the
system
- Suggesting types of component
implementation technology
- Helping software engineers acquire
hardware domain knowledge

Summary of Building Blocks

Provides a structured view of the necessary knowledge base
for systems engineers
Provides a mechanism for deductive decomposition of
functional architectures to components
Provides a structured view of a wide variety of systems
Provides ingredients for modeling system architecture
Provides a strong link to the concept of object-oriented design
Building Blocks are fundamental to the concept of
modularization, which in turn, is fundamental to successful
system design.

Not easy to identify what is part of the system

and what is part of the environment
Determining criteria

Developmental control: do we have control over the

entitys development?
Operational control: will the tasks and missions
performed by the entity be directed by the owner of the
system?
Functional allocation: are we allowed to allocate
functions to the entity in the functional definition?
Unity of purpose: is the entity dedicated to the systems
success

Key concept: control

30

Human users and operators are often treated

as external entities
Focus on the operator interface
Still important in a functional aspect

Examples
Network of roads and service stations
automobile
Electrical power grid data processing system

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Display the external entities and their

interactions with the system
External entities: sources for inputs into the
system and destinations of outputs from the
system
Interactions: represented by arrows, the direction
or flow of a particular interaction
Application or company-specific labels can be used
Five categories: data, signals, materials, energy and
activities

The system: represented by an oval in the center

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34

Inputs and outputs

System operators

Operational maintenance

Threats

Support systems

Operate on external stimuli and/or materials in such a manner as

to process these inputs in a useful way
Emphasize human-machine interface
Complex to define and test
Affect system readiness and operational reliability
Provide access for monitoring, testing and repair requirements
Either natural (e.g., salt water) or man-made (e.g., thief)
Part of the infra-structure on which the system depends for
carrying out its mission

System housing: provide protection

Shipping and handling environment

Transport from the manufacturing site to the operating site

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Instrument landing
system (ILS)

36

Interfaces
External and internal
Identification and description of interfaces as part
of system concept definition
Coordination and control of interfaces to maintain
system integrity
Three types: connectors, isolators and converters

Interactions
Take place via interfaces

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Type

Electrical

Mechanical

Hydraulic

Humanmachine

Interaction
medium

Current

Force

Fluid

Information

Connectors

Cable
switch

Joint
coupling

Pipe valve

Display
control
panel

Isolators

RF shield
insulator

Shock mount Seal

bearing

Cover
window

Converter

Antenna
A/D
converter

Gear train
piston

Keyboard

Reducing
valve
pump

Though interface elements are relatively simple,

a large fraction of system failures occurs at
interfaces.
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A set or arrangement of systems that results

when independent and useful systems are
integrated into a larger system that delivers
unique capabilities.
Characteristics

Operational independence of the individual system

Managerial independence of the individual system
Geographic distribution
Emergent behavior (not necessarily related to
component system)
Evolutionary development
Self-organization and adaptations

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An airport
support trucks
baggage-handling equipment
Air traffic control
Satellites,
Radars
aircraft
Car
Taxi
Shuttle bus
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Consists of Multiple SoSs

Enterprise anything that consists of
people, processes, technology, systems, and
other resources across organizations and
locations interacting with each other and their
environment to achieve a common mission or
goal
Example
Government agencies and departments
Cities and countries

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Chapter 3:
Structure of complex systems ,
Book:
Systems Engineering: Principles and Practice

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