CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
Acquiring Language
For

severely

and

profoundly

deaf

people,

acquiring

language is clearly a different process from the ways in which

hearing people develop language. Language is acquired through
plentiful exposure to meaningful linguistic interaction in early
childhood. Severe deafness drastically reduces both the quantity
and the quality of linguistic input available and accessible to the
deaf person. Consequently, for a deaf student, English language
development is rarely natural and automatic, but is instead a
laborious process with numerous obstacles and pitfalls.
For many students this situation is exacerbated by a poor
education system, where students may miss a great deal of
information. This can hamper understanding of English grammar
and result in a limited vocabulary and more restricted literacy
skills than hearing peers.
English as a Second Language
For many pre-lingual deaf students, those born deaf,
English is their second language; British Sign Language being
their first. However, unlike other students who do not have
English as their first language, pre-lingual deaf students are
physically unable to learn English the way a German or French
native speaker learns English. They cannot be immersed in the
language around them for they cannot hear it. In addition, since
British Sign Language is entirely visual, deaf students do not
have a written or spoken language on which to base their second
language learning.

Linguistic Difficulties
It is not surprising, then, that deafness often leads to
linguistic problems.

Difficulties manifest themselves most

obviously in written work, where mistakes may be found with

sentence structure, verb tenses, word omissions etc. When one
considers a lifetime of not hearing articles, determiners, word
endings

and

prepositions

the

mistakes

become

more

understandable. To exacerbate the problem, carrier language,

all those words which tie language together (it, them, and, with
etc.), is often hidden in fluent speech and therefore impossible
to lip-read. The lack of audition and auditory memory severs the
means by which to rehearse what is put down on the page.
Furthermore, British Sign Language has a grammar and syntax
which is quite different to that of spoken English which can also
confuse the student.
Reading Difficulties
Research shows that the reading age of deaf students
leaving school is below the national average.

Clearly, deaf

people reaching higher education are functioning at a relatively

advanced level of English.

However, reading remains a very

laborious task for deaf students, as their vocabulary is usually

considerably restricted in comparison with their hearing peers. A
deaf student will not have heard many of the words that fill the
classrooms and lecture rooms around them. Unfamiliar words, or
words which have not been specifically introduced to the student,
cannot be lip-read. Consequently, deaf students often have to
research not only the technical jargon relating to the subject, but
2

also carrier language which is commonplace for hearing peers.

An exceptional amount of time is thus spent on reading around
and preparing assignments, often with the support of an
individual Language Tutor.
Lack of Background Information
In addition, for a deaf student, the pathway to general
knowledge has been significantly blocked.

Hearing students

learn so much information through osmosis; they absorb

general knowledge through reading newspapers, listening to the
T.V or radio, chatting in the Students Union, eavesdropping on
the bus and having discussions with other students in the
refectory or pub. This incidental information often helps to form
the opinions and develop the skills necessary for higher
education.

Yet, deaf students are often denied access to this

whole wealth of general knowledge and life experience.

Implications
The knock-on effect of all of the above, is often reflected in
a deaf students written work, which one may judge to be lacking
in depth, containing immature and sometimes uninformed
opinions and exhibiting problems with sequencing and overall
structure.
This may well mask the students true intelligence
and creative ability.

CHAPTER II
THEORIES

The linguistic and instructional needs of deaf children1

have been passionately debated for more than two centuries
(Lane, 1984; Lang, 2011; Moores, 2001, 2010), as this population
has often struggled to acquire the literacy skills necessary for
academic success (Carney & Moeller, 1998; Gallaudet Research
Institute, 2011; Holt, Traxler, & Allen, 1997; Paul, 2009; Schirmer
& McGough, 2005; Trezek, Wang, & Paul, 2011). While the
research in deaf education has addressed many issues of
language, school
placement, and literacy development (Chamberlain & Mayberry,
2008; Easterbrooks, 2010; Marshark & Spencer, 2010; Moores,
2001, 2010), much continues to be unknown about how deaf
children develop language and literacy skills in the classroom
setting (Easterbrooks, 2010; Golden-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001;
Luckner, Sebald, Cooney, Young, & Muir, 2005/2006; Marshark,
Sarchet, Rhoten, & Zupan, 2010; Marshark & Spencer, 2011).
This is unsurprising given that the incidence of hearing loss is
less than 1 in 1,000 (Gallaudet Research Institute, 2011; Reilly &
Qi, 2011) and relatively few scholars are undertaking research in
this area. With the high stakes nature of todays educational
system and the demand for quality education for students who
are culturally and linguistically diverse (Cochran-Smith & Power,
2010).
From 1970 to 1980: Chomsky's (1965, 1967, 1968) theories
of transformational grammar filtered into the field, and teachers
began to see language as having a different levels of structure
4

and meaning. Also during this time, artificially constructed

manual systems of English became popular. Schools throughout
the United States mandated the use of these systems in the
belief that if Deaf students were exposed to them, they would
develop reading and writing skills (Reagan, 1995; Ramsey, 1989;
Stewart, 1992).
According to Vygotsky in his book (p.323) for deaf people,
spoken language

plays almost no part in their development

and is not a tool they can use to accumulate cultural experience

or to participate in social life. Secretly children communicate
through sign language and teachers have to act as policemen
and seek out and remonstrate with those pupils who are
resorting to sign language(p.80). Thus, even at this stage,
Vygotsky was acknowledging that sign language is a natural
means

of

interpersonal

communication

among

deaf

studentsand, as a result, one of the means of acquiring social

experience. Neither the oral method nor the manual method was
thus totally acceptable. What then was the solution to this truly
tragic problem of deaf education (p.79)
Leigh and Cummins (1992) noted that, for most deaf
people, access to standard telephone communication is via
Telephone Typewriters (TTYs or TDDs). In these situations,
communication is totally dependent upon their literacy skills and
the literacy skills of their communication partners who, in a large
percentage of cases are themselves deaf (Leigh & Smith, 1989).

2.1 Deaf Student

2.1.1 Definition Of Deaf Student
Deaf Education is a broad and diverse professional field
that centers on the education of children who are deaf or hard of
hearing. Teachers often concentrate their studies in early
childhood education, elementary education, or a secondary
content area. Teachers of students who are deaf or hard of
hearing become experts in language acquisition and the unique
learning and communication needs of their students.
Sometimes individuals who major in deaf education serve
in capacities other than teaching for there are other fields and
areas of expertise that intersect with deaf education. For
example, some university graduates who majored in deaf
education have become transition specialists who work with
students who are transitioning from school to work. Others
function as educational interpreters or work with families of
newly diagnosed deaf or hard of hearing infants, providing
support to the family during the early months as they confront
and learn the challenges of raising a deaf or hard of hearing
child.
There are many other areas in which deaf educators
expand their careers through advanced study and additional
degrees
language

in

special

pathology,

education,
career

early

intervention,

technology,

audiology,

speech
school

counseling, social work, educational administration, etc.

Deaf education provides a great foundation and career

options for individuals who are interested in working with this
unique population of students.

2.1.2 Type Of Deaf Students

In general terms, there are two types of hearing loss,
conductive and sensorineural. A combination of both is also seen
as a mixed hearing loss. Each is discussed below.
HEARING LOSS TYPES
1. Conductive Hearing Loss
Conductive Hearing Loss or Otitis Media is the most
common type. It means that sounds cannot pass efficiently
through the outer and middle ear to the cochlea and auditory
nerve. This is most often caused by fluid building up in the
middle ear. This condition is called Otitis Media with Effusion
(OME) and can be referred to as 'glue ear' in some countries.
Most conductive deafness is temporary but there is a chance that
it can be permanent or Conductive hearing loss is caused by any
condition or disease that impedes the conveyance of sound in its
mechanical form through the middle ear cavity to the inner ear. A
conductive hearing loss can be the result of a blockage in the
external ear canal or can be caused by any disorder that
unfavorably effects the middle ear's ability to transmit the
mechanical energy to the stapes footplate. This results in
reduction of one of the physical attributes of sound called
intensity (loudness), so the energy reaching the inner ear is lower
or less intense than that in the original stimulus. Therefore, more
energy is needed for the individual with a conductive hearing loss

to hear sound, but once it's loud enough and the mechanical
impediment is overcome, that ear works in a normal way.
Generally, the cause of conductive hearing loss can be identified
and treated resulting in a complete or partial improvement in
hearing. Following the completion of medical treatment for cause
of the conductive hearing loss, hearing aids are effective in
correcting the remaining hearing loss.
The audiometric profile that indicates a conductive hearing
loss is the presence of air-bone gaps (better hearing by bone
conduction than by air conduction), excellent word recognition at
a comfortable listening level, and evidence of a middle ear
dysfunction on immittance. For situations where a blockage is
noted in the external ear canal, hearing testing is deferred until
the canal is cleared.

2. Sensorineural Hearing Loss

The second type of hearing loss is called sensorineural
hearing loss. This word can be divided into its two components sensory and neural - to allow us more clarity in specifying the
type of hearing loss. The comprehensive audiometric assessment
and supplemental tests can yield the information needed to
differentiate between a sensory and a neural hearing loss,
although they can co-exist in the same ear. Neural hearing loss is
another name for retrocochlear hearing loss.
Sensorineural hearing loss results from inner ear or
auditory nerve dysfunction. The sensory component may be from
damage to the organ of Corti or an inability of the hair cells to
stimulate the nerves of hearing or a metabolic problem in the
fluids of the inner ear. The neural or retrocochlear component
8

can be the result of severe damage to the organ of Corti that

causes the nerves of hearing to degenerate or it can be an
inability

of

neurochemical

the

hearing

information

nerves

themselves

through

the

to

central

convey
auditory

pathways.
The reason for sensorineural hearing loss sometimes
cannot be determined, it does not typically respond favorably to
medical treatment, and it is typically described as an irreversible,
permanent condition. Like conductive hearing loss, sensorineural
hearing loss reduces the intensity of sound, but it might also
introduce an element of distortion into what is heard resulting in
sounds being unclear even when they are loud enough. Once any
medically

treatable

conditions

have

been

ruled

out,

the

treatment for sensorineural hearing loss is amplification through

hearing aids.

3. Mixed Hearing Loss

A mixed hearing loss can be thought of as a sensorineural
hearing loss with a conductive component overlaying all or part
of the audiometric range tested. So, in addition to some
irreversible hearing loss caused by an inner ear or auditory nerve
disorder, there is also a dysfunction of the middle ear mechanism
that makes the hearing worse than the sensorineural loss alone.
The conductive component may be amenable to medical
treatment and reversal of the associated hearing loss, but the
sensorineural component will most likely be permanent. Hearing
aids can be beneficial for persons with a mixed hearing loss, but
caution must be exercised by the hearing care professional and
9

patient if the conductive component is due to an active ear

infection.

2.2 English Vocabulary (Verb)

2.2.1 Definition Of English Vocabulary (Verb)
Vocabulary is commonly defined as "all the words known
and used by a particular person". Knowing a word, however, is
not as simple as merely being able to recognize or use it. There
are several aspects of word knowledge that are used to measure
word knowledge.
A

defining

vocabulary

is

list

of

words

used

by

lexicographers to write dictionary definitions. The underlying

principle goes back to Samuel Johnson's notion that words should
be defined using 'terms less abstruse than that which is to be
explained', and a defining vocabulary provides the lexicographer
with a restricted list of high-frequency words which can be used
for producing simple definitions of any word in the dictionary.
Verb is a word used to describe an action, state, or
occurrence, and forming the main part of the predicate of a
sentence, such as hear, become, happen.
Vocabulary verb is a list of word use by lexicographers to
write dictionary definitions about a word used to describe an
action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main part of the
predicate of a sentence.

2.2.2 Example of English Vocabulary (Verb)

10

American Sign Language (ASL) is the predominant sign

language of Deaf communities in the United States and most of
anglophone Canada. Besides North America, dialects of ASL and
ASL-based creoles are used in many countries around the world,
including much of West Africa and parts of Southeast Asia. ASL is
also widely learned as a second language, serving as a lingua
franca. ASL is most closely related to French Sign Language
(LSF). It has been proposed that ASL is a creole language,
although ASL shows features atypical of creole languages, such
as agglutinative morphology.
Example :

11

12

13

14

CHAPTER III
CONCLUTION
Deaf Education is a broad and diverse professional field
that centers on the education of children who are deaf or hard of
hearing. Teachers often concentrate their studies in early
childhood education, elementary education, or a secondary
content area. Teachers of students who are deaf or hard of
hearing become experts in language acquisition and the unique
learning and communication needs of their students.
Types of Deaf : Conductive Hearing Loss,Sensorineural
Hearing Loss, Mixed Hearing Loss. Vocabulary verb is a list of
word use by lexicographers to write dictionary definitions about a
word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and
forming the main part of the predicate of a sentence
American Sign Language (ASL) is the predominant sign
language of Deaf communities in the United States and most of
anglophone Canada. Besides North America, dialects of ASL and
ASL-based creoles are used in many countries around the world,
including much of West Africa and parts of Southeast Asia. ASL is
also widely learned as a second language, serving as a lingua
franca. ASL is most closely related to French Sign Language
(LSF). It has been proposed that ASL is a creole language,

15

although ASL shows features atypical of creole languages, such

as agglutinative morphology.

CHAPTER IV
REFERENCES
https://www.google.co.id/search?
q=vocab+for+deaf&espv=2&biw=1366&bih=633&source
=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiCgKX51s_MAhWIj
pQKHWtgBNEQ_AUIBigB#imgdii=Mp2So81j_RSRSM%3A
%3BMp2So81j_RSRSM%3A%3BhxWeyjz8zkDqYM
%3A&imgrc=Mp2So81j_RSRSM%3A
http://www.lifeprint.com/asl101/pages-layout/topics.htm
http://www.betterhearing.org/hearingpedia/typeshearing-loss
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muteness

16