Lets improve our

writing!!

PRODUCCIN PEDAGGICA
Prof. Silvia E. Gimenez Prof. Adriana E. Gonzalez

PRODUCCIN PEDAGGICA
I. IDENTIFICATION

Profesor: Silvia E. Gimnez Adriana E. Gonzalez

Espacio Curricular: Idioma Ingls

Resolucin de Carrera: Res. N 0575 / 2010 DGE

Ao de la Carrera: 1ro, 2do, 3ro y 4to

Ttulo del Trabajo: Lets Improve Our Writing

II. ABSTRACT
The information, examples, and practice included in this work aim to spotlight and to
explain in a brief, practical way general and useful material to improve writing. Whenever you
write, you should consider how important punctuation marks are, since they give meaning to
our writings. Besides, using the correct linking words help you organise the information, as
well as present and develop the essential ideas that will form the substance of your writing.
There is also a section devoted to run-on sentences and fragment sentences that tend to be
some of the most recurring mistakes in writing. It is hoped that these contributions will go
some way to clarify doubts and improve and identify our most common mistakes.
KEY WORDS: punctuation - writing linking words run-on sentences sentence fragments

III. INTRODUCTION
Punctuation is one of the most significant characteristics of a language, and yet, it is one
that is taken the most lightly. It is, in fact, the feature of writing that gives meaning to the
written words much like pauses and changes in tones of the voice when speaking. An error
in punctuation can convey an entirely different connotation to the one that is intended. It is
used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences. We use punctuation marks to structure
and organise our writing. It is very important to know all the punctuation marks, their
meanings, and when to use them in order to produce a good piece of writing, especially, to
convey the correct message.
Alongside punctuation marks, linking words and other connecting devices, are the ones that
help you carry over from one sentence to another, from one paragraph to another, in a way
that allows the reader to understand the writers ideas better. Since the reader is not able to

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Prof. Silvia E. Gimenez Prof. Adriana E. Gonzalez

see the message in the same way the writer does, linking words also help you to articulate
those ideas and communicate them to other people.
IV. OBJECTIVES
a. To understand the importance of punctuation in writing;

b. To illustrate the need for punctuation in written language;

c. To connect sentences and paragraphs so as to transmit a message;
d. To be aware of our own mistakes in writing and improve them;
e. To be able to punctuate and connect simple and complex sentences and
paragraphs correctly.

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1. Punctuation Marks _________________________________________________ 06

1.1.

Full Stop ____________________________________________________ 07

1.2.

Comma _____________________________________________________ 07

1.3.

Semicolon __________________________________________________ 10

1.4.

Colon ______________________________________________________ 11

1.5.

Apostrophe _________________________________________________ 12

1.6.

Hyphen _____________________________________________________ 14

1.7.

Dash ______________________________________________________ 16

1.8.

Brackets ___________________________________________________ 16

1.9.

Ellipsis Points _______________________________________________ 17

1.10. Inverted Commas ____________________________________________ 18

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1.11. Exclamation Marks ___________________________________________ 19

1.12. Question Marks ______________________________________________ 19
1.13. Bullet Points ________________________________________________ 20
1.14. Capitalization ________________________________________________ 21
2. Punctuation Marks Practice _________________________________________ 28
3. Linking Words ____________________________________________________ 31
4. Linking Words Practice _____________________________________________ 34
5. Run-On Sentences (Comma Splices) __________________________________ 37
6. Run-On Sentences Practice ________________________________________ 38
7. Sentence Fragments ______________________________ 40
8. Sentence Fragments Practice _______________________ 41
9. Extra Material _____________________________________ 43
10. Bibliography _____________________________________ 44

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PRODUCCIN PEDAGGICA
Prof. Silvia E. Gimenez Prof. Adriana E. Gonzalez

PUNCTUATION
MARKS
Punctuation needs more attention in English teaching than it sometimes receives. It is a
systematic aspect of the written language and essential to meaning, for it performs two main
functions. One is the grammatical function of making clear the
relationship between parts of sentences and of paragraphs. The other is
the rhetorical function of indication tone, attitude, feeling and emphasis.
In speech, both these functions are carried out by such means as pause,
pitch, pace, intonation, and volume, often accompanied by facial
expressions and gestures. In written language, accurate punctuation is the
necessary substitute for these resources.

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY PUNCTUATION?

Punctuation marks are essential in writing. They show the reader where sentences start
and finish and if they are used properly, they make your writing easy to understand.
Punctuation is a set of symbols used in writing to help indicate
something about the structure of sentences, or to assist readers in knowing
when to change the rhythm or the stress of their speaking. Depending on
the style of writing and the language used, punctuation may tend towards
one of these purposes more than the other. Common units of punctuation
in English and many other languages include the comma, period,
apostrophe, quotation mark, question mark, exclamation mark, bracket,
dash, hyphen, ellipsis, colon, and semicolon. Each of these units indicates
a different thing, and some may have multiple meanings depending on
context.

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TYPES OF PUNCTUATION MARKS

FULL STOP (.)
A full stop, also known as period, is the default terminal punctuation mark,
used to end a sentence without conveying any additional meaning.
Full stops are used

to mark the end of a sentence that is a complete statement:

o My names Beth and I was 18 in July.
o After leaving school, she went to work in an insurance company.

to mark the end of a group of words that dont form a conventional sentence,
so as to emphasize a statement:
o I keep reliving that moment. Over and over again.

in some abbreviations, for example etc., Dec., or p.m.:

o The coffee morning will be held on Thursday 15 Sept. in the Waterfront
Restaurant.
o Theres a wide range of sandwiches, pies, cakes, etc. at very reasonable prices.

in website and email addresses:

o www.oup.com (in this context, it is known as dot)

If an abbreviation with a full stop comes at the end of a sentence you

dont need to add another full stop:
o Bring your own pens, pencils, rulers, etc.

COMMA (,)
A comma marks a slight break between different parts of a sentence. Used properly,
commas make the meaning of sentences clear by grouping and separating words,
phrases, and clauses. Many people are uncertain about the use of commas, though,
and often sprinkle them throughout their writing without knowing the basic rules.
Commas are used
to separate the different items in a list:
o Saturday morning started with a hearty breakfast of scrambled eggs, bacon, sausage,
and French toast.

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o The school has a vegetable garden in which the children grow cabbages, onions,
potatoes, and carrots.
The final comma in these lists (before the word and) is known as the serial
comma. Not all writers or publishers use it, but it is used by Oxford
Dictionaries some people refer to it as the Oxford comma. Using it is a
matter of style, but in some cases, it can make your meaning clearer. Take a
look at this sentence:
o My favourite sandwiches are chicken, bacon and ham and cheese.
-

NOTE: It isnt entirely clear from this sentence whether the writer is listing three or four of their favourite
sandwich fillings: is ham one of their favourites and cheese another, or is it ham and cheese that they
like? Adding an Oxford comma makes the meaning clear:

o My favourite sandwiches are chicken, bacon, and ham and cheese.

to mark off short asides.

o Children are quite demanding, I quite agree.
o Well, Im sorry.
o Could you open the window, please?
o You havent met John, havent you?

when a writer quotes a speakers words exactly as they were spoken, this is known
as direct speech. If the piece of direct speech comes after the information about who is
speaking, you need to use a comma to introduce the direct speech. The comma comes before
the first quotation mark. Note that the final quotation mark follows the full stop at the end of the
direct speech:
o Steve replied, No problem.

at the end of a piece of direct speech, if the speech comes before the information
about who is speaking. In this case, the comma goes inside the quotation mark:
o I dont agree, I replied.
o Here we are,' they said.

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 If a piece of direct speech takes the form of a question or an

exclamation, you should end it with a question mark or an
exclamation mark, rather than a comma:
o Stop him! she shouted.
o Did you see that? he asked.
Direct speech is often broken up by the information about who is
speaking. In these cases, you need a comma to end the first piece of
speech (inside the quotation mark) and another comma before the
second piece (before the quotation mark):
o Yes, he said, and I always keep my promises.
o Thinking back, she added, I didnt expect to win.

to separate clauses in a complex sentence (i.e. a sentence which is made up of a main

clause and one or more subordinate clauses).

The following examples show the use of commas in two complex sentences:
o Having had lunch,
[subordinate clause]

o I first saw her in Paris,

[main clause]

o we went back to work.

[main clause]

o where I lived in the early nineties.

[subordinate clause]

If the commas were removed, these sentences wouldnt be as clear but the
meaning would still be the same. There are different types of subordinate
clause, though, and in some types the use of commas can be very important.
A subordinate clause beginning with who, which, that, whom, or where is
known as a relative clause. Take a look at this example:
Passengers
who have young children
may board the aircraft first.
[relative clause]

This sentence contains whats known as a restrictive relative clause. Basically, a restrictive
relative clause contains information thats essential to the meaning of the sentence as a whole. If
you left it out, the sentence wouldnt make much sense. If we removed the relative clause from the
example above, then the whole point of that sentence would be lost and wed be left with the rather
puzzling statement:
o Passengers may board the aircraft first. (You should not put commas round a restrictive
relative clause.)

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The other type of subordinate clause beginning with who, which, whom, etc. is known as a
non-restrictive relative clause. A non-restrictive relative clause contains information that is not
essential to the overall meaning of a sentence. Take a look at the following example:
Mary,

who has two young children, has a part-time job in the library.
[relative clause]

If you remove this clause, the meaning of the sentence isnt affected and it still makes perfect
sense. All thats happened is that weve lost a bit of extra information about Mary:
-

Mary has a part-time job in the library.

You need to put a comma both before and after a non-restrictive relative clause.

You should use a comma after 'however' when however means 'by contrast' or
'on the other hand':
o However, a good deal of discretion is left in the hands of area managers.

Don't use a comma after however when it means 'in whatever way':
o However you look at it, existing investors are likely to lose out.

SEMICOLON (;)
The main task of the semicolon is to mark a break that is stronger than a
comma but not as final as a full stop.
A semicolon is used

between two main clauses that balance each other and are
too closely linked to be made into separate sentences, as in
these two examples:
o The road runs through a beautiful wooded valley; the railway line follows it.
o An art director searched North Africa; I went to the Canary Islands.

as a stronger division in a sentence that already contains commas:

The study showed the following: 76% of surveyed firms monitor employee Web-

surfing activities, with 65% blocking access to unauthorized Internet locations; over
one-third of the firms monitor employee computer keystrokes; half reported storing and
reviewing employee emails; 57% monitor employee telephone behaviour, including the
inappropriate use of voicemail.

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to join two independent clauses when they are closely related and the relationship is
clear.
o The robin laid three eggs; the eggs are a vibrant shade of blue.

to join two independent clauses with a conjunctive adverb:

o The sky is cloudless; therefore, we can go to the beach.
o Aliyah loves school; however, she hates grammar class.

to separate items in a series where each item contains a comma within itself.
o We took our friends to St. John, New Brunswick; Halifax, Nova Scotia; and
Sherbooke, Quebec, when they came for a visit last year. (there are both city and province
in each list item, the semi-colons make the list item more clear.)

COLON (:)
The colon is a unit of punctuation typically used to introduce a subsequent sentence
that is in some way logically linked to the preceding sentence. Therefore, one may find
colons serving as punctuation to introduce a list, to offset something that is a
consequence of the fact stated in the preceding sentence, or to lead into a quotation.
There are two main uses of the colon

to introduce a list:
o The price includes the following: travel to London, flight to Venice, hotel
accommodation, and excursions.
o The job calls for skills in the following areas: proofing, editing, and database
administration.

before a quotation, and sometimes before direct speech:

o The headline read: Taxi Driver Battles Gangsters.
o They shouted: Our families are starving! We need land!

APOSTROPHE ()
Are you uncertain about when to use an apostrophe? Many people have difficulty with
this punctuation mark. The best way to get apostrophes right is to understand when
and why they are used.

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An apostrophe is used

to show that a thing or person belongs or relates to someone or something

(possession). Here are the main guidelines for using apostrophes to show possession:
-

Singular nouns and most personal names. With a singular noun or most personal
names: add an apostrophe plus s:

We met at Bens party.

The dogs tail wagged rapidly.

Yesterdays weather was dreadful.

with personal names that end in -s: add an apostrophe plus s when you would
naturally pronounce an extra s if you said the word out loud:
o

He joined Charless army in 1642.

Dickens's novels provide a wonderful insight into Victorian England.

Thomas's brother was injured in the accident.

Note that there are some exceptions to this rule, especially in names of places or
organizations, for example:
o St Thomas Hospital
If you are not sure about how to spell a name, look it up in an official place such
as the organizations website.
With personal names that end in -s but are not spoken with an extra s: just add
an apostrophe after the -s:
o The court dismissed Bridges' appeal.
o Connors' finest performance was in 1991.

with a plural noun that already ends in -s: add an apostrophe after the s:
o The mansion was converted into a girls school.
o The work is due to start in two weeks time.
o My duties included cleaning out the horses stables.

with a plural noun that doesnt end in s: add an apostrophe plus s:

o The childrens father came round to see me.
o He employs 14 people at his mens clothing store.
The only cases in which you do not need an apostrophe to show belonging is in the group of

words called possessive pronouns - these are the words his, hers, ours, yours, theirs (meaning

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belonging to him, her, us, you, or them) - and with the possessive determiners. These are the
words his, hers, its, our, your, their (meaning 'belonging to or associated with him, her, it, us, you,
or them').

to show that letters or numbers have been omitted. Here are some examples of
apostrophes that indicate missing letters:
o Im - short for I am
o hell - short for he will
o shed short for she had or she would
o pick n mix - short for pick and mix
o its hot - short for it is hot
o didnt - short for did not

to show that numbers have been omitted, especially in dates:

o

The Berlin Wall came down in the autumn of 89 (short for 1989).
The general rule is that you should not use an apostrophe to form the plurals
of nouns, abbreviations, or dates made up of numbers: just add -s (or -es, if
the noun in question forms its plural with -es). For example:

euro

euros

pizza pizzas

(e.g. Traditional Italian pizzas are thin and crisp.)

apple apples

(e.g. She buys big bags of organic apples and carrots.)

MP

(e.g. Local MPs are divided on this issue.)

MPs

1990 1990s

(e.g. The cost of the trip is 570 euros.)

(e.g. The situation was different in the 1990s.)

to show the plurals of single letters:

o I've dotted the i's and crossed the t's.
o Find all the p's in appear.

to show the plurals of single numbers:

o Find all the number 7s.

These are the only cases in which it is generally considered acceptable to use an
apostrophe to form plurals: remember that an apostrophe should never be used to
form the plural of ordinary nouns, names, abbreviations, or numerical dates.

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 HYPHEN (-)
Hyphens are used to link words and parts of words.
We use hyphens

in compound words to show that the component words have a combined meaning
(e.g. a pick-me-up, mother-in-law, good-hearted) or that there is a relationship between the
words that make up the compound.
o Rock-forming minerals are minerals that form rocks. (But you dont need to use them
in every type of compound word.)

in many compound adjectives.

noun + adjective

noun + participle

adjective + participle

accident-prone

computer-aided

good-looking

sugar-free

power-driven

quick-thinking

carbon-neutral

user-generated

bad-tempered

sport-mad

custom-built

fair-haired

camera-ready

muddle-headed

open-mouthed

when a compound formed from two nouns is made into a verb, for example:
noun

verb

an ice skate

to ice-skate

a booby trap

to booby-trap

a spot check

to spot-check
a court martial

to court-martial

You should NOT USE a hyphen within phrasal verbs. For example:

Phrasal verb

Example

build up

You should continue to build up your pension.

break in

They broke in by forcing a lock on the door.

stop off

We stopped off in Hawaii on the way home.

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If a phrasal verb is made into a noun, though, you SHOULD use a hyphen:
Noun

Example

build-up

There was a build-up of traffic on the ring road.

break-in

The house was unoccupied at the time of the break-in.

stop-off

We knew there would be a stop-off in Singapore for refuelling.

Compound nouns

A compound noun is one consisting of two component nouns. In principle, such nouns
can be written in one of three different ways:
one word

two words

hyphenated

aircrew

air crew

air-crew

playgroup

play group

play-group

chatroom

chat room

chat-room

In the past, these sorts of compounds were usually hyphenated, but the situation is
different today. The tendency is now to write them as either one word or two separate
words. However, the most important thing to note is that you should choose one style
and stick to it within a piece of writing. Dont refer to a playgroup in one paragraph
and a play-group in another.

to join a prefix to another word, especially if the prefix ends in a vowel and the other word
also begins with one (e.g. pre-eminent or co-own).

to separate a prefix from a name or date, e.g. post-Aristotelian or pre-1900.

to avoid confusion with another word: for example, to distinguish re-cover (= provide
something with a new cover) from

recover (= get well again).

to divide words that are not usually hyphenated.

They show where a word is to be divided at the end of a line of writing. Always try to split the

word in a sensible place, so that the first part does not mislead the reader: for example, helmetnot he-lmet; dis-abled not disa-bled.

to stand for a common second element in all but the last word of a list, e.g.:
o You may see a yield that is two-, three-, or fourfold.

DASH ()
A dash is used

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to mark off information or ideas that are not essential to an understanding of the rest
of the sentence:
o Thousands of children like the girl in this photograph have been left homeless.
o My son where has he gone? would like to meet you.

to show other kinds of break in a sentence where a comma, semicolon, or colon

would be traditionally used:
o One things for sure he doesnt want to face the truth.
o Things have changed a lot in the last year mainly for the better.

Dashes are especially common in informal writing, such as personal

emails or blogs, but its best to use them sparingly when you are
writing formally.

BRACKETS ( ) [ ]
There are two main types of brackets.
ROUND BRACKETS (also called parentheses) are mainly used to separate off
information that isnt essential to the meaning of the rest of the sentence. If
you removed the bracketed material the sentence would still make perfectly good
sense. For example:
o
o
o

Mount Everest (8,848 m) is the highest mountain in the world.

There are several books on the subject (see page 120).
He coined the term hypnotism (from the Greek word hypnos meaning 'sleep') and
practised it frequently.

They can also be used to enclose a comment by the person writing:

o

Hed clearly had too much to drink (not that I blamed him).
SQUARE BRACKETS are mainly used to enclose words added by
someone other than the original writer or speaker, typically in
order to clarify the situation:
o He [the police officer] cant prove they did it.

If round or square brackets are used at the end of a sentence, the full stop should be
placed outside the closing bracket:
o They eventually decided to settle in the United States (Debbie's home).

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 ELLIPSIS POINTS:
An ellipsis is a set of three periods () indicating an omission. Each period
should have a single space or either side, except when adjacent to a quotation
mark, in which case there should be no space.
Use ellipsis points

in the middle of a quotation to indicate the omission of material, use three points with
spaces before and after the ellipsis.
o The First Amendment provides that "Congress shall make no law respecting . . . the
right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a
redress of grievances." U.S. Const. amend. I.

at the end of a quotation to indicate the omission of material, use four points -- a
three-point ellipsis and a period. The ellipsis should follow a blank space.
o The First Amendment provides that "Congress shall make no law . . . abridging the
freedom of speech . . . ." U.S. Const. amend. I.

Do not place an ellipsis at the beginning of a quotation to indicate the omission of

material.
o

The First Amendment also prohibits laws "respecting an establishment of religion . . .

." U.S. Const. amend. I.

When combining a fully quoted sentence with a partially quoted sentence, or with a
second, but nonconsecutive quoted sentence, place a period at the end of the fully
quoted sentence, followed by a space, an ellipsis, another space, and the remainder of
the quoted material. Do not place a space before a period at the end of a fully quoted
sentence.
o In a unanimous decision, Justice Holmes wrote, "The question in every case is
whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such a nature as
to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils
that Congress has a right to prevent. . . . When a nation is at war many things that
might be said in time of peace are such a hindrance to its effort that their utterance
will not be endured so long as men fight and that no Court could regard them as
protected by any constitutional right." Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47, 52
(1919).

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 INVERTED COMMAS
Inverted commas can be single - x - or double - x. They are also known
as quotation marks, speech marks, or quotes.
Inverted commas are mainly used in the following cases

to mark the beginning and end of direct speech (i.e. a speakers words written down
exactly as they were spoken):
o That, he said, is nonsense.
o What time will he arrive? she asked.

to mark off a word or phrase thats being discussed, or thats being directly quoted
from somewhere else:
o He called this phenomenon the memory of water.
o What does integrated circuit mean?
Single or double?
Theres no rule about which to use but you should stick to one or the other
throughout a piece of writing. Single inverted commas are generally more
common in British English while American English tends to prefer double
ones.
If you find that you need to enclose quoted material within direct speech or
another quotation, use the style you havent used already. So, if youve been
using single inverted commas, put any further quoted material within double ones and vice
versa. For example:
She still sounds amazed when she says: We were turned down because we
represented too small a minority of the population. They could still get away
with saying things like that then.

EXCLAMATION MARK (!)

The main use of the exclamation mark is to end sentences that express:

an exclamation:
o

Ow! That hurt!

Hello! How are you?

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direct speech that represents something shouted or spoken very loudly:

o

something that amuses the writer:

o

Look up there! she yelled.

Included on the list of banned items was 'crochet hooks'!

An exclamation mark can also be used in brackets after a statement to show that the
writer finds it funny or ironic:
o

She says shes stopped feeling insecure (!) since she met him.
People tend to use a lot of exclamation marks in informal writing such as emails or text
messages, but you should avoid using them in formal writing.

QUESTION MARK (?)

A question mark is used to indicate the end of a question:

o

Have you seen the film yet?

NOTE that you dont use a question mark at the end of a question
in reported speech:
o

He asked if I had seen the film yet.

A question mark can also be used in brackets to show that

the writer is unconvinced by a statement:
o

Im about to get started on the new project, which is apparently quite straightforward (?).

BULLET POINTS
Bullet points are used to draw attention to important
information within a document so that a reader can identify the
key issues and facts quickly. There are no fixed rules about how
to use them, but here are some guidelines:

The text introducing the list of bullet points should end with a colon.

If the text that follows the bullet point is not a proper sentence, it doesnt need to begin
with a capital letter and it shouldnt end with a full stop, for example:

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Tonight's agenda includes:

o
o

annual review of capital gains issues

outstanding inheritance tax issues

If the text following the bullet point IS a complete sentence, it should begin with a capital
letter. A full stop at the end is technically required but is not absolutely essential:
The agenda for tonight is as follows:
o
o

We will conduct an annual review of capital gains issues.

The senior tax manager will talk about outstanding inheritance tax issues.

Lists of bullet points will have more impact if each one begins with the same word
class (or part of speech) and if they are all of a similar length. Action verbs are a good
choice for the first word, i.e. verbs that describe the performing of an action. If you do
use verbs, make sure that each one is in the same tense. Heres an example of the
effective use of action verbs in a persons CV/rsum:
Duties and responsibilities included:
o
o
o

teaching national curriculum to Key Stage 1 pupils;

reaching attainment targets and improving learning performance;
developing extracurricular sports programme.

Bullet points tend to have more impact if their text is relatively short. Make sure you use
the same typeface and margin width within each section.
Bullet points are visually attractive and make it easy for a reader to locate important
information. Nevertheless, try to use them sparingly: too many bullet-pointed sections in the
same document will mean that their impact is lost.

CAPITALIZATION
As we already know, sentence boundaries are indicated
by capital letters at the beginnings of sentences and end
stops at the ends. How many other circumstances can you
recall when capital letters should be used?

Always use a capital letter for the pronoun I. There are

no exceptions to this rule. The pronoun I is written with a
capital letter wherever it comes in the sentence. Note that the capital letter remains even when
two words are run together in a contraction.
I've I'll I'm

I'd

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Always begin proper nouns with a capital letter. Proper nouns

are names of particular

people (Diana, Stewart, Bernadette), places (London), months (April), and so on. Common
nouns are more general (person, city, month). The following list may be helpful.

Always use a capital letter when

referring to God, or the names and titles
of God. (God, the Persons of the Trinity, the Holy
Trinity, the Father, the Son, the Holy Spirit, the
Saviour, the Almighty, the Messiah, the Lord, Allah,
Yahweh, etc.)

A capital letter is also used when

referring to sacred books (the Holly Bible,
the New Testament, the Old Testament, the
Qur'an, the Pentateuch, etc.)

Religions are also given capital letters

(Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism),

as are believers (Christians, Buddhists, Hindus).

Pagan gods are not given capital letters.

o It was Neptune, god of the sea, who summoned up the storm that drowned the
sailors.
o Neptune, of course, has a capital letter because that is his name but god doesn't have
one.

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It is correct to use capital letters for personal pronouns and possessive adjectives
referring to God but in recent years it has become less usual.
o Let us praise God. Let us praise Him.
o Let us praise His ways.
o Let us praise God. Let us praise him.
o Let us praise his ways,

Either form is correct. It is important to be consistent, however, to avoid making the reader uneasy.

Use a capital letter at the beginning of the first word of a title, the last word, and all the
most important words in between.
o We all enjoyed reading A Day in the Life of a Mouse.
o Have you seen A Room with a View?
o I read it in The Independent.

Titles include: books, plays and movies, pamphlets, musical works, television or radio programmes,
podcasts, poems, journals, magazines, published speeches, works of art, websites, and manes of specific
airplanes, trains, ships, and satellites.

Capital letters are usually used at the beginning of each line of poetry. An example should
make this clear:
O that 'twere possible,
After long grief and pain,
To find the arms of my true-love
Round me once again!
Alfred Lord Tennyson, 'Maud'

Some poets (E.E. Cummings, for example) deliberately take liberties with capital letters and they should be
quoted accordingly.

I thank You God for most this amazing

day for the leaping greenly spirits of trees
and a blue true dream of sky; and for everything
which is natural which is infinite which is yes
e.e. cummings, 'i thank You God'

Direct speech (a quotation of the actual words of a speaker) always begins with a capital
letter wherever it occurs in a sentence.
o She said, 'We will come if we possibly can.'
o 'We will come if we possibly can,' she said.
o 'We will come,' she said, 'if we possibly can.'
Structurally the sentence within the inverted commas is quite self-contained. It may help to remember
that it is a sentence within a sentence and needs its own capital letter.

Note: There is a section on the punctuation of direct speech later in the book. There are other pitfalls!

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 use capital letters in the address and the postcode.

9 Willow Crescent,
Cosham,
Portsmouth,
Hants P 0 9 2EX

use a capital letter with the first word in the salutation.

Had the salutation been longer, the first word only would need to be capitalised (apart from any
names, of course.)

o Dear Mr. Askew

o My dear Mr. Askew
o My very dear Mr. Askew
use of a capital letter with the first word in the body of the letter, even though it follows a
comma after 'Dear Mr. Askew'.
use a capital letter with the first word of the complimentary close. (It is a common error to use
capital letters for each word at this point.)

Yours sincerely
Yours faithfully
Your loving nephew

Writing a word in capital letters can

suggest the emphasis you would give
that word in conversation. This is a
device appropriate to informal writing
rather than to formal writing.
In the extract on the right, George
MacBeth is discussing Rachel Lindsay's
poem The Congo':

Use capital letters in headings. Be alert

to the use of capital letters in printed
material:

newspaper

advertisements,
magazines,

lay-outs,

reports,

contents

leaflets,

pages,

etc.

Typographically there are many styles of

capital letters and a huge range in
presentation

is

possible.

The

visual

implications can be very exciting.

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You will see that sometimes the initial letter of key words are used, sometimes the first and last
letters, sometimes the first part of a word, and so on. It is important to use the accepted
abbreviated form. Some dictionaries list abbreviations and contractions in an appendix.

Words and phrases are abbreviated according to a number of conventions.

o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Mrs. T. (Missis Thatcher)

P.M. (Prime Minister)
G.C.S.E. (General Certificate of Secondary Education)
Dr. (Doctor)
etc. (etcetera)
approx. (approximately)
Cpl. (Corporal)

Note that capital letters only are used in the abbreviated

o form of some words and phrases:
o CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons)
o P.T.O. (Please turn over)

Capital letters can also usefully distinguish two forms:

o P.M. (Prime Minister)
o p.m. (post meridiem = after noon)
You

may

already

have

noticed
general

in

your

reading

as well as in your
reading

of

the

text above that

sometimes

full

stops are used to indicate abbreviations and

sometimes they are not. It has actually been
perfectly acceptable for some time to omit the
full stops in such abbreviations as Mr, Mrs, Dr,
Rd, where the word has been shortened to its
first and last letters.
Mr. Brown
Mr Brown

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However, modern typing is to omit full stops with all abbreviations and this is having its effect,
although more slowly, on hand-written practice also. It may be wise to continue to use full stops
with abbreviations in handwritten work for a little longer if you are preparing for external
examinations. Some examining boards are more traditional in their practice than others.
On the other hand, it is interesting to note that two very modern additions to our vocabulary are
never used with full stops in their abbreviated form: CFCs and pic.
Have a close look at a few different newspapers and periodicals to see where they print BBC or
B.B.C., Mrs. Thatcher or Mrs. Thatcher, 17 Oct or 17th Oct., am or a.m. This will indicate the
general trend.
Words and phrases can be shortened in a less drastic way than in the abbreviations we have
just been examining. If just a few letters are omitted, an apostrophe is used to show where this has
happened.
In some contractions, two words are combined into a new form and an apostrophe indicates the
missing letters.
Be very careful with the placing of the
apostrophe. Its function is to indicate the
omitted letter or letters, not to show where the
two words have been joined. In some words
the apostrophe appears to perform this
second function but do not be misled or you may
begin to use the apostrophe in the wrong place with
contractions incorporating 'not'.

didnt

didnt

wouldnt

wouldnt

Apostrophes are also used

in shortened words and phrases:
o o'clock (of the clock) - never used in its full form now!
in dates where the century is understood:
o I left South Africa in '76.
in plurals of abbreviations:

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o Only ten M.P.'s were present.

in plurals of letters, numbers, and symbols
o Dot your i's and cross your t's.
o Form your 6's and 9's more carefully.
o Write the A's and D's in red.
to avoid confusion
o It is best not to use so many 'but's'.
Before we leave contractions and abbreviations, we should examine some commonly confused
homophones:

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PUNCTUATION MARKS
PRACTICE

Commas, colons, semi-colons, and STOPPERS

A. Read the sentences and correct the mistakes in them.
1. I am hungry, is there anything to eat.
2. Laughing uncontrollably he staggered from the room.
3. I need help I need it urgently I am desperate.
4. Please can you help me.
5. Its a nice recipe isnt it.
6. He knows however that he could get home in time.
7. His behavior I regret to say has been deplorable.
8. Anna and Matthew supper is ready
9. Ladies and Gentlemen our speaker has been delayed
10. I wish my boyfriend Matt hadnt had his ear-pierced.
11. Graham Green is a biographer Norman Shery will be authographing copies of Vol. 1 in
Dillons on Thursday.
12. Judith enjoys all school subjects Latin; French; English; Maths; Physics; Chemistry; and
History.
13. She was very tired. She had worked late the night before.
14. To my amazement, I heard Mary say; Im never coming back.

Quotations Marks
B. Use quotation marks where necessary. Then, try to infer the rules.
1. We are off to London tomorrow, she said. Cross your fingers it doesnt rain. We dont want to
have to take umbrellas.
2. Star Trek was a great commercial success.

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3. Both parents said together, no, you can't go to the fair.

4. He called this phenomenon the memory of water.
5. How do you spell achievement?
6. She asked, Have you ever read Pride and Prejudice?

Capital Letters
C. Use capital letters where necessary. Then, try to infer the rules.
1. dr. jackson is coming in a second.
2. jenny and i went to the beach together.
3. mr. roberts said that the practice had been discontinued.
4. my favourite day of the week is thursday and my favourite subject is geography.
5. roses are red
violets are blue
sugar is sweet
and so are you
6. i saw the advertisement in the times
7. She said, we will come of we possibly can.
8. On wednesday, march 9th, the twins were born.
9. I speak english, french and italian
10. I visited london and paris
11. God the father, god the son, and god the holy spirit are the three persons of the holy trinity.
12. We shall be reading a village by the sea.
D. Punctuate the following text.

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E. Use 40 capital letters where necessary in the letter that follows.

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Linking
words
WHAT ARE LINKERS?
Linkers are words that relate one idea or sentence
of the text with another. They connect the ideas
logically.

WHY ARE THEY USED?

They give direction to the writer. They are also used to guide the reader through his thoughts.
They make the meaning specific,

HOW DO WE CHOOSE A LINKER?

Meaning is the first and the most important principle in choosing a linker. The second is the
logical

relation

that

needs

to

be

made

distinctly

clear.

For

example,

linkers

like because, so and therefore express logical relations which are different from those expressed
by although, but and nevertheless.

WHAT iS THEIR USE IN PARAGRAPHS?

It is important to use linkers while describing a person, place or thing. They help us in listing
facts chronologically, linking events across time, comparing and contrasting sketches, explaining
graphic images and illustrating the main idea.

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TYPE OF LINKER OR
CONNECTOR

EXAMPLES

Because, as, since, seeing that,

thus, hence (introduce a sentence)

CAUSE / reason

Because of, on account of, owing to,

due to (Introduce a noun phrase)

BROAD MEANING

Introduces a reason and shows a

result.

As a consequence of, As a result

of (followed by a noun phrase)

EFFECT/CONSEQUENCE

So (Introduces a sentence. No commas)

Introduces a consequence.

Consequently, As a consequence,
As a result, Therefore
Similarly, likewise, in the same
way

Identifies similarities between two

ideas.

CONDITION

Given that, assuming that, granted

that

Introduces a condition

CONCESSION /
CONTRAST

But, however, even though, in spite

of, despite, despite that fact that,
instead of, by contrast, on the
contrary nevertheless, nonetheless,
as opposed to

Identifies differences between two

ideas.

At once, immediately, in the

meantime, now that, as soon as,
prior to, subsequently, eventually,
meanwhile, in the meantime,
whenever

Indicates time and frequency of

events.

Especially, particularly

Emphasizes a situation, event, etc.

In other words, that is to say

Explains something in a different

way.

COMPARISON

TIME

EMPHASIS

RESTATEMENT

ADDITION

Moreover, furthermore, similarly,

apart from, in addition, in addition to, Adds ideas in support of the main
whats more, on top of that, besides, idea.
on the one hand, on the other hand,
eventually.

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TYPE OF LINKER OR
CONNECTOR

EXAMPLES

BROAD MEANING

For example, for instance (introduces

EXAMPLE

an example referring to previously stated

ideas)

Introduces illustrations in support of

such as (introduces an example referring to the main idea.
the last idea)

So as to, in order to (introduces an

PURPOSE / INTENTION

infinitive of purpose)

Introduces an intention.

In order that, so that (introduces a

sentence)

SEQUENCE

First, second, third, next, then,

Shows the importance of the ideas

by listing according to priority.

SUMMARY

All in all, to conclude,

Draws conclusion by summarizing

the ideas.

In my opinion, As I see it, It seems to

me that, people believe,

Expresses a personal/professional
opinion or judgement.

OPINION

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LINKING WORDS
PRACTICE
A. Complete the sentences with the correct linkers.
1. We went out _________________ the weather was bad.
2. She was found guilty of fraud. ______________ of this, she resigned from the government.
She spoke Japanese as __________________ as Korean.
3. She's an expert on butterflies. What's ___________________, she knows a lot about ants.
4. ____________ the contrary, he considers bullfighting a barbaric remnant of the Roman circus.
5. _________________ it's not the best option, it is definitely the cheapest.
6. ____________________ first, everyone was confused by all the changes.
7. Not __________________ are drinks cheaper in Granada than in Valencia but also the bar
snacks are free.
8. You can camp here ________________ you have permission from the local council.
9. She left the party early, _____________________ she was enjoying herself immensely.
10. The railway splits the town in two, __________________ only physically but also socially.
11. She arrived early ____________________ that she had time for a chamomile tea.
12. As ______________ she was concerned, the special offer was a con.
13. Genetically modified crops are extremely dangerous ______________ they threaten the
biodiversity of the planet.
14. _______________________, Id like to say that I agree, secondly, explain why.
15. Camels live in the desert, _____________________ dolphins live in the sea.
16. In the end, we didnt go to the cinema. We went to the theatre _______________________.
17. I dont like strawberry ice cream. __________________, I love chocolate flavor.
18. It started raining. _______________ we decided not to go.
19. Firstly, we have to think about our budget and _____________ about how much time we have.
20. I love those soft French cheeses, __________________ Camembert.
21.

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B. Rewrite the sentences. Make the necessary changes so as to use the linkers between
parentheses.
1. Isabel apologized several times. Paul wouldnt speak to her. (but)
____________________________________________________________________________
2. We decided to walk even though it was raining. (in spite of)
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Roger works very hard to help his parents. Hes also a good student. (in addition)
____________________________________________________________________________
4. I love ice-cream. In addition, I love chocolate. (as well as)
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Id love to come. I really havent got the time. (however)
____________________________________________________________________________
6. Rome is a great place to visit, but it has got terrible traffic problems. (despite)
____________________________________________________________________________
7. Miguel was very busy yesterday. He helped me. (even though)
____________________________________________________________________________
8. Sarah exercises vigorously. She cant lose weight. (however)
____________________________________________________________________________
9. Visitors are not allowed to park here. It is a private parking area. (since)
____________________________________________________________________________
10. Joanne booked a babysitter because she wanted to go out for the evening. (in order to)
____________________________________________________________________________
11. Brenda does a lot of exercise. She is fit. (therefore)
____________________________________________________________________________
12. Mark heard the news on the radio. He was driving home. (while)
____________________________________________________________________________
13. Despite its popularity, the group hasnt reached any gold record yet. (in spite of)
____________________________________________________________________________
14. John bought a couple of exercise-books. He wanted to catch up with the rest of the class. (so as
to)
____________________________________________________________________________
15. My brother doesnt earn a good wage. My sister-in-law doesnt earn a good wage. (neither
nor) ________________________________________________________________________
16. The accident was very serious but nobody was badly injured. (even though)
____________________________________________________________________________

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C. Read the paragraph and choose the correct linker.

English food has a bad name abroad although / because / if foreigners visiting England often
meet it in the more 'popular' type of restaurant which / it / one is the easiest to find. The food in
the / a / such restaurants has to be served quickly and / as well as / in addition being cheap.
Although / Nevertheless / Together with the food is often badly cooked together with / as well
as / and presented without any imagination. This is because some of the restaurants do not pay
enough attention to what their customers want.
Together with / Moreover / Whereas these restaurants do nothing for the reputation of British
food abroad, the foreigner who takes a little trouble and compares the restaurants carefully, can eat
well in Britain.

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RUN-ON
SENTENCES (OR
COMMA SPLICE)
A run-on sentence occurs when two separate sentences are joined
without any form of punctuation, or any sort of word connecting them.
It is without question the simplest of all sentence errors in that its cause
is not the result of any particular misunderstanding or misconception. Below
are several examples of run-on sentences.
Examples of Run-on Sentences:
1. The computer is a useful tool it can be used for writing papers.
2. Once upon a time there was a man his name was Josh.
3. Bees dont eat flowers they gather nectar from them then they go back to
the hive.
Explanation of the Problem:
Run-on sentences usually occur because students
either write very quickly, or are not paying particular
attention to their work. Such a reason should come as
good news to most students because it means that
fixing the problem is often as simple as re-reading
ones work and then putting in an appropriate
punctuation mark.
How to Fix It:
Fixing a run-on sentence is a matter of
1) detecting the sentence in the first place, and
2) adding in a punctuation mark.
To detect the presence of a run-on sentence, a student should re-read his or her work. Reading
aloud tends to be more effective than reading to oneself because voice intonation reveals where
individual sentences start and stop. A sentence which should end in a period is typically
accompanied by a drop in the voice. A sentence which should end with a question mark will be
characterized by a rise in ones voice. Likewise, a sentence that should end with an exclamation
point will usually end with the voice taking on a more forceful tone, or a punch.

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RUN-ON SENTENCES
PRACTICE
EXERCISES: Part One
A. Eliminate the following run-on sentences by inserting an
appropriate punctuation mark (a period, question mark, or
exclamation point).

1. The man took out the garbage he was cleaning the house.
2. The woman ate a pear she smiled because it was delicious.
3. After the parade we went for a walk we needed to stretch our legs.
4. What should I do I think I am lost.
5. Ive had enough I cant take it anymore!
6. Watch my favorite movie you bet Id like to see it again.
7. There were gardens everywhere there were some in the back there were even some around
the side of the house.
8. Can you go Id really like to see you there if you cant Ill understand, of course.
9. Notecards are good for recipes scrap pads are good for keeping lists.
10. We won the lottery thats wonderful!

EXERCISES: Part TWO

C. Rewrite the following run-on paragraphs by inserting an appropriate punctuation mark
11. They walked through the forest, twigs snapping beneath their feet an owl hooted a frog
croaked the sounds of the woods were all around them.
12. While sledding down the hill, Billy lost his hat his friends helped him look for it, but they
couldnt find it they looked at the top of the hill, and they looked at the bottom of the hill it was
nowhere to be found.
13. In the cabinet Janet found an old book its cover was dusty, but she could see that it was
made of leather she blew off the dust, and when the air cleared she could barely make out the
title it was a diary she began to wonder how it got there her family had just moved into the old
house, and they had almost finished cleaning it out how the cabinet down in the cellar had been
overlooked was a mystery to her.
14. It was a cozy house with thick wooden beams supporting the ceiling and stout wooden logs
for walls the fireplace was made of stones it had a mantle with carvings of deer and bear on it,
and pegs for hanging wet mittens and scarves could the pegs be used for stockings at
Christmas of course they could!

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15. There is a place, not far from here, at the edge of a meadow if you go there youll find a
mound of earth, with wildflowers growing upon it when the heat of the day is too much to bear, I
go there theres always a breeze, and the ground is soft sometimes I see hawks circling high
above the meadow sometimes I see a fox scampering through the grass how did I find such a
place I stumbled upon it, I suppose yesterday only the bees and bugs and silent trees knew it
was there, but now you know as well.

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SENTENCE
FRAGMENTS
What is a sentence fragment?

A SENTENCE FRAGMENT fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot

stand by itself. It does not contain even one independent clause. There are
several reasons why a group of words may seem to act like a sentence but not
have the wherewithal to make it as a complete thought.

It may locate something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a series of such
phrases, but it's still lacking a proper subject-verb relationship within an independent
clause:
o In Japan, during the last war and just before the armistice.
This sentence accomplishes a great deal in terms of placing the reader in time and place, but there is no
subject, no verb.

It describes something, but there is no subject-verb relationship:

o Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat.
This is a verbal phrase that wants to modify something, the real subject of the sentence (about to come up),
probably the she who was working so hard.

It may have most of the makings of a sentence but still be missing an important part of a
verb string:
o Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza's laboratory last semester.
Remember that an -ing verb form without an auxiliary form to accompany it can never be a verb.

It may even have a subject-verb relationship, but it has been subordinated to another
idea by a dependent word and so cannot stand by itself:
o Even though he had the better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker.
This sentence fragment has a subject, he, and two verbs, had and was, but it cannot stand by itself because
of the dependent word (subordinating conjunction) even though. We need an independent clause to follow
up this dependent clause: . . . the more powerful speaker, he lost the case because he didn't understand
the jury.

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SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
PRACTICE
A. Read the passages below and identify the part that is a fragment and correct it.
1. Joshua found the pressure from the gas in his stomach unbearable. Although he didnt want
to be rude in the middle of geology class. An explosive belch erupted from his mouth.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. Phillip left work early. To memorize the vocabulary that his Spanish midterm would test the
next day. But all that he could think about was Beatrice, the cure new sales associate who
worked in the camera department.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
3. Chewing the dry, tough, whole-grain bread bought from the health food store. Lorena.
Fantasizing about a juicy cheeseburger on a soft white bun didn't improve the taste of the
soy product sandwiched between leaves of organic lettuce.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. My cat Fuzz loves to sleep in inconvenient places. Lately she prefers the computer table
where her long hair sticks to the mouse pad, covers the keyboard, and clings to the screen of
the monitor.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Rocking and thrashing like a wild horse that cowboys had lassoed. At the other end of the
Laundromat, Bobby quietly read an old magazine, pretending that it was not his machine.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________

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B. Read the passages below. Identify the fragments and correct them.

1._____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2._____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

3._____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

4._____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

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EXTRA MATERIAL

SEMICOLON vs. COLON: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6H1SQBIF628

Don PERIOD: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HCrVynFYy_w

Ms. EXCLAMATION!: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AHSKFbdYq1U

QUESTION MARKowitz: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AC3WqM-0TpI

QUOTATION MARKS: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLB1IUNdoSE

QUOTATION MARKS: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WuP4WXHtqMo

The COMMMAS and the STOPPERS: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QzieZqtK_0Y

PUNCTUATION explained by PUNCTUATION:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LdCOswMeXFQ

How to Apply CAPITAL LETTERS: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oN5eiMH83bE

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1. BURT, Angela. (1993) A Guide to Better Punctuation. Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd.
2. STRAUS, Jane. (2007) The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation. Jossey Bass. A
Wiley Imprint. 10th edition.
3. SIMMONS, Robin L. (1997-2014). Last visit: January 14th, 2015. Grammar Bytes
Available in http://chompchomp.com/exercises.htm.
4. UNKNOWN. (2002). Run-on Sentences: A Skill Sheet. Available on web:
http://www.writeguide.com/wp-content/uploads/Run-onSentences.pdf. Last visit:
December 2nd, 2015.
5. Oxford University Press (2015) Last visit: January 16th, 2015. Punctuation
Marks Available in http://www.oxforddictionaries.com.

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Lets improve our writing!!

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