Acknowledgements

xi

Introduction

xii

How to use this book

Glossary

xvii
xix

SECTION AStructures
I

The noun group

Articles

The definite article

The indefinite article

The partitive article

11

Demonstrative adjectives

15

Demonstrative pronouns

17

Possessive adjectives

20

Possessive pronouns

22

Nouns

23

10

Adjectives

31

11

Indefinite adjectives, pronouns 40and adve

12

Personal pronouns

51

13

Reflexive pronouns

56

14

Emphatic pronouns; position and 56order of

15

Relative pronouns

16

Interrogative pronouns, adjectives67 and a

17

Cardinal and ordinal numbers

62
72

vi

18 Fractions

77

19 Approximate quantities

78

20 Dimensions

78

21 Adverbs of quantity

80

II The verb group

82

22 Agreement of verb and subject

82

23 Formation of tenses

86

24 The indicative tenses; the present86 tense

25 The future tense

93

26 The imperfect tense

97

27 The past historic

100

28 The compound tenses

103

29 How the perfect is used

104

30 How the future perfect is used

107

31 How the pluperfect is used

108

32 How the past anterior is used

109

33 The conditional and the conditional110 perf

34 The subjunctive

114

35 The present subjunctive

114

36 The imperfect subjunctive

116

37 The perfect subjunctive

117

38 The pluperfect subjunctive

117

39 Sequence of tenses; uses of the 117subjunct

40 Reflexive verbs

127

41 The passive

129

42 The past participle

132

43 The present participle

137

44 The imperative

139

45 The infinitive

142

vii

46

Impersonal verbs

145

47

Adverbs

147

48

Prepositions

156

SECTION BFunctions
III Exposition

159

49 Referring to people, things and 159places

49.1

Physical characteristics

159

49.2

Personality

161

49.3

Relationships

162

49.4

Age

165

49.5

Ownership

167

49.6

Dimensions

172

49.7

Quantity and number

174

49.8

Quality

179

49.9

Comparison

180

49.10 Directions

184

49.11 Location

187

49.12 Manner

191

50

Narrating

194

50.1

Present time

195

50.2

Past time

197

50.3

Future time

200

50.4

Dates and time

201

50.5

Sequence

205

51

Reporting

208

52

Asking questions

215

53

Negating

219

Attitude

222

Greeting and leave-taking

222

IV
54

viii

54.1

Greeting

222

54.2

Leave-taking

223

55

Expressing congratulations and appreciat225

55.1

Congratulations

225

55.2

Appreciation

226

56

Expressing apologies and sympathy228

56.1

Apologies

228

56.2

Sympathy

230

57

Expressing surprise and disgust 232

57.1

Surprise

232

57.2

Disgust

234

58

Expressing contrasting attitudes,235emotio

58.1

Likes and dislikes

235

58.2

Preference

237

59

Love and hate

238

60

Enthusiasm and indifference

240

61

Hopes, fears and regrets

241

62

Approval and disapproval

243

Argumentation

245

Agreeing and disagreeing

245

V
63
63.1

Agreeing

245

63.2

Disagreeing

247

63.3

Agreeing to differ

250

64

Asserting and confirming

251

64.1

Asserting

251

64.2

Confirming

252

65

Admitting and conceding

65.1

Admitting

65.2

Conceding

253

253

254
ix

66
67
68

Correcting and protesting

Contradicting and
criticizing
Suggesting and
persuading

255
258
260

68.1

Suggesting

68.2

Persuading someone to think the 262way you

68.3

Persuading someone to do/not to 264do some

68.4

Other ways of persuading and dissuading264

69

Expressing volition

260

267

69.1

Verbs expressing volition

268

69.2

269

69.4

Wishing and intending

Asking what someone
intends
Asking someone for
something

69.5

Expressing (un)willingness to act273 upon

69.6

Deliberate or non-deliberate actions275

Saying what you do not
want
276

69.3

69.7

270
272

70 Expressing permission and obligation278

70.1

Permission

278

70.2

Prohibition

279

70.3

Obligation

281

70.4

Exemption

285

71 Expressing doubt and certainty 287

71.1

Doubt and certainty

287

71.2

Possibility and probability

292

71.3

Condition and hypothesis

Expressing logical
relations

298

72

302

72.1

Causeexplicit

302

72.2

Causeimplicit

306

72.3

Consequenceexplicit

307

72.4

Consequenceimplicit

311

72.5 Aim

312

73

Expressing opposition

315

74

Structuring

321

74.1 Beginning

321

74.2 Continuing

326

74.3 Ending

328

VI

The sounds of French

333

75

Vowels

333

76

Nasal vowels

333

77

Semi-vowels/semi-consonants

333

78

Consonants

334

79

Accents, cedilla, diaeresis

334

80

Liaison

335

81

Elision

337

Verb tables

339

Index of grammar structures and 354function

Acknowledgements

Theauthorswouldliketothankthefollowingfortheirpermissiontoreproduce
extractsfromcopyrightmaerial:Grasset,Paris,RogerVaillaUnd,Jeune Homme
Seul,1951(p77).Le Monde 23.3.and9517.9.(pp0383,.88);Plon,
Paris,forH.Troyat,Grandeur Nature,1936(p86);.The Guardian 16.2.(p95.
104);M.NoaillesforG. Moustaki,LeMtque(p.134);EditionsLa
Dcouverte,collectionRepres,Paris,forJ.Vallin,LaPopulationfranaise,
1989(p139);.DocumentationeuropenneforP.Fontaine,LesGrandesPhases
historiquesinDixLeons sur lEurope,1992(p.164);Journal Officieldes
Communarits Europennes for Dbats du Parlement europen 1 Capital,August
1994 (p. 245).

Introduction

ThisbookisdesignedtoprovidethessentialelementsofFrenchgrammar,for
studentsinthefinalyearofschoolandinthefirstandlateryearsofhigher
educationAdvanced.learnerswillfindmuchthatisusefulforextendingtheir
knowledgeofFrench,andforevisionThebook.isorganizedintwomajor
sections:areferencesectiontainingthestructuresofgrammarnda section
containifungctiongralmmarEach.sectionincludescross-referencestothe other.
Thereferencegrammar,whichisascomprehensiveaspossible,hasbeen
structuaroundedthenounphrasedealingwithallthelementsrelatedothe noun: articles,
pronouns, adjectives and numbersa with all the elements related to the verb:
tenses,
Thefunctiongrammarliscomposedofthreeparts,eachdemonstratinghow todo
thingswithlanguageinordertocommunicateThe.threeprincipal
functionsidentifiedarexposition,attitudeandargumentationEachof.theseis
divided into smaller function areas related to the
The functions
Exposition
Communicationinvolvesbothgivingandobtaininformation:gwemake statements and
we ask questions about someone or s

(1) referring to people, things and places

(2) narrating events in some sort of sequence
(3) reporting what we or other people say or think
Inotherwords,wearegivingorobtaininginformatiaboutnwho,what,when,
how,whereandwhy.Expositionincludesthreegroupsoffunctionsidentified, very
broadly,referring,as narratingandreporting.
Referring topeople,thingsandplacesinvolvesgivingandobtaining

informatiaboutnphysicalcharacteristics,personality,relationships,age,

xiii

ownershipdimensions,quantityand number,qualityor distinguishing characteristics,

comparison, direction, location a Narrating involves talking about events or
actions in
future time, dates and Reportingtime, anddescribessequencewhat. we or people say
and write. Reporting is usually clearly introductory verb. There are many verbs which
can whichthecommonestissaySome.oftheothersarethink,remind,ask;hope,
believe,want,suggest,answer,admit,forgetInterroga.structuiveares included in this
section because we need to know h
todothisweaskquestions,andnegatisioncludbecause,dofcourse,ometimes
we need to say that something is not the case.
Attitude
Expressing an attitude towards someone or somethin introducing a personal,
subjective element into com our reaction to someone or something, we are evalua
in a non-detached way. And we may do so spontaneo
Closelyrelatedoattitudarthesmotionsandfeelingswhichmostofus
experienceandexpressfromtimetotimeThese,.too,arepersonaland
subjective,and,onoccasion,theymayinfactbeattitudesThefocus.ofthis
sectis,onthen,onthecommunicationofattitudes,emotionsandfeelingsand
how we express them. We look firstgreetatortaketheleaveways in of people when
we are speaking or writing to them. whichwe
expresscongratulationsandappreciation,apologiesandsympathy,
andsurpriseanddisgust. Finally,weconsiderwaysinwhichwe express
contrastingattitudes,emotionsandfeelings:likes,dislikesandpreference,love
andhate,enthusiasmandindifference,hopes andfears,approvalandisapproval.
Argumentation
Effective communication usually requires a certain involves the need to

(1) structure what we want to say or write

(2) determine the best strategies to employ
(3)select the means of expression most suited to and, above all, to a specific
context or situati
Thestructureistheplan
inwhatwe
aresayingorwriting,thestrategyisthe
functionwe
aremploying,andthemeansofexpressionisthegrammaticalor
lexicalstructure(forxample,verbconstruction,nounphrase)whichismost
appropriate for the plan and the function.

xiv

Itmaybethatsinglewordisenoughtoachievewhatwe want,butmore
frequentlyweareinvolvedadiscussionorexplainingsomethingorarguing case and so
on. Often, there is simply not enough
want to say though there is more time when we are virtually impossible to try to
learn every functio However,ifwe arefamiliarwithsomekindsofplan,withvarioustypesof
function, and with some of the means for expressin use them ourselves, but
recognize them when we are other people are saying or writing.
There are many kinds of plan in what is said and in complexity. Examples of plans,
or planning, are

(1)creatingclearoverallstructurewithanintroduction,middlesctionand
conclusion
(2) listing a series of points
(3) putting another point of view and defending it
(4) proceeding from cause to effect, or vice versa.
Insomesituations,partsofplansmaybeenoughandindeedappropriatefor
achievingwhatwe want,forexample,onlypartof(c)At.othertimeswe may
need to put into action a fully developed plan, for
(d)Finally,.wemustrememberthatthereisnosinglperfect,plansuitablefor every
situation or context.
Thefunctionsavailabletous whenwe wanttoachievesomething
argumentationremanyWe. may,forexample,wantoagree,indicatedoubt,
reject,riticizeWemay. wishtoemphasizersuade,influence,express obligation.
Whatever it may be, whether we are ini
speech,contributingtoaconversation,reactingtocomment,broadcastor
report,wehaveatourdisposalwiderangeofpossiblemovesWe. cannoft, course, know
how someone is going to react to what we need to have access to a range of
responses in reaction, and respond appropriately.
The section on argumentation provides a comprehen
andthemeansofexpressingthemwhichareinfairlycommonuseYou.will
recognizethemwhenpeoplearespeakingdwritingItis.recommendedthat
youtrytoputhemintopractincespeechandwritingwheneverappropriate. The functions
are presentedagreeing andasdisagreeing,followsassertingand
confirming,admittingandconceding,correctingandprotesting,contradicting
andcriticizing,suggestingandpersuading,expressingvolition,permissionand obligation,
doubtandcertainty, logical relatiopposition,ns,andstructuring.

xv

The examples
Theexamplesinthereferencesectionaresimpleillustrationsofthegrammar
structureinquestionInthe.functionalsectionthexamplesareselectedfrom
contemporaryspokenandwrittenFrenchtodemonstratethefunctinon
questionThey.areactualexampleswhichavebeenusedinourown
experience,andtheyarequotedwithinasmuchcontextaspossibletoillustrate the
function and the related grammar structure.
The translations
The examples in both the reference and the functio
EnglishInthe.referensection,translationsarekeptascloseaspossibletothe
French,inthefunctionalsection,theotherhand,wherethereisusually
substantialamountofcontext,theEnglishequivalentisprovided,ratherthan direct and
possibly, therefore, stilted version of
Forms and functions
The forms in any living language are flexible and c
canvaryaccordingtotheindividualspeakerorwriter,tothepartofthecountry
he/shecomesfromorlivesin,andindeedtofashionThere.iseldomnlyoneway
ofsayingorwritingsomethiandg,notveryoftenaone-to-equivalenceoneof
form and function.
Thisisclearilylustratedinthesectiontheimperative(A.44)wherethis
onegrammarstructureisshowntohavevarietyoffunctions:theimperative
formcanbeusedtoexpressanorder,aninstructaninvitation,etcIt.isalso
illustraintheedmanyfunctiofnseachofthetensesSimilarly,.inthe functional section,
many forms are suggested for e
directions(B.49.for10),example,canbeexpressedthroughtheimperative,the future
tense, a combination of the two, etc.
Just as there is a network of relations between f a
networkoffunctionsrelatedoeachsinglefunctionAgreeing.(B.63.for1),
example,isnaturallyassociatedwithitsoppositedisagreeing(B.63.and2),
then also with a combination of the twoagreeing t
Register
Registrefersbyandlargetothedifferentvocabularyandgrammarstructures we
usewhenwe aretalkingorwritingtodifferpentople,andthelevelsof formality and
informality we use. For example, we teacher,doctor,apoliceman,atinterviewbut
fairly,informalwith
membersofourfamily,friendsorwhensimplychattingWeusually.takeinto

xvi

accountthestatus,age,andtherelationswehaveipwithotherpeople,andthe situation we
are in, and we automatically adjust o
Attimes,weswitchfromformalitytoinformality,whenforexample,we
begin to feel more comfortable with a person, or f
forexample,conversationwithourbankmanagerswitchesfromfriendly conversation to a
request for an increase in a loa
What we are doing is quite normal and acceptable situation.
Inthegrammaritisnotpossibletocoverthewiderangeoflevelsthatexist between
formality and informality, but we have ind
theregisterformalinformalOtherwise,.examplesshouldbetakenas standard register
the register used by an average,
Dont you want to take them round all the museum
Tu veux pas les balader dans(informal)tousles muses? Voulez-vous leur
faire visiter(formal)tous les muses?

How to use this book

This book brings together two sets of guidelines o

AA referencegrammarcoveringthemajorpointswhichneedtobe
mastered so that you get things right.
BA functiongrammarlcoveringthemajortypesofcommunication you may
want or need to carry out.
Atyourdisposal,then,youhavethessentialsofgrammar (sectionA)and
applicationsofthegrammarina wideselectionoffunctions (sectionB).When we
werepreparingthisbook,we keptinmindthefrequentchangeswhichany
livinglanguageundergoes,andwe have,therefore,includedcommentson
exceptionstotheguidelinesAnd,wherever.appropriate,wehaveincluded
informwalysofsayingorwritingsomethingThemajority.ofexampleshave crossreferetoincesformationconcerningoneormoregrammarpointsor concerning
additional details on the function.
How, then, will you use the book? If, for example
youlookupB.54.In1.thissectiyounwillfindanumberofsuggestions
differentwaysofsayingHi!orGoodmorning!,forexampleIts.notvery difficult to know
how to say hello, of course, but betweenBonjour!andBonsoir!?
Ontheotherhand,youmightwantto persuade someone to do something. To find a
suitabl upB.68and.3youwillagainfindanumberofsuggestionsforpersuading,and crossreferencestotheappropriategrammarguidelineWhen.youarelookingat
thefunctions,wesuggestthatyoualsoconsiderthemuchlongercontextthatis provided to
see what happens to a grammatical form
Thereareotherwaysofsayingandwritingthesamethingsexamplesthe
givenhereareonlysuggestions,andyouareboundtocomeacrossothermeans
of expression the more you come into contact with inyourprofessionallifeWe.
recommendthatyouconsiderthesuggestions provided here, select the form, or forms,
that sui youmeetalternativewaysofsayingorwritingsomething,addthemtoyour
repertoire.

xviii

BeforetheverbtableswehaveincludedasectionwiththesoundsofFrench,
andseveralwordsforyoutopractisethesoundsYour.teacherwillbeableto help you
with them.

Glossary
Many of the terms used in this grammar are explai section in which they are used,
but there are some in a specific section because they occur in severa which may
cause difficulty for students. The short terms which we think need special attention.
We hav using this grammar are familiar with most of the t as noun, verb, adjective.

Adverb
A word or phrase which gives information about something occurs. There are
adverbs of manner, pl and frequency. Adverbs can(fairemodifyavec
asoinanverb),adjective (trs difficile),oranother(beaucoupadverbtrop).Adverbs
are alwa invariable, unlike some other parts of speech, t spelling to agree with
another part of speech.

Antecedent
A word or group of words which precedes another Relative pronouns, or
wordshave antecedentssuchasce, to which back (Lhommequi a donn un
pourboire na pas. beauco
Apposition
The placing of a word or phrase directly beside a to provide more
information(JacquesboutChirac,the otherPrsident one de la Rpublique).
There is no article between th
Cohesion
The linking of words, phrases, sentencohesiveandpara devices,which may be
clauses, adverbs, pronouns, neg includeet, mais, par contre, dabord).
Complement
A word or phrase which completes the meaning of, about, something. The
complement may be a word in direct object
(Elalepommea),mangindirect(Ilobjectleura vendu),the agent in a
passive(Latartsentenceapartl petitvolegaron)
.
Conjugation
This refers to all the endings of a verb. Verbs a to one of four main conjugationser,-ir,in.-re,EachFrench:-oirf the conjugations has its own set of six endings for e
the set of endings which belong to a particular c are able to give a model verb for
each conjugatio of that conjugation willerverbsfollowfollow(regularfordonner,example). Irregular verbs are those which do
not follow eit a conjugation. The most useful irregular verbs a grammar books.

Determiners
These are words which are part of the noun group. French all the
articlesthe(le,possessiveun,du(mon,);adjectiveston,

xx

son);the demonstrative(ce,adjectivescet,;cettetheinterrogative)
exclamatory adjectivequel(asQuellein maison?/!);indefinite adjec
(certain, chaque,diffrents, divers, maint, plusieurs, aucun,normally in
the(Ellesinagulaucunr;thetalent)cardinal numbe used as adjectivesdeux
journaux(as).in
Direct and indirect objects
The direct object is a noun or pronoun referring affected in some way by an action.
The direct ob preposition(Ilalelivreu) The object is indirect when it i preposition,
orusuallyde(Nousle donnons parents.a dpendde

nos parents). Indirect objectme,pronounste,lui,arenous,.Thesevous, l pronouns

are not precededitisbuiltby into(Noustheleurpronoun
donnons).Followingde,and other prepositions, the empha used(a
dpendtoi).de
Finite
Refers to the many parts of verbs which have endi whether the subject is singular
or plural, the infinitiveisthe part of the -verber,-whichir,-andre,ndsin-oir,thisn cas
there is no finite ending giving information about or plural, or the tense.
Gender and number
These are very important grammar concepts in Fre adjectives agree with nouns or
verbs with subject mistakes, and that can cost you marks! Gender in (le,
ilor),feminine(la,elle),and all nouns are masculine or adjectives have to agree
with their noun. Number pronoun is singular (just one person, thing or a people,
things or actions). Verbs have to agree subject.

Impersonal verb
A verb of which theilitilsubjectfau(it is necessary). The verb can sometimes
become personal by theiladditio me fautI must).
To modulate
To change or influence the meaning of a word or are various ways of doing this,
using nouns, adje have specific nuances. You can also, for example, merely by
altering the intonation you usemake w discourteous, friendly or aggressive. A
slight c nuance (of meaning). You can achieve a different nu changing, the
intonation you use.
Mood
This refers to the different forms in the conjuga functions for which the verb is
used. So, you hav the subjunctive mood (non-fact); the interrogat conditional mood
(conditions and hypotheses), the The mood of the verb can be changed according
to for example, fact, non-fact, questions.

xxi

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Verbs can be transitive or intransitive. A transi object(Illua le .livre)Anintransitive
verb does(Il travaillenothave a bien).Verbs may be directly(Ila lutransitlelivre.
Mangeor ta indirectly (Pensetransitivenous). Almost all normally transit be used
intransitively(Ilboitun verreboit. .pas)IlAndne some normall intransitive verbs can
(Ilbe usedsort.transitIlsavoiture).vely

Abbreviations used in the grammar

ffeminine, mmasculine, ssingular, plplural qnquelquun, qch
quelque chose

Section A
Structures

I
The noun group

1 Articles
Frenchhasthreearticles:thedefinitearticlthindefinite,articleandthepartitive article.
They agree with nouns in gender and numbe a similar way to English articles, but
there are s
1.1 Forms

Definite IndefinitePartitive
Masculine singularle
Feminine singular la
Plural

(l)
(l)
les

un
une
des
+de/d

du (de l)
de la (de l)
des
+de/d

2
The definite article
Thedefinitearticlesarele,la,lestheContracted.formsareusedwhenthe
prepositionsdeof,fromor
to(andsometimesfrom:emprunterto
borrowfrom)precedethearticlesle,les:de+le>de+les>des,u,+le>au,
+les>aux.
Cest ledu livreprofesseur. Its the teachers book.
Ce sont lesdescopiestudiants. They are the students paper
Englishfrequentlyusess(singular)ors(plural)toindicatepossession,rather than of the.
It would sound odd to say: It is t

Elle parleauprsident. Sheisspeakingtothepresident/ chairman.

THE NOUN GROUP 3

Nousavonsdonnlesbilletsaux We havegiventheticketstothe enfants.

children.
But there is no dechangeorprecedewhenlaorl:
La portedelcole est ferme.The
Elle valmaison.

She

school door is
is going home.

shut.

2
2.1 Contracted forms
Whentheyprecedewordsbeginningwithavowelora muteh,leandlaare
shortenedl(seeto81.):1
lissue

the exit
laccident the accident
lhistoirehistory, the storylhomme
man, the man

NOTE The articles are not necessarily translated into

2.2 Place of the article

The article precedes nouns, and adjectives which
la petitable the little tablegrandgaron the big boy
but note thatfollowtout,they tous, all,toute(s)every, the11.):1whole (s
tout levin all the winetoute lafamillethe whole family toutlargent all the
moneytoutes lesfillesall the girls tous lesmois every month
2.3 How the definite articles are used
The definite article refers to specific people or
Le livre estlatablesur. The book is on the table.
In lists of nouns, the article is usually repeated
Il aimeleschats,leschienslesetchevauxHe. likes cats, dogs and h
but increasingly today, in written French, the art
Chats,chiens,chevaux,illesaimeCats, dogs and horseshe love tous. all.

STRUCTURES

2.4 Differences between French and English article

In certain contexts French and English articles a
(a) where the noun is used in a general sense:
Lherbe est verte.

Grass is green.

Aime-tle-vin?il Does he like wine?

Elle ailamusique.
She loves music.
Les ordinateurs deviennentComputers are becoming less de moins en moins
chersand. less expensive.
(b)withpartsofthebody,ormind,whereEnglishusesthepossessiveadjctive
(my, your) French uses the 49.):definite1
article (se
2
Il secoualatte.
Ouvrelesyeux.
Il a froidauxpieds.
Elle a mlattel.
Elle a perdulammoire.
Il souffredudos.

He shook his head.

Open your eyes.
He has cold feet.
She has a headache.
She has lost her memory.
He has back problems.

and with reflexive42.3veforbsagre(sement of49.pa)5erticiple,eferring to the owner:

Elle sestlescheveuxla.

She washed her hair.

Whensomethingsdonetosomeoneelse,thatotherpersonisindicatedby
including an indirect object49.):5 pronoun (see
Elleluia saisi la main. She took his/her hand. Elleluia lav les cheveux.She
washed his/her hair.
Thedefinitearticleisalsousedwithpartsofthebodyindescriptionfollowing avoir
(see49.):1
Le bbalesmains dodues. The baby has chubby hands.
Ellealescheveux longs. She has long hair.
Notetheuseofthepossessiveadjctivemon,tonmy,yourwithverbs other
avoir:than
Ilcaressa salongue barbe noireHe.stroked his long black be

And note the following descriptive phrases 49.):1where E

THE NOUN GROUP 5

la femmeauxyeux verts
the woman with the green eyes
la maisonauxfentres ouvertesthe house with
the open
Il
marchaitlesmains derrireHe was walking
with his
ledos. behind his back.

windo
hands

Frenchnormallyusesthesingularfomofnounsiftheyrefertosomethingof which
we have onlayvieone,liflatte,.ghead/face,.lecouneck:
Elle leur la viesauv. She saved their lives.
(c) in many expressions of time, and with50.seasons,):4
trois heuresdumatin/de at three in the morning/ laprs-midi afternoon
II arriveralesseptversheuresHell. arrive about seven ocl Elle le ferala
semainepndat. She will do it during the wee
Note the English equivalent with the use or omissi la
semainedrnire/prochainelast/next week
au jourlejour from day to day
Elle travaillematin.
She works in the morning(s).
Ils viennentlejour.
They come during the day.
touslesvendredis
every Friday
touteslesemaines
every week
touslesdeux jours
every second/other day
2
but
Elle le rencontrepar troissemaineShefois.meets him three times a
Some examples with the seasons:
Lhiver est merveilleuxWinter. is wonderful.
On y lvat prochain. We are going there next summer.
The article is en:omittedhiver,enwitht,enautomnein winter, summe autumn,
butau printempsnotin spring.
Some examples with dates and use of the article:
Nousommeslemardi11dcembreIts.

Tuesday,

11th December.

le 26 mai 1968

26th

May 1968

STRUCTURES

Le jeudi on va au marchOn.Thursdayswegoto(the)market.
(every Thursday)
On se voitle.7
See you on the 7th.
but no article
Nous sommes mardi. Its Tuesday.
Il me le donnera jeudiHell. give it to me on Thursday. lundi dernier last Monday

Some examples

with festivals, which are usually fe

la Toussaint
la Pentecte

at
at

Halloween/on All Saints Day

Whitsun

but
Nol
Pques

at
at

Christmas
Easter

(d) in certain expressions of price, pay, quantity

Cela se vend lekilo30euros.That costs 30 euros a kilo. Cela se vend
cinquante2euroslesThatcosts2 eurosfifty(for)a
100grammes. hundred grammes.
Ce tissu cotele500mtreuros.This material is 500 euros a
but
Il est paylheure. He is paid by the hour.
La voituroulaite100km/h.(youThe car was travelling at wouldsay 100
kilometresheure)
or
Elle roulaitlheure80.

It was going at 50 mph.

(e)withnamesoftownsandcitiesfrom,to/inarexpressedbyde,:from
ParisdeParis,to/inParisParis.Butifthetownorcityisqualifiedbyan
adjective,thearticleisused:levieuxParistheoldpart(s)ofParis(see 49.,10
49.)11.Thenamesofsometownsandcitiesncludetharticleaspartofthename. In
such cases thede, andrulesthefor article2)are (seefollowed:

THE NOUN GROUP 7

He
Il is
revi just
bac
ent
k
du
fro
Ma m
ns, Le
de Ma
La ns,
Roc La
hell Ro
e,d che
esE lle,
che Les
lles.Ech
Elle elle
hab s
iteL Sh
eHa e
vre. live
Elle s in
auv Le
aHa Ha
vre. vre.
Il S
est h
La e
Roc
hell i
e. s
g
o
i
n
g
n
Wt
it r
h i
c e
o s
u a

nd
re
gio
nst
he
arti
cle

t
o
L
e
H
a
v
r
e
.
H
e
i
s
i
n
L
a
R
o
c
h
e
l
l
e
.
isusually
includedi
fthenam
eofthe
country
is
masculin

e i
si s
n j
g u
ul s
a t
r, b
o a
r c
mk
a f
s r
c o
ul m
in
e
t
o
h
r
e
f
e
P
m
h
Il il
re i
vi p
e p
nt
d E
e l
s l
P e
hi
li a
p u
pi v
n a
e P
s o
Hr
e. t
u

gal.rticller/d
Sh eme:enu
e is rer
goi Allemag
ne,enEc
ng
osse,en
to Charent
Por etogoto/l
tug inveGer
al. many,Sc
otland,th
But e
wh Charent
enn Deis.use
am dforfrom
eso andtherei
fco snoarticl
untre:revenir
ies deRussi
and e,
regi dEspag
ons ndeProv
arefence,to
emi return
nia from
nedRussia,
sin Spain,
gul Prove
arm
ost

NO
and
TE If
ofth
the
em
town
are
or
countr
eni
y is
qualifi
sus
ed
edf
byla
ort
an
o/ia
adject
ndt
Chine
her
mode
eis
rnem
noa

ord
de
ela
r Fr
nan
Cce
hithe
nnor
atho
. fFr
Tan
hce
e,le
asu
rtidd
cle
elA
isng
allet
s err
oet
uhe
s so
euth
dof
wEn
hgla
end
s.
o
u
tT
h
h
,
e
e
ar
e
st
ai
ns
d
n
w
o
e
p
st
:r
ee
nc
oi

s
e
p
a
t
t
e
r
n
i
n
s
o
m
e
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
s
T
h
e
y
s
i
m
p
l
y
.
h
a
v
e

t
o
b
e
l
e
a
r
n
e
d
.
S
o
m
e
e
x
a
m
p
l
e
s
:
les
vinsdeFr
ance the
wines of
France/F
rench
wines
lhistoid
eFrance
the
history of
France/F

re c
n h
c i
h s
v
hi
e
st r
o y
s
(
i
M
m
a
i
n
l
y
a
p
r
h
t
r
o
a
a
s
n
e
a
s
d
h
j
a
e
v
c
e
t
t
i
h
v
e
e
p
:
a
t
u
t
n
e
e
r

n
c
d
h
e
a
+
r
n
p
o
e
u
d
n
e
w
s
h
o
i

i
e
b
l
a
n
c
h
e

a
w
h
i
t
e
s
i
l
k
s
c
a
r
f

,
u
n
e
m
a
i
s
o
n
d
e

gne
a
hous
e in
the
count
ry.)
but
la
la

gographied
capitaledelaF

and
le
prsiden
tlaRpu
bliqueth
e
president
of
France/th
e Fren

Ther
eisa
rule
ofth
umb
fora
fewp
hras
es:fe
mini
neco
untri
esn
oarti
c cle,
a
m mas
p culin
a e

c
o
u
n

t
r
i
e

s
i
n
c

lude
an
articl
e:

8 STRUCTURES

la reinedAngleterre
lambassadedAutriche
2
but
lempereurduJapon
lambassadeduSngal
(f) in titles, forms
of address, and
qualified pro
legnral de
Gaulle General
de Gaulle
As-tu
connulePrsident
Did you know
President
Mitterrand?
Mitterrand?
Voilledocteur
Knock. Here/there
is Doctor Knock.
M.lePrsident
(Mr)
President,
Messieurslesdlgu
s Delegates,
levieux M.Guiat
old Mr Guiat
la petite Isabelle
little Isabelle
But the article is
normally omitted
before a noun

le gnral
dePrside
ntGaulle,
Generaldel
adeGaulle,
(the)Presid
entof
rpubliqu
e France
Paris, capitale de
la Paris,France the
capital of France
Articles are not
usedElizabetElizab
ethntilesIIsuchasthe
HnriSecond, IV
Henry the Fourth:
insayFrenchElizabet
hyou deux,would
Henri. qu
(g)withn
amesoflan
guages,us
eofthearticl
eisalsovari
abutle,itis
normally
omittedpar
ler:after
Parlez-vous
italien?Do you
speak Italian?
Il ne parle pas
franaisHedoesnt.
speak French.
Il est difficile de
Itrouverisdifficult to
find an equi un
quivalent en
anglaisinEnglish/an.
English equivalen
but

Apprenezlvousespagnollc
ole?Are you
learning Spanish at
Lallemandest une
langueGerman is a
complicated lang
complique.

THE NOUN GROUP 9

NotetheuseofcapitallettersinEnglish,butnotinFrench,fornamesof
languagesCapit.arelsusedinFrenchonly ifreferringtoahumanbeing
whatever his/her nationality:
le Franais, la FranaisetheFrenchman, the Frenchwoman le franais (the)
French (language) franais, franaise(s)French (adjective)
(h) with meals, games and musical instruments:
pendantlednerduring dinner
jouerau tennis to play tennis
jouerdu violon to play the violin
(i) with other parts of speech to form nouns:
lespauvres

the poor (people)

lemanger leetboire

food and drink

3
lesblesss

the injured

lesdires
statements, sayings
lesavoir
knowledge
lerouge
red (colour), red wine
leprimaire,lesecondairethe primary, secondary level of e
(j)notethatifthenounsarequalified,byrelativeclauseforexamplde+the, definite
article are used:
Il a bu unedu carafevinquon a achet en Australie.
He drank a carafe of the wine we bought in Aust
Un ciel couvertdesnuagesqui annoncent une tempte.
A sky full of storm clouds.
3
The indefinite article
The indefinite un(e),articlesdes,area,de/dan; some, any. Indefi are repeated in
lists; their English equivalents a
Jaiun hrissonu chatet la maison.

I have a hedgehog and a cat at home.

Il ydesalivres intressants dans ce magasin.

10

STRUCTURES

There are some interesting books in this shop.

Une femme ma tlphon ce soir.
A woman telephoned me this evening.
Ya-t-desilvoitures devant la mairie?
Are there (any) cars in front of the town hall?
3.1 Differences between French and English indefin
In certain contexts French and English articles a
(a) the article is used with abstract nouns quali
un quilibre parfait
avecune grande motion

perfect
full of

balance/equilibrium
emotion

(b) the article is not used when talking about occ

Il est professeur. He is a teacher.
Jai t nomm ministreIve. been appointed minister. Son fils est
protestantHis/her. son is a Protestant.
Sa femme est cossaiseHis. wife is Scottish.
but when the noun is qualified,isused: the article
Son cousin peintrestclbre.His/her cousin is a famous pa
Note the alternative possibilities:
4
Il est dpuCestun.dput/. He isa memberof theNational Assembly.
Elle est italienneCest./une Shes (an) Italian.
Italienne.
(c) the article is also omitted when two nouns are
Le gouvernement,reprsentantdupeuple,napasledroitde lui
refuser un rfrendum.
Thegovernment,therepresentaoftheivepople,doesnothavethe right
to refuse them a referendum.
(d) the article is used for emphasis:
Elledesa pieds! What feet shes got! Il faitunemps! What
amazing weather!

THE NOUN GROUP 11

(e) the singunlandruneformsare the same as the number one to another number:
Il a unbuverre de vin.He drank a/one glass of wine.
(f) there is no articlequel!afterwhatthe(a/an)!:exclamatory
Quel imbcile!
What an idiot!
Quelle concidence!
What a coincidence!
Quelles drles dhistoires!What strange tales!
Quels hommes distingus! What distinguished men!
4
The partitive article
Thepartitivearticlesaredu,dela,des,de/dsome,anyBefore.aword beginning with a
vowelh,duandorde ala>dmutede l:honneurhonour, de
lailgarlic,delherbegrass,deleauwater. The article may
in English, but not in French. The article is repe
Il
Tu

a demanddusucredu etlaitHe. asked

veuxdela moutardedu sel?etYou want

for (some) sugar and

(some, any) mustard a

4.1 How the indef inite and partitive articles are

(a)ina negativecontextun,une,du,dela,des>de/dwhenthenounthey precede is
made negative, and their meaning is no
pasde monnale,deaupls
no change, no
more water
Il nadargentpas.
He hasnt
any money.
Elle nade pluspatience,dhumour,She hasno patience,humouror
de tendresse.
affection
left.
Butifthespeakerorwriterintendsthenegativetofocusonsomethintheg sentence other
than the noun, the articles remain
4
Il
ne ma pasde conseilsdonn. He didnt giveadviceme. any
Il
ne ma pasdes donn
He didntgiveme any advice,
conseils,
il me les
a vendus!hesoldit to me!
(b) the articles also remain unchanged when expres
Elle nachteduvinpasmaisdelabire.
She doesnt buy wine, she buys beer.

12

STRUCTURES

Elle na pasdes livresdonn desmaisCD pour lanniversaire de neveu.

Shedidntgivebookstohernephewforhisbirthday,shegavehim CDs.
(c) when theun(e)articleexpresses a number, there is no chan
Le gouvernement navaitundputpashonnte.
The government did not have one honest member.
Il ny avaitunefemmepas au gouvernement.
There was not a single woman in the government. Note the meanings in the
following examples:
Elle naunepaspaire de chaussures. Elle en a trente.
She doesnt have one pair of shoes. She has thi
Elle nade chaussurespas. Elle na que des pantoufles
She hasnt any shoes. She only has slippers.
(d) the articles are not changed whnenquetheonly:negative
Ellenaquun mouchoir.
Ellen vendque deschapeaux.
Ilne boitque du vin.

She has
only one handkerchie
She only sells
hats.
He only
drinks
wine.

(e) afterninineithersansnorwithoutor the partitive artic (see53a):

Elleneprendni sel,ni poivre,niShe doesnttakesalt,pepperor

moutarde.
mustard.
Il
boit sansdu laitth.
He drinksteawithoutmilk./He
doesnt take milk in his tea.
Il
est sanssortichapeau.
He has gone out without a hat
But if the noun is qualified in some way the artic
Elle estsanssortieunchapeauqui pourrait la protger.
She has
gone out without a hat which could give
Nous navonsniletempsni largentpour le faire.
We have
neither
the time nor the money to do it
If the vetre,btheis articles remain unchanged:
Cenestpasun dsastre.

Its not a disaster.

THE NOUN GROUP 13

Ce nesontpasdes chaussures.

Theyre not shoes.

Notethatwhenthedefinitearticlesle,la,lesareprecededbyde inverb constructionse

suchsouvenirastoderemember,parlertode speak about
theyarechangedtodu,dela,del,des.Theyremaintheseformsina negative context:
4
Nousne parlionsdespasvictimes de la guerre.
We were not speaking about the victims of the w
Ellena paspeurdes chiens.
She is not afraid of dogs.
4.2 Forms of the indefinite and partitive articles a noun
Theindefiniteandpartitivearticlesdes>de/dwhenanadjectiveprecedesa
noun:
Ellede agrandsyeux bleus. She has big blue eyes.
Il nous raconte toujoursHe always tells us interesti dintressanteshistoires.
Jai deeusesnouvelles.

Ive had some news about him

Note that there are some exceptions to this rule wh a unit:

Cestdu bon caf!

Its good coffee!

des petits pains

rolls

If the adjective follows the noun,desremainsoris virtuallyunchanged

Il nous racontetoujoursdes He alwaystellsus unbelievable
histoincroyablesres.

stories.

anddesalways>dbeforeautre(s):
On dautresdevoirs faireWe.have (more) other homework. Il endautres. He has
others/more of them.
4.3 Forms of the partitive articles in expressions
The partitive>de/darticlesinexpressions of 21, 49quantity.)7. (see
(a)withadverbssuchasassezdeenough,autantdeasmuch,asmany,

beaucoupde a lot of,combienmany,de?how much, howmoinsmany?,de

14

STRUCTURES

less,(un) pdeu(a) little,plusdemore,tant asde much/many, so mu many,trop

detoo much/many:
Combien de gens?
peu degens

How many people?

few people

Note thatbiena lot of, many is followed by the full p

Il biena dumal suivre les cours dallemand.
He is having a lot of difficulty following the
(b)withadjectiveswhichexpressanamount,orlack,ofsomething,suchas
entourdesurroundedby,couvertdecoveredin/with,videdeemptyof,
lacking in:
vide desens

meaningless

rempli delivres full of books

5
(c)withnounssuchasunebouteilledeabottleof,unmanquedealack of:
une bouteille de(vin) rouge
un manque de ressources

a bottle of red wine

a lack of resources

4.4Formsofthepartitivearticlesafterindefinite,neuterandnegative
pronouns
De/disalsousedafterindefineuterite,andnegativepronouns:quelquun
someone,quelquechosesomething,ceci/celathis/that,cequi/ceque what,
quequoi?what,what?,personnenobody,riennothing:
quelquun dintressant
someone interesting
quelque chosedacceptable something acceptable
riendurgent nothing urgent
Quoi deneuf? Whats new?
Tout ce quilavaitde valabletEverythingvaluablehehadhasbeen vol.
stolen.
Notetheexpressionlaplupartdemostofwhichisfollowedbythefull partitive (the
verb22.is3):.1plural) (see
La plupart destudiaontsrussi dans les trois matires.

Most of the students have passed in the three s

THE NOUN GROUP 15

And note the prepositiondaprsaccording to:

Daprs la mto il va pleuvoir.
According to the weather forecast its going to
ArticlesareomittedfromanyexpressinonsFrench,ofwhichthefollowing represent a
very small selection:
rendre serviceto
helptomber par toerrefall
down
faire signe tode indicateavoir envietodewant
to
mettre fin
to end en auto
by car
en vlo/ bicyclettebicyclesous
prtexteon
thede pretext of
par hasard
by chancesans gne
without embarrassment

soitindiffrencsoitressentiment,either
indifference
or
resentm
Plus
il
crmoinse,elle couteThe. more he shouts, the less s Plus elle
travaiplusellegagne,.Themoresheworks,themoreshe
earns.
5
Demonstrative adjectives
Therearethreesingularfomsbutonlyonepluralformofthedemonstrative
adjectiveThey.agreeingenderandnumberwiththenoun,andtheEnglish equivalent is
this, these, that, those, or simpl
5
5.1 Forms

Masculine
Feminine

Singular

Plural

ce (cet)
cette

ces
ces

The formcetis used before masculine singular nouns be a muteh: cet enfantthis
cethild,hommagethis tribute,cetteaddithision
addition,cettehabitationthishouse,cesamisthesefriends,cesactivits these
activities,ceshommesthese cesmen,histoirthese stories.
Il acelulivre.
He has read this book.
Elle naimecet hommepas.
She does not like the man.
Cette jeune tudianate pas travaillcetteanne.

That young student has not done any work this y

16

STRUCTURES

On a vu tropcesfilmsdedont vous avez parl.

Weve seen too many of those films you spoke ab
5.2 Adding-ciand-l to nouns
By adding-citothenounitispossibletoemphasizeproximityinspaceor
time,andbyadding-ltothenounitispossibletoemphasizedistanceinspace
ortimeAddition.of-cior-lalsohelpstodistinguishbetweentwoormore people or
things.
Il est entrcette fentrepar.-ci
He entered by this window.
Elle est cevenuematin-l.
She came that morning.
Laquelle prfrCettesrobe-tu?-oucicette robe-?l
Which do you prefer? This dress or that one?
5.2.The1demonstradjective,orthedemonstradjective+noun+-l often carry a
pejorative, obsequious or contemptuo
Ce Jean est un peunestinsol-cent,Thatpas? John is
Ces dames sont servies?
You
Elle ne pouvaitcet hommetolrer-l. She couldnt

a bit
rude, i
are being served, ladi
stand
that ma

5.2.-2ciand-larepresentinvoici,voil,ici,lhere,theredenoting
proximityordistanceButincreasingly.todatheformsvoilandlareusedin
preferencevoiciandtoici:
Voilton livre.
Here/there is your book.
6
Je ne sais pas quand ill mvaintenantarriver. Il est
I dont know when hell arrive. Hes here now.
5.3 Repetition of the demonstrative adjective in l
Likethedefinitearticle(s2e.)3thedemonstradjectiveisusually repeated in lists.
Cette maisonetce beau jardinme plaisent beaucoup.
I like this house and the lovely garden very mu

THE NOUN GROUP 17

6
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrativepronounsaresimpleor compoundUnlike.demonstrative
adjectivthearesseparateformsforthemasculindfeminineplurals(see
5.)1. They agree in gender and number with the noun,
isthisone,these,thatone,thoseThere.isalso smallgroupofneuter demonstrative
pronouns meaning this, it, that.
6.1 Simple forms

Masculine
Feminine

Singular

Plural

celui
celle

ceux
celles

6.1.The1simpleformsarealwaysfollowedbya relativepronounqui,que, dont

(see 15) or by a prde,positionpour:
On a visitbeaucoupdappartementsdanscetimmeublemaison
prfreceux quine donnent pas sur la rue.
We haveseenalotofflatsinthatbuildingbutwepreferthose/theones
which dont overlook the street.
Il y a deuxCellecolesdesfilles.celletdesgarons.
There are two schools. The girls (one) and the
Note that there is no need to translate one(s) i
6.2 Compound forms

Masculine
Feminine

Singular

Plural

celui-ci/-l
celle-ci/-l

ceux-ci/-l
celles-ci/-l

6.2.1 The compound forms usually express a contras people or things this (one),
these/that (one), th
Jai apport deux romans polcelui-couierscelui.-l?Veux-tu
Ive brought two detective novels. Do you want
6
Le frre ou Cellelasur?-ciest charmante,celui-lpas du tout!
The brother or the sister? Shes delightful, he

NOTE Celui-l/may-cimean the former, the isdernierusometimesd, rceluiplaces.-ci

latter. In sen the latterce

18

STRUCTURES

6.3 The neuter ce/c;pronounsceci,cela;a

(a)ce/c
Ce/cisnormallycombinedwithtretoformcestorcesont,whichareoften
followedbya relativepronoun(cequi,ceque,cedont)orbyanemphatic pronoun
14(see.c)2.
Cestune belle maison!
Ctait ce quetu voulais.
Cest moi. Cest nous.

Its
a
lovely house!
It was
what you wanted.
Its
me. Its us.

Withathirdpersonpluralpronounce/cisnormallyfollowedbyathirdperson plural
verb:
Ce sont eux. Ctaient elles.

Its them. It was them.

and note:
Cest moiCtait. elles.

Its mine. It was theirs.

Ce/calso occurs in a few set phrases:

Ce me semble
Surce
Ce disant
Ce faisant

It seems to me
And at that point
And saying this/that
And as he/she did this/that

(b)cestandil(impersonal)estit is, that is

Cestusuallybackreferstoa previously mentioned idea or ma
Il parle bien franais.
He speaks French well.
Oui,cestvrai.
Yes, thats true.
Notethattherearemanyexpressionsofthetypecest+adjectivereferringall
back to something:
Cestpossible. Its possible.
Cestdifficile. Thats difficult.

THE NOUN GROUP 19

Iftre+adjectivearefollowedbyaninfinitheive,prepositionliksthe adjective
and the infinitive.
Ctaitfacile faire.

It was easy to do.

Ilestusuallyrefersforward toa newideaThe.prepositlinkingontre +adjective

to ande.infinitive is
7
Ilseraintressantdele faire. It will be interesting to d Ilnest pasfaciledeparler
grec.Its not easy to speak Gree

NOTE TheseareonlyguidelinWhesnthey.arespeaking,Frenchpeopledo
not always observe the differences between the two typ

(c)ceci, cela
Ceci,like-ci,refers to something near cela,inliket-mel,refersorspace, to something
more distant in time or space.
Regardezceci!
Look at this!
Cela ne mappartient pasThat. does not

belong to me.

Notethespellingofcela:thereisno
accentAnd.notealsothatcecirefers
forwardtosomethingabouttobesaid,whereascelarefersbacktosomething which
has been said:
Ecoutezceci Listen to this
Avez-vous entenducela?

Did you hear that?

(d)a
a (=cela)isusedinformally,mainlywhenspeakingItmay.havepejorative meaning.
a ne se dit pas. You dont say that kind of thin a va? Commentava? You OK?
Howre things?
a cest impossible!Thats impossible! Pourquoia? Whys
that?
a
sent mauvais!
That smells awful!

and in very informal use:

20

STRUCTURES

se croit capable deAndle he/shfaire! thinks he/she can d

7
Possessive adjectives

TheseadjectivesdenoteownershiporrelationshipTheyare.alwaysplaced
beforethenountheyqualify,andtheyalwaysagreewiththatnounThey.also
indicatethenumber(singularorplural)oftheownerThe.Englishequivalents are my,
your, his, her, its, our, your, their.
7.1 Forms and functions
(a) When thereone isowneronlythe forms are:
mon, ton, sonbefore a masculine singular noun ma, ta, sa before a
feminine singular noun
mes, tes, sesbefore a plural noun (masculine or feminine

7
mon livremy book ma voituremy car
mes gantsmy gloves
ton billetyour tickettamain
your handtes frresyour
brothers
son dos his/her/itssa
his/her/itssesfleurshis/her/its
back
nourriturefood
flowers
Whenthepossessiveadjctiveisfollowedbya femininenounoradjective, beginning
with a vowelh,ma,ta,or saremuterplacedmon, ton,by. son
mon (ton, son)amie
my (your, his, her,
mon (ton, son)horloge
my
(your, his, her)
mon (ton, son)ancienneinstitutricemy(your,
his,
her)
mon (ton, son)horrible maisonmy
(your, his,
her)

its) fri
clock
old teac
horrible

Ton,ta,tesarethefamiliarfomsoftheadjectiveandcorrespondtothe personal
pronountu.
(b) When theremorethanisoneowner the forms are:
notre, votre, lbeurfore a singular noun (masculine or femin nos, vos, leursbefore a plural
noun (masculine or feminin

notre
cousin(e)

our cousinvotre preyour

fatherleuroncletheir

uncle

nos
voitures

our carsvos

livresyour

booksleurs amiestheir
friends

THE NOUN GROUP 21

Votre,vosarethepoliteandpluralformsandcorrespondtothepersonal
pronounvous.Theycanthereforerefertoone owner(politely)ortoseveral owners.
(c) Like the articles2.),3pose(ssiveee adjectives are usual nouns in lists, unless
the nouns refer to almost i
son onclesa ettante
mon auto maetbicyclette
leurtableleursetchaises

his/her uncle
and aunt
my car and my
bicycle
their table and chairs

In a few expressions the possessive adjective cove

leursalles et venuestheir comings and goings
vos nom et prnomsyour surname and first names/your fu
(d) Some points to remember:
InFrench,possessiveadjctivesagreewiththenounqualified,whereasin
English they agree with the owner:
Il a trouvsamontre. He has found his watch. Elles ont leurperducl. They
have lost their key.
Eachofthethirdpersonssingular(son,sa,ses)hasthreeEnglishequivalents: sonhis,
her,sahis,ts;her,seshis,its;her, its.
8
son bol
sa mre
sesjouets

his/her/its bowl
his/her/its
his/her/its

mother
toys

Ifitisfeltnecessarytoidentifyexactlywhoorwhatheowneris,aFrench speaker
willandaddthe appropriate emphatic14.b2): pronoun (se
son bol elle

her/itsbowl

sesjouetslui his/itstoys
Note the use of possessive adjectives in forms of
madame, Madam

Mrs, Ms

mesdames
Ladies
mademoiselle Miss, Ms
mesdemoiselles
Ladies

monsieur
messieurs

Sir, Mr
Gentlemen

22

STRUCTURES

mesdames, mesdemoissieurselles,

Ladies and Gentlemen

RemembertheFrenchequivalentofphrasessuchaswithhishandsbehindhis
backlesmainsderrireledos(see2.b4),andcertainotherphrasesinwhich
French and English do not correspond:
Que sait-monellesujet?
What does she know about me?
Il a reulersnouvellesde. He has had news of them.
Non,mon vieux.
No, mate/old chap.
Peut-tre,moncolonel.
Perhaps, Colonel.
Inthelasttwoexamples,thefirstpersonpossessivesexpressaffectionand/or respect and
are used when talking directly to some
Finally, note the two possible English translatio
un dems amis
a friend
of mine/one of my friends
un delursamis
a friend
of theirs/one of their fri
un mdecinleursdeamisa doctorfriendoftheirs/oneoftheirdoctor friends

8
Possessive pronouns
Likethepossessiveadjctivthpossessives,pronounsindicatewhotheowner
is,butheymustagreewiththegenderandnumberoftheobjectowned (see7).
The English equivalents are mine, yours, his, her
8.1 Forms
(a) When thereone isowneronlythe forms are:
le mien, la mienne, les miens, les miennes le tien, la tienne, les
tiens, les tiennesyour
le sien, la sienne, les siens, les sienneshis/hers/its

9
Le tiencorresponds to the personaltu. pronoun
(b) When theremorethanisoneowner the forms are:
le ntre, la ntre,
le vtre, la vtre,
le leur, la leur, les leurs

les
les

ntres
vtres

ours
yours
theirs

theaccentsonthe pronounsntre(s),
Levtre
vtre(s),butnoton
correspondstothepersonalpronounvous.Note thenotre,adjectives.votre

THE NOUN GROUP 23

Voil ma voiturela.tienneO? est

Here is my car. Where is yours (your one)?
Il adore son petit frrelemien.. Je dteste
He loves his little brother. I hate mine.
Elle a russi son examen, maisles leursnos. amis ont rat
She has passed her exam, but our friends have f

NOTE There is no need to translate the English one.

(c)Thepossessivepronounsmayfolloworde,inwhichcasethecontracted
formsau/aux, du/desmust be used.
Nous pensons souvent nosauxamisleurs.? Pensent-ils
We often think of our friends. Do they think of
Elle ne craint pas son chidesn,vtresmais. elle a peur
She is not frightened of his/her dog, but she i
8.2Etre+ expressing ownership
Usually,followingtre,ownershiporpossessionisexpressedby+emphatic
pronoun+aorticle+noun. For other ways of49expressing.5
Cestelle.
Les journauxsont eux.
Le livreestau professeur.

Its hers.
The papers
are theirs.
Its the teachers book.
9
Nouns

FrenchnounsaremasculineorfeminingenderThere.areguidelineswhich
helptoidentifythegenderofthemajorityofnouns,buttherearemany
exceptionsandtherefore,unlessyouareabsolutelysure,itisalwaysbetterto
check genders and to learn a noun9.and19.13)itstogetherdefinite.
9.1 How to identify masculine nouns according to
(a) nouns referring to the male sex:
le prefathler,garon boy,postmanlefacteur
9
but la victimevictim,lasentinellesentry,lapersonneperson,larecrue
recruit all of which can refer9.)3. to men or women
(b) male animals:

le chiendoglne,donkey,leveaucalf

24

STRUCTURES

(c) days, months, seasons, points of the compass,

jeudiThursday,octobreOctober,automneautumn,lesudsouth,
lorientthe East(ern world)
(d)metalanguages,treesandshrubs,weights,measures,currencies,letters,
numbers:
lorgold,lefranaisFrench,lecerisiercherry-letree,kilokilo,le
millimtremillimetre,leuro,euro,leb,le 10
but la vignevine,latonneton,lamoitihalf,lalivrepound sterling/po in weight
(e) other parts of speech used as nouns:
le noirblack,lepour et leproscontreandlecons,savoirknow-fairehow,le djeunerlunch,lepourboiretip

9.2

How to identify masculine nouns according to e

(1) most nouns ending in a consonant:

lebecbeak,lemotword,lecanardduck,lebrasarm,ltang
pond,lefoinhay,leneznose,lechoixchoiclebillet,ticket,le
procstrial,lecoupblow,lechangementchange,lereporter
reporter
but lafaimhunger,laboissondrink,lalargeurwidth,lamerseasee.
also9..3
(b) most nouns -endingage,-au,in -, -de, -ge, -me, -eu
lecouragecouraglebureau,officlecomit,committee,le
remderemedy,lecollgecollegleproblme,problem,feu
fire,leparti(political)party,ledetaildetail,lesocialisme
socialism,lehibouowl
but laplagebeach,lacagecage,lapagepagelimage,picture,larage
anger,lapeauskinleau,water,lacrmecream,laclkey,lafourmi ant

9.3

How to identify feminine nouns according to m

(1) nouns referring to the feminine sex:

THE NOUN GROUP 25

la mremother,lafillegirl/daughter,lagrand-mgrandmother
(b) female animals:
la chvregoat,lalionnelioness,lavachecow,la jumentmare
9
(c) names of festivals:
laPentecteWhitsun,laToussaintAllSaintsDay,la Nol
Christmas,Pques(f pl) Easter
but NolismasculinJoyeuxNol!MerryChristmasis,Pquesin
Pques tombest au mois deEastermars was in March this year
(d) academic subjects at school or university:
lhistoirehistory,lesciencesnaturellesbiology,lesmathmatiques
maths,lalecturereading
but le calcularithmletic,dessindrawing,ledroit law

9.4

How to identify feminine nouns according to e

(1) most nouns -eondingare masculine:

le camionlorry,lecrayonpencil
but nouns end-aison,ngin-ssion, -sion,are normally-tion,-xionfeminine
lacombinaisoncombination,lacommissioncommission,ladcision
decision,lanationnation,larflexionthought
(b) many nouns endinge: in a silent
laparolethe(spoken)word,lammoirememory/dissertation,la
riviretheriver/necklace,tassethecup,lavisitethevisit,la
rentrereturntoschool/universlaminety,expression/mine,la
dfensedefence,lamonnaiechange
but lemanquelackincend,fire,lelycesecondaryschool/lyce,le
musemuseum,lelgumevegetable,silencesilence,fleuve(big)
river,leterritoirethecountry/France,legenrekind,legroupegroup,le
serviceservice,lecontrlecontrol

26

STRUCTURES

Thisgroupisperhapsthemostdifficulttoclassifysincetherearemany
exceptionswhicharemasculindtheyarewordswhichareusedfrequently. Extra care
must, therefore, be taken ewith. all noun
(c) geographical names e:nding in a silent
laFranceFrance,lAngleterreEngland,BretagneBrittany,la Loirethe
Loire,laTamisethe Thames
but leMexiqueMexico,leCambodgeCambodia,leRhnetheRhone,le
Danubethe Danube
Those which do enotareendusuallyin masculine:
leCanadaCanada,leDanemarkDenmark,leJaponJapan,le
HainautHainaut,leVarVar
Townsareoftenmasculine:levieuxParis,buthepreferredformisla villede
BruxellesBrussels, for example.
9
9.5 Guidelines on gender and forms
Some nouns which can refer to either sex are masc
unangeangel,unauteurauthor,leprofesseurteacher,letmoin
witness,lemdecindoctor
but sometimesunefemme mdecinawoman doctor,unandcrivainusually writer
unebut crivalsoandine,laprofthe (female) teacher
9.5.Some1nounshavefeminineformand,therefore,femininegenderfor
referring to the female counterpart:
un acteur/une actunriceor,poux/une pouse
husband/wife,unFranais/une Franaise
Frenchman/Frenchwoman,uncolier/une colire
schoolboy/schoolgirl
9.5.2 Note the formation of feminine nouns from ma
-en -enne un
-an -anne un
-on -onne le
-eur -euse le
-teur -tricele
-ier -ire le

Italien/ue
paysan/uneanne
patron/laonne
vendeur/laeuse
lecteur/larice
ptissier/lare

an Italian
a small farmer
manager, boss
shop assistant
language assistant
ptissipastry-cook

THE NOUN GROUP 27

9.5Some.3nounsadd-ssetothemasculinenountoformthefemininecounterpart:
un hte/unehtessehost/hostess,lematre/lamatressemaster/
mistress
9.5.4 Some nouns have a different form for the opp
le
fils, la fille
son,
daughter
lhomme,
la
femme
man, woman
le
monsieur, la dame
gentleman, lady
loncle,
la
tante
uncle, aunt
le speaker, la speakerineannouncer/broadcaster le compagnon, la
compagnecompanion
9.5.5 Some nouns may have either gender, whichever
un/une enfantchild,un/une propritaiun/uneowner, lvepupil
9.5.6 There are a few nouns which may be masculine are usually given masculine
gender:
un/une aprsan-midiafternoon
9.6 Change of gender and a change of meaning
Somenounsmaybeeithermasculineorfeminine,buthemeaningchanges
according to the gender:
9
le livre
the
le mode
the
le tour
the
le critique the
le poste
the
le physique physique

book
la livre
the pound
method la mode
fashion
turn
la tour
the tower
critic la critique criticism
radio/joblaposte
the post office
la physique physics

9.7 Gens
Special care should be takengenswithpeoplthe,pluralwhichnounmay
accompanied by ormasculinefeminine adjectives:
(a) when adjectivesfollowgenthey are masculine:
lesgens bons et courageux good, courageous people
(b) when adjectivprecedegensthey are feminine:

28

STRUCTURES

toutes ces gensbonnes

all these good people

(c) if adjeprecedetivesandfollowgensthey are feminine and mascu

les vieillesgenspeu intressants

old, boring people

9.8 Gender of compound nouns

(a)Ifoneelementisequivalenttoanadjective,thecompoundountakesthe
genderofthemainnoun:lechef-duvreworkofart,lamain -duvre
workforce,letimbre-postepostage stamp.
(b)Ifoneelementisanadjectiveoranadverb,thecompoundountakesthe
genderofthenoun:labellefille-daughter-(butin-notelawle rouge-gorge
robin),lenonpaiement- non-payment,lanonagression- non-aggression.
(c) If one element is a preposition, the compound len-tteheading.
(d)Ifthefirstelementisverbal,thecompoundnounismasculine:le parapluie
umbrella,letire-bouchoncorkscrew.
9.9 Plural forms of nouns and adjectives
The plural forms in most cases simply add s to th Thefinalsisrarelyheard
unlessiaisonrequired,butitmust beusedin
writing:destrousholes,deshommesmen,lesennemisenemies,bons/
bonnesgood,fous/follesmadSpecial.attentionshouldbegiventothe following groups:
(a)
smallgroupofnounsending-ouaddx:bijouxjewels,cailloux
pebbles,chouxcabbages,genouxknees,hibouxowls,joujouxtoys,
pouxlice.
(b)nounsandadjectivesending-au,-eu,-eauaddx:destuyauxpipes/
tips,descheveuxhair,nouveauxnew.
(Butpneusnotyres,bleusblue/
bruises.)
9
(3) if nouns and adjecs,x,tivesherez endis noin changesourisinthe p
mouse/mice,prixprice(s),neznose(s),grisgrey,heureuxhappy.
(4) the majority of nouns and-alchangeadjectives-aux:to ending i
cheval/chevauxhorse(s),moral/morauxmoralgal/lg,auxlegal,
international/interauxinternational
but there are a few exceptions to this important r
bal/balsball(s),festival/festivalsfestival(s),naval/navalsnaval,
fatal/fatfafinal/finalstal,orfinauxfinal

Theonly way to be sure is to check in a dictionary.

THE NOUN GROUP 29

(e) nouns end-ailaddngs:in

chandail(s)sweater(s)
but a few ch-aux:nge to
travail/travauxwork, roadwovitrail/vitrks,stainedux-glass windo s
and adjectives-eilenads:ingd in
pareil(s)alike, similar
(f) notelil/leseye(s),yeuxle ciel/lesandky,cieskies,lcieuxskies
firmament, climate, paradise.
(g) some nouns are used only in the singular:
llectricitelectricitMoyen, theAge Middle Ages
and some nouns are used only in the plural:
lesmurscustoms,behaviour,lesenvironsoutskirts,vicinity,les
fraisexpensles,vivresfoodstuffs,lesalentosursrounding areas
(h) family names do not normally change:
Les Dupont naiment pasThlesDuponts dont like the
Rgnier.

Rgnier family.

Names important in history or art can be used in t

Jai plusieurs MonetsIhave. several paintings by Monet
(i) and some special cases:
monsieur/messieurs Sir, Mr/Gentlemen madame/mesdames Madam, Mrs/Ladies
mademoiselle/mesdemoisellesMiss, Ms/Misses, Young Ladies
bonhomme/bonshommes fellow/fellows

9.10
(1)

The plural of compound nouns

If the noun is written as a single word, the rules above:

30

STRUCTURES

lesportefeuilleswallets,lesportemanteauxcoatpegs/coatstands,les
passeportspassports
(b) Some guidelines for compound nouns formed with
noun+noun s(both+):leschefsadministrative-lieux centres
noun+adjectives):les(both+coffressafes-forts
adjective+nouns):les(both+rouges-robinsgorges
adjective+adjectives):les sourds(both+-deafmuets-mutes
noun+preposition+(mainnoun+s):leschefs-duvreworksof
art
verb+noun s(noun+):lesbouche-standtrousbut-inssee9.10e()
verb+verb (noleschange):laissezpasses-passer verb+adverb
(noleschange):passe-partoutmaster keys adverb+noun s):
(noun+leshaut-parloudspeakers

NOTE 1 Onlynounsandadjectivusetodsformcompoundounscanbe made

plural.

NOTE 2Where both nouns are of equal value, both becom but if the second noun is
equivalentfirstto nouna prepositiononly
is made plural:lestimbresstamps-postede poste)(=.

(c)somecompoundounsarevariable:.gles.,aprs-midi/lesaprs-midis
afternoons,lesgrand-mres/les grandsgrandmoth-mrers.
(d)somehaveans eveninthesingular:e.le.,porte-cls,lesporte-cls
keyring(s),lepare-chocs, lesbumppare-r(s)chocs.
(e) for some there is no changelesabatin-thelightshjourplurades,l:. lesparebrisewindscreens,lespour et lesthecontrepros and cons.
9.11 Plural forms of imported words
(a)generallyimportedwordsformtheirpluralbyaddings:lesrfrendums,
lesmeetings, les biftecks, les .panoramas, les mdias
(b) some do not leschange:veto,e.lesg. post.-scriptum
(c)somekeepthepluralformoftheirlanguageoforigin:e.les.portsmen,
lesgraffiti.
(d)somewordsofLatinoriginhavebothFrenchandLatinplurals:e.gles.
maximums/maxima, les minimums/minima.
(e)andtheEnglishwordbabybecomesbabiesorbabys,whiskybecomes
whiskiesorwhiskys, sandwichbecomesandwichesorsandwichs
10
9.12Plural forms and a change of meaning

Certainnounsmayhavechangeofmeaningthepluralform:leslettres letters, arts

subjects,lesaffairesbusiness,literature,affairs

THE NOUN GROUP 31

9.13 Singular nouns in French with a plural Engli Un

pantalontrousers,unmaillotswimmingtrunks,collanttights/
pantyhose,unpyjamapyjamasand,conversely,somesingularEnglish
nounshavepluralFrenchequivalent:funerallesfunrailles,darknesles
tnbres,the TrealesFinances,uryinformationlesinformations
10
Adjectives
Adjectivesnormallyfollowthenouniftheyexpressadistinguishingfeatureof
thepersornthingreferredto,althoughsomeverycommonadjectivprecedes
thenounBut,.forstylisticreasonsorforemphasis,theymaybelocatedin
placethatisdifferentfromheirnormaloneAdjectives.mustagreewiththeir noun in
gender and number.
10.1 Adjectives whichfollowthenormallynoun

(1) adjectives of nationality, religion, politics:

La langue espagnole nest pas difficile.
Spanish isnt difficult.
Ils se sont maris lglise protestante.
They got married in the Protestant church.
Elle a la carte du parti socialiste.
Shes a card-carrying member of the Socialist P
(b) adjectives expressing a physical characteristic
Cest un enfant trs maigre.
He/She is a very thin child.
Cest une maison blanche.
Its a white house.
(c) participles used as adjectives:
un ouvrier fatigu
une histoire connue
leau courante

a tired
worker
a well-known story
running
water

(d) adjectives qualified by-meant:adverb ending in

un homme extrmement laidan extremely ugly man
un enfant incroyablemstupidentan unbelievably stupid chi
10

32

STRUCTURES

10.Some2 adjectives are usuallybeforethe nounplaced

(a)beauhandsome,bongood,brefshort,dernierlast,gentilnice,
grandgreat,grosbig,hauthigh,jeuneyoung,jolipretty,longlong,
mauvaisbad,meilleurbetter,moindrelesser,nombreuxmany,nouveau
new,petitlittlpremier,first,vastehuge,vieuxold,vraireal,vilain ugly
une belle femme
de gros
pieds
un long
voyage
la premire page

a lovely woman
big feet
a long journey
the first page

(b) some of these, in certain contexts, follow the

la mare
dun ton

haute
bref

high tide
curtly

and with days of the week, seasons, parts of the y

lt prochain
la semaine

dernire

otherwise,

they precede the noun:

next summer
last week

le prochain arrt
the next stop
la premire/derniresemainedesthe first/last week of the vacances
10.3 Some adjectives change their meaning accordin
ancien: une maisonancienne/uneancienne
maison
a (very) old house/a former house
cher:

un livrecher/meschersamis

an expensive book/my dear friends

dernier: lundernier/ladernirepage
last Monday/the last (of a series) page
nouveau:

un motnouveau/unenouvellevoiture

a new (original) word/a new (could be

second-hand) car
pauvre: une fillepauvr/unepauvre fille

a poor (not rich) girl/a poor girl (pity her)

propre: lesmainspropres/tespropresparoles

THE NOUN GROUP 33

clean hands/your own words

seul: une femmeseule/lesulcandidat a lonely woman/the only candidate

10.4 When there is more thanet one adjective add

Ifmorethanoneadjectivefollowsthenoun,andeachreferstoadistiandct
equalcharacteristic,theyarelinkedbyet.Butiftheyforma unitofmeaning with
thenounthereisnoneedforet.Usually,thelongestadjectiveisplaced last:
10
une vue triste et sans intrtasad, boring view
but
la scne politique anglaisetheBritish political scene le parti dmocrate
amricaintheAmerican democratic party
NotethedifferentorderinFrenchandEnglishwhena numberisusedwithan
adjective preceding a noun:
Les trois premiers tudiants recevront les bourse
The first three students will receive the grant
10.5 Feminine forms of adjectives
For demonstrative5),pos(se ssive7), ind(se finite11), interrogativ(see (see 16),
numeral( 17),verbal(see42.,143.)1andexclamatory(see3.d1) adjectivessee the
section references in brackets.
10.5.1 There are usually some exceptions to the f so it is always advisable to
check in a dictionary
(a) feminine adjectives are mostlyetotheformedmasculinebyaddifo
fort/fortesrong,cossais/cossaiseScottish,direct/directdirect,
noir/noireblack
Ifthemasculineformendsinane,thereisnoneedforchangeinthefeminine form:
jeune(m and f) aimableyoung,(m and f) pleasant
Butifthemasculineformendsin ane must beaddedtomaketheadjective feminine:

34

STRUCTURES

nomin/nomine nominated,shortlisted,nerv/nerveexcited, irritated

(b)ifthemasculineadjectiveendsin-as,-el--eil,-en,-et,-ondoublethelast
consonant ande: add
bas/basselow,traditionnel/traditionnelletraditional,pareil/pareille
like,italien/italienneItalicadet/cadetn,teyounger(brother/sister) bon/bonne
good

NOTE Exceptions-et>-te:complet/compltefull,complete,inquiet/
inquite worried,concret/conconcretete

(c) some feminine adjectives require specific chan

-er>-re
premier/preemi
-f>-ve
attentif/attentive
-eux>-euse
heureux/heureuse
-teur>-trice consolateur/consolatrice
-eur>-euse
menteur/menteuse

first
attentive
happy
comforting
deceitful

10
Notethatsmallgroupofcomparativeadjctivesending-eurformthe feminine
bye:adding
meilleur(e)better,supri(e)ursuperior,upper,infrieur(e)inferior,
lower,extrieur(e)exterior,external,intrieur(e)interior,antrieur
(e) prior,previous,postrieur(e)later,subsequent,ultrieur(e)
further,majeur(e) major,mineur(e) minor
(d) adjectives-at,endingadd-ot toinform the dlicatfeminine:(e)delicate.
Notetheexceptions:sot/sottestupid,vieillot/vieillottequainboulot/,
boulottetubby,plot/plotterather pale.
(e)adjectivesending-in,-ain,-ein,-unadde (theydonot doublethelast
consonant):voisin/voiseneighbouring,hautain/hautehainughty,plein/
pleinfull,commun/communecommon
(6) adjectives-gu>ending-gu: inaigu/aigusharp. 79(see.)6 also
(7) some special forms:
favourite,frais/frachefresh,cool,f
blanc/blanchewhite,doux/doucesoft,gentl ranc/franchefrank,open,long/
e,favori/favorite
longue

long,public/publiquepublisec/sche,

dry

THE NOUN GROUP 35

10.5There.2arefiveadjectiveswhichhavetwomasculinesingularformsthe
secondisusedbeforeamasculinesingularnounbeginningwithavowelora
muteh.Itisfromthesecondformthatthefeminineadjectiveisformedby doubling the
last consonante: and adding
unbeau garon
unbelarbre
unebelledame
a handsome boy
a fine tree
a beautiful lady
un hommefou
unfolespoir
unefolleamie
a crazy man
a silly hope a foolish friend
un coussinmou
unmol abandon
unemolle rsistance
a soft cushion
listlessness feeble resistance
unnouveau directeurunnouvel habit
unenouvellerobe
a new manager
a new coat
a new
unvieuxsoulier
an old shoe

unvieilhomme
an old man

unevieillefemme
an old woman

The two masculine singularone pluralforms beaux,haveform:onlyfous, mous,

nouveaux, .vieux
10.Grand,6 demi, nu
The adjectivesgrand, demi,do nuot always follow the above
(a)grandoesnotaddane infemininecompounouns:dgrand-mre grandmother,routemain road/highway,grand-ruemain street,
10 grand-placemainsquare,grand-faimveryhungry,grand-soifvery
thirsty,negrand-chosenot very much.
Jai grand-faim.
Im very hungry.
Cest o la grand-place?Where is the main square? Il na pas dit grandchoseHedidnt. say much.
Thepluralformsofthefirstthreeinthelistcanbewrittenwithorwithoutans: grand(s)mres, grand(s)-routes,. grand(s)-rues
(b)Theadjectivesgrand,large,frais,premier,dernierfollowedbya past
participle agree with their noun:
une
les

fentregrandouverte
fleursfrachescueillies

a wide open
freshly cut

window
flowers

Notethatinthecaseofmortdead,nouveaunew,courtshort,hauthigh
followedbya pastparticiplethereisno agreement,whateverthegenderand
number of the noun:

36

STRUCTURES

une enfantmort-ne

a still-born child

leurs nouveaufils-ns their new-born sons

(c)demihalf, preceding and linked to a noun by a h
itsnoun,butwhenitfollowsanounandislinkedtoitbyet,itagreesingender only:
unedemi-heure
troisdemi-kilos
une heuredmiet
dix
litresdemi et

a half hour
three half kilos
an hour
and a half/1.30
ten and
a half litres

(d)nubare,precediandglinkedtoa nounbya hyphen,doesnotagreewith

its noun, but when it follows a noun it agrees wit
nu -tte

bareheaded

nu -pieds

Elles sonue,t piedsttenus.

10.7
(1)

barefoot

They are bareheaded, barefoot

Agreement of adjectives of colour

adjectives of colour normally agree in gender

une fleurblanche

a white flower

des fleursblanches

white flowers

(b) compound adjectives do not agree with their no

une
des

jupebleu fonc
jupesbleufonc

a dark blue skirt

dark blue skirts

(c) if the adjective of colour is also a noun, the

une
des

robecitron
robescitron

a lemon dress
lemon dresses

Notethexceptions:desnuagesroses pinkcloudsandalsomauve,fauve,
carlate:
10
fleursmauves et blanches

mauve and white flowers

(d) if two or more colours are involved, the adject noun:

THE NOUN GROUP 37

une
des

chemiseblanc(he)etvert(e)
chemisesblanc(hes)etvert(es)

a white and green shirt

white and green shirts

10.8 Adjectives used as adverbs

Sometimesadjectivesmaybeusedasadverbsandinsuchcasesthereisno
agreement:
Il parlehaut. He is speaking loudly.
Elle verraclairdsormais. She will see clearly from now On travailleduren ce
momentWe. are working hard just now.
Other adjectives which do not agree when bon/they are
mauvaisgood/bad,fortloud,justeexactlydroitright,straight ahead.
10.9 Plural adjectives and agreement
Forpluralformsofadjectivsee9s..9Notethefollowingrulesforplural agreement:
(a)anadjectivequalifyingtwoormorenounsisinthepluralafterthelast noun. If one of
the nouns is masculine the adjecti
Il a un oncle etgnreuxune. tanteHehas a generous uncle and une revue et
unmensuelsjournal monthly magazine and newsp
(b)whencompoundajectivareusedwithapluralnoun,bothadjectivares plural:
une pomme aigre-douce/des pommes aigres-douces a bittersweet
apple/bittersweet apples
10.10 Comparison of(see adjectives49.)9
(a)tocompareople,orthings,Englishadds-ertotheadjective:bigger
than,prettierthanWith.longeradjectivesEnglishusesmore/lessthan:
moredifficultthanInFren.comparativesh,areusuallyformedbyusingplus quemore
than,moinsquelessthan,aussiqueasas,dautant plusqueallthemore
as/becanduseinanegativecomparisonnepas
aussior( si)que not asas:
Elleestplusgrandeque vous.
She is bigger than you.
Ellesnesontpas aussi(orsi) petitesqueleur mre.
They are not as small as their mother.
10
Ce vindautantest plusrecherchquilest rare.
This wine is all the more sought after because

38

STRUCTURES

NOTE In comparisonsnemay be addedquewhenisfollowed by a verb.

Il estmoins stupidequonne (le) pensait.

He is less stupid than (not as stupid as) we th
(b) the adverbsplus,moinsmay be qualifiedbeaucoup,by un peu:
Elle unestpeu plusintelligentequeson frre.
She is a little more intelligent than her broth
Ce livre-beaucoupciestmoins cherque celui-l.
This book is much cheaper than that one.
(c)thexpressionsdeplusenplus/demoinsenmoinsincreasingly/lessand less may
modify an adjective,devenir: often with
Les ngociations sontdeplusdevenuespluscompliques.
The negotiations have become more and more comp
(d)comme like is used in similes:
as white as
strong as an
blanc(he)comme neige lissecomme de la snow as
ox
soie fortcomme un buf
smooth as
silk as
v
d
hecommonestWith.lon
e
b
geradjectivesEnglish
,
y
usesmost/least:them
NOTE
w

ost/leastspectaculaInF
Smallchanges
h
t
rench,.thestructureisa
ineachphrase
i
h
s follows:

c
e
ustheofanartic
h

leinsomeThey
le (la,+plus/moinsles)
i
:
. have to be
+adjective (+noun)de (+
s
l
learned
o
individually.
or
p
n
r
g
10.11 Superlative forms
le (la,+noun+les) (la, les)
e
e
of adjectives
+adjectiveplus/moinsde)
c
s
Toformthesuperlativ
(+
e
t
einEnglishSa maisonla estplus
d
,
estisaddedtotheadjecti
belle devillela.
e
t

His house is the most

beautiful (one) in the
to
Elle a mis sonle

c
h
a
p

e
a
u
p

luschic.
She put on her
smartest hat.

THE NOUN GROUP 39

Cest desunplus intressantsbtimentsdelaville mdivale.

Its one of the most interesting buildings in t

NOTE Thepossessiveadjctive(mon,ma,mes)canreplacethedefinite article,de

and(deu, la, de isl,usdeds)where English uses in, o

10
10.12 Comparative and superlativebon,mauvais,formspetit of
(a)Thecomparativeandsuperlativeformsofbonaremeilleur(e)(s)better andle,
lesla,(ormon, ma,)mesmeilleur(e)(s)best.
Ses rsultatsmeilleurssontqueles miens.
Her/His results are better than mine.
Elles nossontmeilleuresamies.
They are our best friends.
Cestla meilleurequalitquonpuisse acheter.
Its the best you can buy.
(b)mauvaishastwodifferentcomparativeandsuperlativeformswith different
meanings:

plus
mauvais(e)(s)worsele,andla,(ormon,les
ma,)mesplus
mauvais (e)(s)worst (in terms of quality)
2
pire(s)worsele,andla,(ormon,les ma,)mespire(s)worst (in a mor sense)
Le vintaitplus mauvais quele repas.
The wine was worse than the meal.
Cestle plus mauvaisrestaurantduquartier.
Its the worst restaurant in the area.
Un escrocdela pireespce!
The worst kind of cheat!
a seraton pireennemi.
Hell be your worst enemy.
(c)petithastwodifferentcomparativeandsuperlativeformswithdifferent
meanings:

plus petit(e)(s)smallerle, andla,(ormon,les ma,)mesplus petit(e)(s

smallest (in terms of size)
2
moindre(s)lesmallers,andle,la,les(ormon,ma,mes) moindre(s)

least, smallest (in a moral sense)

40

STRUCTURES

Elles plussontpetitesque les autres.

They are smaller than the others.
Il estleplus petit enfantsdes.
He is the smallest of the children.
Je le considreun moindrecommemal.
I consider it to be a lesser evil.
Elle nale pasmoindredoute.
She hasnt the least doubt about it.
and note:
Dernier point soulignerdesmoindres.et non
Last but not least.
11
11
Indefinite adjectives, pronouns and adver
Thisectionincludesalargroupeofwordsandphraseswhichfunctionas
adjectives,orpronouns,orbothSome.alsofunctionasadverbsFor.negative
adjectives and pronouns47.,47..13 see
11.Tout1
(a)adjective:tou,ous(ms/pl);toute,toutes(fs/pl)all,every,whole,any
followed by:

1
2
3
4

an article,un
a possessivemon,adjectiveton,son
a demonstrativece adjective
the adjecautreive

Elle a touteposunesrie de questions.

She asked a whole series of questions.
Jai toutfaitmonpossible.
Ive done all I could.
Tu dois ramatousscelivres.
You must pick up all these books.
Toute autresolution me parat impossible.
Any other solution seems impossible to me.
Tout, toutecan precede the noun directly:

Toute femme est belle mon avis.

Every woman is beautiful in my opinion.

THE NOUN GROUP 41

In some expressions the article is omitted:

toutprix

at any price

touteheure
detouscts

at any time
on (from) all sides

(b) prontous,n: toutes, tout le monde, tout ce qui/qu

all (of you), everyone, everything, both (of you)
Tous sont arrivs temps.
They all arrived on/in time.
Vous pouvez lestoutesmanger.
You can eat all of them.
Tout le mondeconnat ses dfauts.
Everyone is aware of his/her faults.
Je tai raconttoutcequeje sais.
Ive told you all I know.
The prontoutn(ms only) often precedes past participle
Nous
We
11
On
We

vous toutavonsracont.
have told you everything.
veuttoutprparer avant son arrive.
want everything ready before he/she arrives.

Toutmay also be the subject of the verb:

Tout est prt.
Everything is ready.
(c)ToutfollowedbyautremaybeeitheranadjectiveoranadverbWhen.tout autre= any
other,toutisan adjective and agrees with the
Toute autre ractionmaurait tonn(e).
Any other reaction (other than this) would have
Whentoutautre=quitedifferent,toutisanadverbandmodifiestheadjective autre. It
is normally invariable.
Elle a eutoutuneautreraction.
She had quite a different reaction.

42

STRUCTURES

(d)Theadverbtoutcompletely,quiteadopthesfemininegenderandnumber
whenitprecedesafeminineadjectivebeginningwithaconsonantoraspirate h
(see80.)3.
Cest une voituretoutextraordinaire.
Its quite an extraordinary car.
Elle est toutearrivseule.
She arrived by herself.
Leurs chaussurestoutestaientmouilles.
Their shoes were soaking wet.
Elles toutsontheureuses dentendre vos nouvelles.
They are quite delighted to hear your news.
Elle touteesthonteuse.
Shes completely ashamed.
11.Diffrent(e)s,2 divers(eseveral/various,) different
Whentheseadjectivesprecedeanountheymeanseverariousl,andwhen
theyfollow a noun they mean different. They do not r
Elles achtentdiffrenteschoses.
They are buying several things.
Il diversalivres ce sujet.
He has various books on the subject.
On a got desdiffrentsvins.
We tried different wines.
Elles ont des opinionsdiversessontrsujet.
They have very different opinions about him.
11.Plusieurs3 (pl invariable) several, a number of, som Plusieursdoes not require
an articleautres.It. may be foll
11
(a) adjective
Plusieurstudiantes manifestaient devant lambassade
Several students were demonstrating in front of
Il ayplusieurs autresraisons la crise.
There are several other reasons for the (econom
(b) pronoun
Plusieursdcidrent de partir.
A number of them decided to leave.

Jen vuaiplusieurs.

THE NOUN GROUP 43

I saw several (of them).

11.Chaque;4 chacun(e)
(a) adjechaquetive:(invariable) each, every
Chaque enfant portait un chapeau.
Each child was wearing a hat.
A chaque fentre il y avait des rideaux.
At every window there were curtains.
(b) pronoun:chacun(e)each (one), every (one)
Il a rponduchacnedes femmes.
He answered each of the women.
Chacun te lexpliquera.
Each one will explain it to you.
11.Certain(e)(s)5certain, some, definite, sure
(a) adjective
Whencertainprecedes the noun it means certain, a certain follows the noun it means
Certain(e)definite,may surebepreceded.un(e). by
Cest une ddameuncrtainge.
Shes a lady of advanced years.
Certainstudiants nont pas remis leurs mmoires.
Some students have not submitted their disserta
Elles ont sur les jeunes certainelves. une influence
They have a definite influence on young pupils.
(b) pronoun
certains, certainescertain, some (people)
Certainssont toujours prts la croire.
Some people are always ready to believe her.
Certainesdes amies de votre mre sont capables de l
Some of your mothers friends are capable of sa
11
11.Autre(s)6 other, new, another, different
(a) adjective

44

STRUCTURES

Elle a donn le cadeauautretante.son

She gave the present to her other aunt.
Nous avonsdautresvufilms.
We have seen (some) other films.
Elle a troautrevamiun.
She has found a new/another friend.
Son opinion autreest. tout
His/her opinion is quite different.
(b) pronoun
Thepronounautre(someone)else,othersmay
indefinite or definiteun(e), d,articles.l,les

be

precededbythe

Une autreaurait accept.

Someone else would have accepted.
Elle nendautrespas.
She hasnt any others/more.
O sontles autres?
Where are the others?
(c)autre chosesomething else
Il naime pas ce cadeauautrechose..Il veut
He doesnt like this present. He wants somethin
(d)dautruiof others, other people, someone elseuse French.
Sans laidedautruion naurait pas su le faire.
Without someone elses help we could not have d
Neprenez jamais dautruiles.biens
Never take other peoples property.
11.lun(e)7 lautre,lesun(e)s lesautrestheonetheother,some(the)
others, both, each other
Thesepronounsareusedtolink,contrastorcompareopleorthingsIfa.
prepositionisrequiredtolink,contrastorcompare,itisinsertbeforedthe second
pronoun.
Je distinguais mallunesde jumelleslautre.
I had difficulty telling one twin from the othe
Ils parlaient lesdoucementunsauxautres.
They were speaking quietly to each other.

Ils se tenaientlesunsserrscontreles autres.

THE NOUN GROUP 45

They were standing close together.

Les unsbuvaient,lesautresfumaient.
Some were drinking, others were smoking.
11
Les unsparlent franaislesmieuxautres. que
Some (of them) speak French better than (the) o
11.7lun(e).1lautre;lun(e)et/oulautre;ni lun(e)ni lautreeachother;
both/one or the other; neither
Lunlautreexpressesciprocityfrequentlyemphasizingreflexive pronoun.
Ilssaimentlun lautre.
They love each other.
Elle a invit PatrickLun etlautreLaurviendront..
She has invited Patrick and Lawrence. Theyll b
Je les ai invites Lunetouteslautrelesva deuxvenir..
I have invited both of them. One or the other w
On a pos la question Niauxlundeuxnilautrefrresnarpondu..
We asked both brothers. Neither replied.
Each set of pronouns has plural forms:
Ni les un(e)s ni les autresnont voulu commencer.
Neither group wanted to begin.
Je lai commauxniquunset aux autres.
Ive informed both groups.
11.On8
On isa subjectpronousuallyn,acceptedasmasculinesingularcontexts
whereagreementisrequiredOncan.betranslatedbymostoftheEnglish personal
pronouns I, you (s/pl), he, she, we, they as peopleOn.isalways usedwitha
thirdpersonsingularveb;its corresponding possessiveson,a,djecses;itivesmphaticare
pronoun its reflexivese;pronounanditsandisindirect objectvous.pronoun is
On le ferait volontiers.
Wed do it willingly.
On verra.
Well see.
On y va,nous?
Shall we go?
On a des amis autoursoi. de
They have friends round them (for support).

46

STRUCTURES

Ifon clearly refers to a feminine and/or plural noun referring to the noun must agree
with the noun. Th
Alors,onestcontentes,les petites?
Well, are we happy now, girls?
On estdevenus bon copains.
We became good friends.
11
On is also used to form41.the,413.4passive).1 (see
On a refait le toit.
The roof has been repaired.
Theformlonmayoccurinsteadofon,especialfollowingyet,ou,o,siand,
or, where, if. This is probably simply to improve
Ou loncoute,lonse tait.
Either you listen or be quiet.
11.Mme(s)9 (m/fpl)
(a) adjective same, very
Whenmmemeanssameitprecedesthenounandisitselfprecededbya
definite article:
Elle alamismme robe que moi.
Shes wearing the same dress as me.
Jai toujourslesmmescours.
I still have the same classes. Whenmme means
veryfollows theit noun:
Ce sontles paroles mmesdu professeur.
They are the teachers very words.
Whenmmeisjoinedbya hyphentoanemphaticpronounitmeansself(see
14.i):2
Il le luifera-mme.
He will do it himself.
Nous avons trouvnousla-mmesaison.

We found the house ourselves.

THE NOUN GROUP 47

(b) pronoun
le, la, les+mme(s)thesame
Jaime ton chapeau;lemmeoi,. jai
I like your hat; Ive got one the same.
Pour lui un caf;le mmepour. elle
A coffee for him; the same for her.
Ce sont toujourslesmmequi sont les derniers.
Its always the same (ones) who are last.
(c) adverb
Mme (invariableven)usuallyfollowstheverb,butprecedes thepast
participleMme.may be followed by an emphatic pronoun.
On pourrait mmerefuserdy aller.
We could even refuse to go.
11
Il nemmelapas vue.
He did not even see her.
Mme lui ne sen souvient plus.
Even he does not remember it any more.
(d) some expressionsmme: using
quand mme/tout de mmeall the same/nevertheless
de mme
mme pas

similarly
not even (that)

11.10Tel(le)(s)
(a) adjective
Telsuch is usuallyun(e),precededde: unby tel,suchuneatelle.Note th different
word order in French and English.
Une tellerponse est parfaite.
Such a reply is perfect.
On na jamaisdetelsfilmsvu.
Weve never seen such films.
If one wants to use an expression such as such a presents!, one has to say:

48

STRUCTURES

Une sibelle journe!

Des cadeauxtellement coteux!
ThisisbecausetelcannotbeusedtoqualifyanotheradjectiveItisreplaced.by
siortellement.
Tel may also be quefollowedsuch as,by like:
Les problmestels sontquevous nous les avez raconts.
The problems are as you told us.
Une solutiontellequecelle que vous proposez est impossi
A solution such as you suggest is impossible.
(b) pronoun
Teloccurs as a pronoun in a few expressions:
M. untel

Mr So and SoMme unetelle

Mrs So and So

Nimporteletsitelne laiment pas.

It doesnt matter if some people dont like it.
(c) some expressiontel: using
de telle
faon/manirque(s39e/sorte.2).2so
that, in such a
way t
tel jour
on
such and such
a day
en tant que
tel
as
such
en telle
ou
telle circonstanceinsuch and such
a situa
11
11.11Quelque
(a) adjective:quelque(mf/pl)s) some, a few
Nous avonsquelquesdifficults parler allemand.
We have some difficulties speaking German.
Attendsquelquesinstants!
Wait a few minutes!
(b) adverb:quelque(invariable) some, approximately
Il yquelquea trente ans quelle a quitt la France.
She left France some thirty years ago.
Quelque stupides quils soient ils sen tireront.

However stupid they are, theyll manage.

THE NOUN GROUP 49

11.11Quelquun.1(ms)pronounsomeone,somebodyIfquelquun.is qualified by an
adjective, thede,adjectived: is preced
Quelquun est la porte.
Someone is at the door.
Il fautquelquun desrieux.
We need a responsible person.
11.11Quelque.2 cho(mse) pronoun somethingtwowordsalwaysinFrench, one
inEnglishIfquelque.choseisqualifiedbyanadjective,theadjectiveis precedede,byd:
Tu veux boirequelqu chose?
You want something to drink?
Cestquelque chosedincroyable.
Thats something unbelievable.
11.11Quelques.3-un(e(plpronoun)ssome,afewformedofquelques (adjective)
+un(e)s.Quelques-un(e)sagrees in gender with the noun
Quelques-unslisaient leurs journaux.
Some (of them) were reading their papers.
Quelques-unesde ces femmes sont trs belles.
Some of these women are very beautiful.
11.12Qui que, quoi qui/que whoever,whateveralwaysusedwiththe
subjunctive39.2(see).2
Qui que ce soit qui appelle,jene suis pas l.
Whoever calls, Im not in.
Quoi quelle toffre,prends-le.
Whatever she offers you, take it.
Be very careful notquoitoquewhateverconfusequoiquewithalthough.
11
11.13Nimporte+quel; lequel, qui, quoi; combien, comment, o, quand
(a) adjective
nimporte quel(le)(s) any
Elle coutenimporte quellehistoire.
She listens to any (old) story.
Il arriveranimporte quelmoment.

50

STRUCTURES

Hell arrive at any time.

(b) pronoun
nimporte+lequel, laquelle,any onelesquel(le)s
Ilma donntroisbotesde chocolatsTupeux.avoirnimporte
laquelle.
Hehasgivenme threeboxesofchocolatesYoucan.haveanyoneyou
want.
Il y a trop de livres:nimporteprenezlesquels.donc
There are too many books, so take any (of them)
nimporte+quianyone,anybody(nimportequicanbereplacedbyquiconque)
Nimporte quipeut venir.
Anyone can come.
Parlenimporte qui/quiconque.
Speak to anyone.
nimporte+quoianything
Il ditnimporte quoi.
He (just) says anything.
(c) adverb
nimporte+combien,comment,o,quandhowevermuch,somehow,
wherever, whenever
Tu faisnimportea comment.
Youre making a real mess of this.
Nimporte comment,jy arriverai.
Ill manage somehow.
11.14Maint(e)(s)adjective many, many a, several Maint(e)
(s)isusuallyreservedforwrittenFrenchIn.spokenFrenchitis
normally replacedplusdun(e),by plusieurs, de nombreux/no:
Elle y estmaintesallefois./Ellealleyplusestdunefois.
She went there many times.
Pourmaints tudiantslaviestdure./Pourbeaucoup dtudiantsla
vie est dure.

Life is hard for many students.

THE NOUN GROUP 51

12
12
Personal pronouns
12.1 Subject, direct object, indirect object prono

Subject

Direct ObjectIndirect Object

1st person singularjeI

me (m)me
2nd person singulartuyou
te (t)you
3rd person singularilhe, itle (l)him, itlui
elle she, lait (l)her, itlui
1st person pluralnouswe
nous
us
2nd person pluralvousyou
vous
you
3rd person pluralilsthey
les
them
ellesthey
les
them

me (m)to/for
te (t)to/for
to/for
to/for
nous
to/for
vous
to/for
leur
to/for
leur
to/for

me
you
him, it
her, it
us
you
them
them

12.2 Use of the subject pronouns

(a)Tu istheinformal,singularpronousednwhenthepersonaddressedis
well known to the speaker or writer, or is a child
Tu veux venir ou non?
You want to come or not?
Vousisusedbothastheformal,singularpronounusuallywhentheperson
addressedisnotsowellknowntothespeakerorwriterandstheplural pronoun.
Vous voulez venir, Madame?
Do you want to come, (Mrs Smith)?
Jean et Isabelle, o tiez-vous ce matin?
Jean and Isabelle, where were you this morning?
(b)Whentherearetwoormoresubjecaretsmustbetakentoensurethatthe
correctpluralformsofthepronounadverbareused (see22).Ifa firstperson
subjectisinvolved,thenthepluralpronounisousandtheverbagreeswithnous.
If second and third person subjects are combined,vous t and the verb agreesvous.
with
Moi et mon nousfrironse,au cinma.
My brother and I will go to the cinema.

Vous et MadamevousGuiat,alleznous reprsenter la runio

52

STRUCTURES

You and Mme Guiat will represent us at the meet

Vronique vouset toi,viendrezdemain?
Will you and Vronique come tomorrow?
(c)Il(s)andelle(s)refer to masculine and feminine nouns, whether the nouns are
people or things.
Cestunevillemagnifique!Elleattiredenombreuxvisiteurschaque
anne.
Its a wonderful city! It attracts many visitor
12 Il(s),elle(s)arefrequentlyreplacedbythedemonstrativepronounce/cifthe
verbtreis.
Lhomme qui mattendait tous les soirsCtaitmonau coin de pre.
Themanwhowaitedforme everyeveningatthestreetcorner?Itwas my
father.
Qui faisait ce bruitCtaitlaffreux?police.
Who was making that awful noise? It was the pol
(d)Ilisusedastheimpersonal,orneuter,subjectinimpersonalverbphrases, and
witrehandavoir (see46):
ilimporte+infinitivede
ilreste+infinitive
ilest ncessaire+infinitivede
ily a

it is
important to
it
remains to
it
is
necessary to
there
is/are

Ily a des gens qui nont jamais fum.

There are people who have never smoked.
Ilest,iltaitily a,ily avaitareinvariablysingular,whereascest,ctait can become
plural if the subject referred6.a3). to is th
12.3 Position and use of the direct object pronou
(a) The direct object pronouns normally precede t avoir.
Ilme voit.
He/It can see me.
Elleta vu(e) hier au cinma.
She saw you at the cinema yesterday.

Cette lve,laconnaisje.

THE NOUN GROUP 53

I know that pupil.

On lesa entendu(e)s chanter.
We heard them singing.
(b) The pronounsleandlearenever combined withordeunlike the articl le, (au,les
aux, du, (see2)des).
Il sest dcid le faire.
He has decided to do it.
(c)Theimpersonaldirectobjectpronounle/lmayreplace,orreferbackto,an entire idea or
celasentence,.Itis frequentlyor used to finish it is frequently used in comparative
constructions
Il aura bienttlatermindit.. Il
Hell have finished soon. He said so.
Elle nest pas heureuselevois.. Je
She isnt happy. I can tell.
12
A-t-il entendula cela?entenduIl.
Did he hear that? He heard it.
Elle est beaucoup plus intelligentelecroyait. quon ne
She is much more intelligent than we thought.
English does not always require the addition of it somecaseswhereEnglishdoes
includeit,FrenchdoesnotThis.occurswith
verbs suchconsidrer,as trouver:
Elle considre inutile de rpter la phrase.
She considersitpointless to repeat the sentence.
Incertainverbphrasesle/lisactuallypartofthephraseandmust beincluded:
e.gl.emportersurtogethebetterof,lchapperbelletohavenarrow escape.
Ilslemportaient sur leurs ennemis.
They were getting the better of their enemies.
12.4 Use of the indirect object pronouns
These pronouns include to and/or for in their
1 in their construction, the pronoun form used is t
Mais elleluia crit. (crire qn)

But she has written to him.

54

STRUCTURES

Vous alleznouspermettre de partir? (permettre qn)

You will allow us to leave?
SomeFrenchverbscarrythemeaningto/fsomeonre:.gpayer,.chercher. Such
verbs use the indirect object pronoun form.
Je vaistechercher un mouchoir.
Im going to get a handkerchief for you.
On valuipayer un caf.
Were going to buy him a coffee.
12.5 isY an adverbial pronoun which refersnever to a plac person in formal use.
(a) adverb:ythere may replace several prepositions butnot de.
Je vais Parisyvais..)(J
Im going to Paris.
Il va au lyceva.). (Il
He is going to the lyce.
La reine est arrive la y estmairiearrivemidi.midi(Elle.)
The queen arrived at the town hall at noon.
Son manteau est dans larmoireyest..)(Son manteau
His/Her coat is in the wardrobe.
Elle sest tenue prs sdeyestla tenueporte..) (Elle
She stood by the door.
12
(b) pronoun:yit replaces+noun.
On rpondra ta ylettrerpondra.(On.)
Theyll reply to your letter.
Nous pensons ton anniversaireypensons..) (Nous
We are thinking about your birthday.
Il faut rflchir cette ypropositionrflchir.). (Il faut
Well have to give some thought to that proposa
Note thatycan occasionally refer to a person in infor
A-t-elle pens son frre? Oui,ya penselle.a pens l
Hasshethoughtabouther/hisbrother?Yes,shehas(thoughtabout him).
Parlesy.-

Talk to him/her.

THE NOUN GROUP 55

12.6 Enis an adverbial pronoun meaning from there,

(a)adverb:enreferstoa placeorlocationandalwaysreplacesphrase
introducedde. by
Nous nallons pas en revenonsParis.Nous.(revenir de)
Were not going to Paris. Were just back from
Elles sortent de enlcolesortent..Elles(sortir de)
They are (just) coming out of school. They are
(b) pronoun:enreplaces the depreposition(usuallypart of a verb co noun.
Quel est son nom? mHlas,ensouvijensne(seplus.ouvenir de)
What is his name? Im sorry, I cant remember (
Tu prends un pot? enMerci,aipasjeenvie. (avoir envie d
Would you like a drink? No thanks, I dont want
Connat-ceelleroman?Oui,elleen a luplusieurschapitres(lire.
plusieurs chapitres de)
Does she know the novel? Yes, she has read seve
En may refer to a quantityororpeoplenumber. Theof actualthings quan number may
be specified.
A-t-elle un frre?enaunOui,. elle
Does she have a brother? Yes, she does/she has
Prends encore du vinj.enNon,aieuassezmerci,.
Have some more wine. No thanks, Ive had enough
De quelle amie Jparlesenconnais-troisu?.
Which friend were you talking about? I know thr
Je ne veux pas Jdenairgenttrop..
I dont want any money. I have too much (of it)
14
(c)En mayreplace,orbesubstitutedfor,referto,anentirestatementor idea.
Avez-vous besoin de sommeil?nenaiplusNon,besoinje.
Do you need some sleep? No, I dont any more.
Tu ne maimesJenplsuiss? boulevers!
You dont love me any more? Im terribly upset!
(d)En also occurs in certainenvouloirexpressions:toqnbear.ga. grudg against
someone,senprendre toqn take it out on someone.

56

STRUCTURES

Je luienveux.
I have a grudge against him/her.
13
Reflexive pronouns
13.Reflexive1pronounsoccurwithverbsmakingthemreflexiveverbsand always
agree in person and number with the subject

1st person
2nd person
3rd
person

Singular

Plural

jeme
tute
il/ellese

nousnous
vousvous (also polite singular)
ils/ellesse

Elles lavese.laver)(
She is getting washed.
Nous allonsnouslever bientt(selever).
Were going to get up soon.
Aprsttre repos(e) un peu, viense mangerreposer)avec no
After youve had a rest come and eat with us.

NOTE These verbs are not normally reflexive in Englis

14
Emphatic pronouns; position and order of pro
14.1The emphatic (stressed) pronouns have separate masculine and feminine
genders, in both singular a
personsingularformsoiwhichcorrespondstotheindefinitepronounschacun,
on,personne, tout (seele11monde.b,411.,478.,118.b1).

1st person
2nd person
3rd
person

Singular

Plural

moi
toi, vous
lui/elleandsoi

nous
vous
eux/elles

14
14.Uses2 of the emphatic pronouns

The emphatic pronouns are used in a variety of co

(a)afterprepositionorprepositionalphrasuche,asde,aulieude,pour, chez:

THE NOUN GROUP 57

Elle est chezarrivemoi.

She arrived at my house.
On veut paravantirlui.
We want to leave before him.
Vous pourrez sansle euxfaire.
You can do it without them.
(b) after the:preposition
Indirect objectme,pronounste,lui, nous,arevous,used leurwith verbs asdonner,
obir, promettreandmean to me, to you, to him/he
Elleluiapermis de sortir.
She allowed him/her to go out.
On nous adonn le livre.
They gave the book to us.
Ifme,te,nous,vousactingasdirectobjectsarepresentthesepronounscannot cooccurwiththeindirectobjectpronounsToexpress.tome,toyou,tohim/ her in
such moi,cases toi, arelui,used.elle
Tume prsenteraselle?
You will introduce me to her?
Ilnous a recommand(e)seux.
He recommended us to them.
Certainverbssuchasvenir,courir,involvingactualmovementtowards someone,
are followed+emphaticby pronoun.
Elleest venue nous.
She came to us.
Les enfasontsalls .lui
The children went to him.
A fewfairlycommonverbsarealsofollowedby+emphaticpronounThese. verbs do not
involve any movempenserttowards,avoirpersrecourn:
tresintresser, :
Ilpense elle.
He is thinking about her.
Ilsont souventrecours nous.
They often consult us.
Cest toi.
Its yours.
Ilssintressent nous.

58

STRUCTURES

They are interested in us.

14
(c) aftercestandce sont:
Cestmoi.
Cesttoi, vous.
Ce ne seralui/ellepas.
Ce seranous.
Cestvous.

Its me.
Its
you
It wont
Itll be
Its
you

(informal, formal).
be him/her.
us.
(pl).

but for the third person plural:

Ce sonteux/elles.

Its them.

(d) to emphasize the subject:

Lui, ilnen sait rien.
He knows nothing about it.
Moi, jirai sans toi.
Ill go without you.
Aussi,seul(e)(s)too,alone,or cardinalumber,may be includedfor
additionalemphasis,andautresmaybeaddedtonous,vousforadditional emphasis.
Lui aussipourra le faire.
He will be able to do it as well.
Cest pour nousla deuxvie,.
Well be together, the two of us, for always.
Nous en sommes nousravi(e)s,autres.
As forwe us,are delighted with/about it.
(e) in expressions without verbs:
Qui la Nousfait?.Pas elle.
Who did it? Us./We did. Not her.
Tu ne veux pasMoiy nonaller?plus.
You dont want to go (there)? Neither do I.
(f) in comparative phrases:
Elle est plus intressantequelui.

She is more interesting than he is/him.

THE NOUN GROUP 59

Il ammela voitureque moi.

He has the same car as me/I have.
(g) in the negativenininephrase:
Ni toi ni nous navons acceptde rpondre la question.
Neither you nor we agreed to answer the questio
(h) in double subjects:
Son preluisontet alls en ville.
His father and he went22.,into22.3).town2. (see
(i) with-mme(s)self/selves:
14
moi-mme

nous-mmes

toi-mme/vous-mme vous-mmes
lui-mme
eux-mmes
elle-mme
elles-mmes
Je le moiferai-mme .
Ill do it myself.
(j)Soiis used with indefinite1.),8 pronounsandwith (stheileimp(seersona
12.d2).
Tout le mondedoit rentrersoi. chez
Everyone must go home.
On a souvent des amis plussoiintelligents. que
We often have friends who are more intelligent
Chacun poursoi.
Every man for himself.
14.3 Position of pronouns
(a)Pronounsarenormalplacedyimmediatbelyforetheverb,theauxiliary
verb,oraninfinitivetowhichtheyarelinkedmeaningstatements,in questions and
negative forms:
Iladore.
Jy vais.
Jen aivu(e)s.
Elle lanepas lu.
Je vaisluienvoyerun mot.

He adores
Im
going.
Ive seen
She hasnt
Ill write

her/him/it.
some (of them).
read it.
him a note.

60
STRUCTURES

peut
Va entr
le ouv
ur erpl
di usie
re urs.
au
re
vo
ir.
O
n
im
( p
b er
) ati
P ve
r ,f
o ol
n lo
ow
up
n os
s iti
p ve
r b
e ut
c im
ep
d er
e ati
av
n ar
ee
g lin
a ke
ti d
v to
e it

Go
and
say
goodb
ye to
them.
You
may
find
severa
l.

by pas ton frre!

brother!
a
hy With the positiveme impandtearerativeplacedmoiandtoiby.
ph
Give me your ticket!
en. Donnez-moi votre billet!
Ne Ans
me is added to the singular -positiveerverbsbeforeyimperativeanden.
Nen
Vas-y!
Come on!/Get on with it!
Dit
Ny va pas!
Dont go (there)!
esl
Manges-en!
Eat some!
uiDont eat any more!
de Nen mange plus!
rev
eni (c)
r There
bie are two
nt small
t! groups
Tellof
hi verbs,
m/ each
her foll
to them
co the
me
pronou
ba
n
is
ck
plaprin
so
on cipaled
verb:be
Bois
faire,or
Prends

e v Elleer the
t oi Jeleimpera
sens
h r,
tive
e W and
l c he linked
ao n
to it by
i ut th
a
s er e
hyphen
s,
pri .
ee
nc
r, nt
Faitesa e ip
lesentr
al
nn
er!
d dr ve
Show
e e, rb
them
is
n.
in!
v s in
Laisseo e th
nousd
y nt e
ormir!
e ir po
Let us
r 1
sit sleep!
e 4
iv Regard
g
ea On e lapleur
r Il la im er!
pelaissez
d Neles
Look at
Leprofesseur
rat her
e
cls
r, ses aft
crying!

THE NOUN GROUP 61

14.Order4 of pronouns
When more than one of the pronouns occur in a ver order in which they are placed.
The following tabl
me
te
se
nous
vous

le/l
before la/l before
les

lui
beforey

beforeen

leur

(a) examplesme, withte, se, nous, vous, le/l, la/l, les

Ilme ladonn(e).
He has given it to
me.
Nenous les montre pas!
Dont
show them to
us!
Elles legardera.
Shell keep it
for
herself
Nousvous lenverrons chercherWell.
send
you to get it.
(b) examples lui,includingleur:
Neles luidonnez pas! Dont give them to him/her! Ila leura montre. He
showed it to them.
(c) examples yincludinganden:

Ellemy a vu(e).
She saw me there.
Nousvous yattendrons.
Well wait
for you
there.
Iles ya laiss(e)s tomberHe.dropped
them there.
Elle sennesouvient jamaisShe.
never remembers it.
Je vaisleur enparler.
Im
going to speak
to them abo
On lui endonne tous les
Wejoursgive.
him/her some every day
Ilny ena plus.
Theres
none left.
(d) The exception to the above guidelines has to d The pronounsfollow the positive
imperative and are linked
14.b3).
Donnele-lui!
Montrezle--nous!
Cherchezles-!y

Give it
to him!
Show it
to us!
Look
for them there!

15
Offrezleur--en!

Offer them some!

62

STRUCTURES

Demandelui--en!

Ask him for some!

Withthepositiveimperativemolandtoiareusedinsteadofme andte,andare
moved right to the end of the group:
Rendsla-moi! Give it back to me!
These two changes arey notanden arerequinvolved:redif
Donnemen- ! Give me some!
Va-ten!

Go away!
15
Relative pronouns

Therelativepronounslinktheinformationcontainedrelativeclausetoa preceding noun,

pronoun, or noun phrase (anteceden of verbs and adjectives in the relative clause
agr
15.1 Qui(nvariable) who, which, that is the subj is used for people, animals or
things:
Lhommequi attendait au coin de la rue tait son pr
The man who was waiting at the corner of the st
Toi,qui as lair content, dis-moi pourquoi.
You look happy. Tell me why.
Ce sont un tudiant quietvontue nouslectricereprsenter.
Its a student and an assistant who are going t
Le chatquiest toujours dans mon jardin nest pas
The cat thats always in my garden is not mine.
and in some set expressions and proverbs:
Qui plus est And whats more
Voilqui est agrable! Thats super!
Qui se ressemble sassembleBirds. of a feather flock toget
15.2Que/qu(invariable)who(m),which,thatisthedirectobjectinthe relative clause. It is
used for people, animals or
Voil lequelivretuas cherch partout.
There/Here is the book you looked/have been loo
Les tudiantsquelle invits sont ses amis.

The students she invited are her friends.

THE NOUN GROUP 63

Englishdoesnotneedthepronounswho,who(m),which,thatintherelative clause. But in

French, in contrast,mustbe theusedrelative. p
15.3Prepositquion+refers only to people:
La femmechez quijhabitais tait franaise.
The woman whose house I was living in was Frenc
15
Le jeunehomme qui elleadonnlesclsdelavoituretaitun
voleur.
The young man she gave the car keys to was a th
Cest un professeurenquitupeux avoir confiance.
Hes/Shes a teacher you can have confidence in
15.Lequel,4lesquels,laquelesquellesle,who,whichareusedasthesubject
in a relative claqui,se,onlyinsteadadministrativeof or liter
Cette femme,laquelletait fort lgante, tait den ralit police.
That woman, who was extremely elegant, was in f
15.5Preposition+lequelrefers to people, animals or things:
Cest la jeuneavec femmelaquelle(oravec qui)il est all lcole.
Its the young woman he went to school with.
O est ledanssaclequeljai mis largent?
Where is the bag I put the money in?
15.De,6 are combinedlequelwithtoform the pronouns:
duquel,desquels,laquelle,desquellesauquel,auxquels,laquelle,
auxquelles
Thesechangesaresimilartochangesmadewiththearticles (see2).The
contractedformsareusedwheneverdeor formpartofa prepositionalphrase or
the construction following a verb:
Sa mre,grce laquelle(or qui)il sen est tir, est trs m
His mother, thanks to whom he was able to cope,
Un garon daccord,duquel or(maisdequi)sagit-il?
A boy, yes, but which one?
15.When7referringtopeople,andfollowingaprepositeitheron,lequelorqui
canbeusedThe.exceptiontothisruleoccurswiththeprepositionsparmi,au

64

STRUCTURES

nombredeandentre.Followingtheseprepositheionsappropriateformoflequel is
always used:
Lesotages,parmi lesquelssetrouvaientlestroisreligieuses,taient
morts.
The hostages, amongst whom were the three nuns,
15.8 Dontof/about whom, which; whose is used for pe and can be
useddeinsteadqui,duquel,of desquels, de laquell
Voici largentdont(orduquel) il a besoin.
Heres the money he needs.
Cest ladontfille(orde qui, de laquel)ile parle.
Its the girl hes talking about.
Cest la maisondont(orde laquelle)je me souviens.
It was the house I remember.
15.8.1 The order of dontwrdsis followingimportantsubject, verb
15
Voil la maisondontles volets sont verts.
This/That is the house whose shutters are green
Lestudiantsdontlenom figureci-dessontusprisdepasser
monbureau ds que possible. Merci.
Would the students whose names are below call a possible. Thank you.
15.8Dont.2alwaysfollowsitsantecedentirectlyFrom.thexamplesat15.8
above:largedont,la filledont, la maisondont
15.8.Dont3cannot be usedeinsteadqui,uquelifofthe relative wh is dependent on
a noun governedsousla byprsidaenceduringposition:de whoseavec,
laidewithdewhose,la fentre deat whose:
On a vulamaisonlaported laquelle(not dont) lajeunefillea frapp.
We saw the house where the girl knocked at the
Cestlhommesous laprsidenceduquel/de qui (not dont) la
Communaut a fait le plus de progrs.
HesthemanduringwhosepresidencytheCommunityhasmademost
progress.
Voiciltudianteaveclaidelaquelle/dequi (notdont) vousallez
complter vos recherches.
This is the student with whose help you will co

THE NOUN GROUP 65

TheEnglishtranslationsindicatethattheseareformalstructuresInformally,.in
spokenFrench,thesecomplexstructureswouldprobabelydividedintotwo
sentences:
Ton amije ne me souviens jamais de son adresse
15.O9 where, in which, when is a relative adverb
timeIt.refersonlytothingsO.canbeusedwithseveralprepositions:do
from where/parwhich,oby which,jusquohow far, to whatO exte can replace
relativesdanslequelsuch,duquelas,par lequel
Restezovous tes!
Stay where you are!
Voil la maisono(ordas laquelle) je suis n(e).
Thats the house where I was born.
Cest ledopaysil vient.
Its the country he comes from.
Je connais les sentierso(orparlequelspar)on arrive lglise.
I know the paths to the church.
On verrajusquoil peut aller.
Well see how far hell go.
Some examplesowhereexpresses time:
le mois
lanneo

the
the

month when
year when

15
le momento
Ctait leo ellejour est

the moment when

arriveIt. was the day she arrived

If the antecedent lisoftennot sprecedecifio:esd,

L o elle va, elle trouve des amis.
Wherever she goes she makes friends.
15.10Prepositiquoirefersn+onlytothingsItis.alsousedtorefertoneuter pronouns
suchce, cela,as quelque chose, rien:
On saitdequoiil sagissait.
We know what it was about.
Il a cout leaprsdiscoursquoiilest all prendre un verre.
He listened to the speech and afterwards went f

66

STRUCTURES

Il ny a vraimentdequoisinquiterpas.
Theres nothing to worry about.
Ce quoi nous pensons ce sont nos examens.
What we are thinking about is our exams.
15.11Ce qui,ceque/qu,cedontwhich,whatarecompoundrelative
pronounsCe(invariable).refersbacktoinformationwhichmaybecontained
anentiresentence,orparagraphThepronouns.qui,que/qu,dontfunction exactly as if
they were being used on their own (s
Elle a toujours refuscedequinese luisoumettre,platqui(ispasthe.
subject of the relative clause)
Shes always refused to obey, which doesnt ple Elle feracequelleveutque(. is
the object of the relative She will do what she wants.
Ilsnesesouviennentjamaisdece dont nousleurparlons(dont.<
parlerde)
They never remember what we talk to them about. 15.11.1Toutcan
precedequieverything (that, which).
Elle adoretoutce quiest cossais.
She loves everything Scottish.
Je feraitoutce quelleme demande.
Ill do everything she asks me to do.
Nous avions toutappriscedonoust avions besoin.
Wed learned everything we needed to.
15.12Cest(cesont)qui,que(qu),dontitswho,that,whichisusedto
emphasizesomeoneorsomethingCest.isusedforallpersons,singularand
pluralCesont.isusedforthethirdpersonspluralinformalspokenadwritten contexts.
CestIsabellequiva comme dhabitude assurer le cours.
Its Isabelle who will take the class as usual.
Cest/Ce sontnos amisquiposent des questions.
Its our friends asking questions.
16
Cestvotre passeport dont jai besoin.
Its your passport I need.
Therelativepronounsfunctionexactlyasiftheywerebeingusedontheirown,
withoutthece.Theverbintherelativeclauseagreeswiththesubject,thatis,

THE NOUN GROUP 67

withwhoeverorwhateverisintroducedbycestorcesont.Normallythe present
tensetreis ofused, but other tenses are also pos
Ce seraavec sa qumreilira en Italie.
Its/It will be his/her mother hell go to Ital
Ifthesubjemphasizedctisinthepronominalform,themphaticpronounis used
(see14.c)2.
Ce nest pas moi quisera responsable.
Its not me wholl be responsible.
Cestgrceelle quilsen est tir.
Its thanks to her he succeeded.
Notethestructurecestque,frequentlyusedtoemphasisesomethingInthis. caseque is
a conjunctionCestqueis. also used to draw attentio or something:
Cestdemainquonva partir(emphasising. demain) Its tomorrow
were leaving.
Ctaitavectoutelafamillequon allaitpartiren vacances.
(emphasising toute la famille)
It was with the whole family that we were going
16
Interrogative pronouns, adjectives and adv
Therearediffersetsntofinterrogativepronounsforpeopleandforthings,and
some of the pronouns have two forms: a short form,
whichincludestheinterrogativeinversionest-?ceThelongerformsaremore
likelytobeusedincontextswhicharelessformalsuchasspokenFrench,or
informallettersSome.oftheformsarealsodifferentpendionwhetherg pronoun is the
subject or object of the interrogat a
prepositionTheinterrogative.pronounsareusuallyacceptedasmasculine
singularadjectiveforandverbagreementunlessthepronounsclearlyefer
to feminine and/or plural nouns.
16.1 Forms for people
Subject qui?orqui est-ce qui? who? Object qui?orqui est-ce
que/qu?who(m)?
Following a prepositionde,,avecqui?orquiest-que/ceof, to, withwho(m)? qu?

68

STRUCTURES

In the following examples, note the useor notof

16
Qui est la Quiporest-e?/cequiest la porte?
Who is at the door?
Qui vous a vu(e/s)?/Quiest-cequivous a vu(e/s)?
Who saw you?
Qui as-tu trouv?/Quiest-ceque tu as trouv?
Who did you find?
Qui a-t-on entenduQuipleurer?/est-cequona entendu pleurer?
Who did we hear crying?
A qui parle-t-Aellquiest?/-cequelle parle?
Who is she talking to?
Prs de quiest-il Prsassis?/dequi est-ce ilquest assis?
Who is he sitting beside?
16.2 Forms for animals and things
Subject quest-ce qui? what? Object que/qu?orquest-ce que/qu?
what?
Following a prepositionde,quoi?orquoi est-ce que/qu?of,towhat?

Once again, in the examples, note the useor noto

Quest-ce quitintresse?
What are you interested in?
Quest-ce quil dit?
What is he saying?
Que veux-tQuest?/-ce quetu veux?
What do you want?
Que pense-t-ilmaison?/deQuestla-ce quilpense de la maison?
What does he think of the house?
En quoi consisteEn-tquoi-il?/est-ce quilconsiste?
What does it consist of?
Avec quoi va-t-ellepaylesrbillets?/Avecquoiest-cequelleva
payerles billets?
What is she going to pay for the tickets with?
16.3 Guidelines on the use of inversion
(a)qui?(subject pronoun, used for people)no invers
(b) compoundformsalreadyincludeest-ce?,soadditionversionalisnot
needed.

(c)que/qu?(object pronoun, used for things)inversio

(d)quoi?(pronoun following prepositions, used for th

THE NOUN GROUP 69

16
16.4Qui? andquoi? canoccurinphraseswithoutverbsusuallyin
spoken French.
M.Martin est Qui?la porte.
Mr Martin is at the door. Who?
Je nai pas Quoi?entendu.
I didnt hear. What?
Quoi de neuf?
Whats new?
Quoi de plus joli que lEcosse?
What is lovelier than Scotland?
16.4.1 The interrogativelequel?who,pronounwhich, what?
Lequelimpliesthatchoiceisbeingmadefroma limitednumberofknown
people or things.

Masculine
Feminine

Singular

Plural

lequel?
laquelle?

lesquels?
lesquelles?

There are also contractedde andforms:

Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine

following

Singular

Plural

duquel?
de laquelle?
auquel?
laquelle?

desquels?
desquelles?
auxquels?
auxquelles?

Laquelledes tudiantes cherchez-vous?

Which of the students are you looking for?
De tous les courslequelprfreslafac,-tu?
Which of all the classes at university do you pr
Il ma dit quil a besoin dunduquelde? ces livres. Ma
He told me he needs one of these books. But whic
Auxquellesde vos amies avez-vous crit?
Which of your friends did you write to?
16.4.2 The interrogativequel?which,adjectivewhat? Quelhas
four forms:

Singular

Masculine

quel?

quels?

Plural

70

STRUCTURES

Singular

Feminine

Plural

quelle? quelles?

Quellerponse?
What/which answer?
16 Quelle
rponsea-t-elle donne?
Which answer did she give?
Notetheinversionwhenquel?modifiestheubjectofthesentence,asinthe first
two of the following examples:
Quels professeursseront l?
Which teachers will be there?
Quelletaitfemmela qui ta donn le pourboire?
Which woman gave you the tip?
Quelle heureest-il?
What time is it?
Quel joursommes-nous?
What is the date?
Dansquelle pochea-t-elle mis la cl?
Which pocket did she put the key in?
16.4The.3interrogativeadverbscombiende/d?howmany?,comment?
how?,o? where?,quand?when?
InspokenFrench,simplybusinginterrogaintonation,ivestatementcan
become a question:
Il est l?

Hes here?

Whenanyinterrogativewordsareincludedthiskindofquestion,theyare placed
at the end of the sentence:
Elle attenddepuis combiende mois?Shehasbeenwaitinghow many
months?
Vous lavezcommentfait?
How did you do it?
Ils
vonto?
Where are
they
going?
Elle quoifait?
Shes doing what?
Ils
aimquelntprogramme?
They like
what
(which) progra

When an interrogativestartsthewordquestion there are various with the interrogative

inversion:
(a) if the subject is a noun, simple inversion:

THE NOUN GROUP 71

O habite la vieille dame?Where does the old lady liv Quand partira le train?
When does the train leave? Comment va le malade? How is the patient?
Combien cote cettebouteille deHowvin?much is this bottle of
(b) if the subject is a pronoun, it is linked to th
O habite-t-elle?
Quandpartira-t?-il
Commentva-t-?il
Combiencote-t-elle?

Where does she live?

When will it leave?
How is he?
How much is it?

16
Anotherwayofaskingthesamequestionsistochangetheorderofwords,
withthenounsubjectplacedbeforeaftertheinterrogativewordusuallyin
informal, spoken French.
La vieille
dame,
elle Ohabitelavieilleo?
dame habite-t-e
Le train, il partira quand?Quand le train partira-t-il?
Le malade,
il va
comment?Comment le malade va-t-il?
Cettebouteilledevin,combiellenCombiencettebouteilledevin
cote?
cote-t-elle?
Thequestionsmayalsobeaskedbyinsertingest-que?ceafterthequestion
wordThere.isnoadditionversionalThisway.ofaskingquestionsismuch more
common in informal, spoken French.
O est-ce quela vieille dame habite?
Quandest-ce quele train partira/va partir?

NOTE Inversionoftheverbanda nounsubjectisoftenavoidedwith interrogative

words of morecomment?,thanonecombien?syllable:

16.4.4 There is no inversion of the verb and a noun

objectoriscloselylinkedtoanadverbialphraseIn.thiscase,youmake
inversionbyaddingpronounwhichagreeswiththesubject,and,infact,you
have a double subject.
Quandles enfantsmangentils-leur petit djeuner?
When do the children have their breakfast?
Commentle premier ministreva-ilt-expliquer cela?
How is the prime minister going to explain that?
Commentle professeurlail-ttraduit- en anglais?

How did the teacher translate it into English?

72

STRUCTURES

16.4.5

Some of the interrogative adverbs may be p

Do viennent-ils? Where have they come from? Jusquo compte-t-elle aller?

How far does she intend going Depuis quand les enfantsattendentHowlonghavethechildrbeen
ils?
waiting?
Pendant combien de tempstes-vousHow long did you stay?
rest(e/s)?
16.4.6 The interrogativepourquoi?why?adverb There are
three possibilitiespourquoi: with
(a) if the subject is a noun:
Pourquoi ltudiva-nt-lailfac?or Ltudiant,pourquoi va-t-il
la fac?
Why is the student going to the university?
(b) the informal version:
Pourquoiest-ce queltudiant va fac?
17
(c) if the subject is a pronoun:
Pourquoi tes-vous l?
Why are you here?
17
Cardinal and ordinal (see 49numbers.,49.)7
Cardinalnumbers areadjectivesandprecedetheirnounThey.canbegrouped
according to their form: simple or compound.
17.1 Simple forms
0zro
1un, une
2deux
3trois
4quatre
5cinq

6six
7sept
8huit
9neuf
10dix
11onze

12douze
13treize
14quatorze
15quinze
16seize
20vingt

30trente
40quarante
50cinquante
60soixante
100cent
1000mille

THE NOUN GROUP 73

17.2 Compound forms

Unitsarelinkedtotensbya hyphenwiththexceptionofthesixnumbers
linkedetby17(.2).1
17

dix-sept

18

dix-huit

19

dix-neuf

2229 vingt-deuxtovingt-neuf 3239 trentetodeuxtrente-neuf

4249 quarante-todeuxquarante-neuf 5259
cinquante-todeuxcinquante-neuf
6299

soixante-todequatrex-vingt-dix-neuf

InBelgium,CanadaandSwitzerlandtheoldformsof70,80 and90 are

sometimes used:
70

septante 80 octanteorhuitante

17.2.1 Compound
21vingt et un
41quarante et un
61soixante et un

90 nonante

formset,no linkedhyphensby
31trente et un
51cinquante et un
71soixante et onze

17.2.2 Compound formsetandwithout hyphens

101cent un

1,001mille un

17 17.Numbers3areinvariable,butherearefourexceptiothisnsruleun,
zro, vingcent.,
(a)un,une:unisusedincounting,andwithmasculinenouns;uneisused with
feminine nouns.
un, deux, trois

one, two, three

un verre de vin
a/one glass of wine
Vingt et unetudiantessont venues.Twenty-one students came.
(b)zro, vingt,thesecent:numbers add s in the plural.
sept
zros
quatre-vingts

seven zeros/nothings
80

cinq

cents

500

74

STRUCTURES

but stheis dropped whenever they are followed by anot

quatre-vingt-douze
trois cent soixante-sept

92
367

17.4 Milleisinvariable.
7,000 sept mille 9,021 neuf mille vingt et un
In datesmillemay be shortenedmilbut thiso is a bit old-fashion 1941 mille(or mil)
neuf cent quarante et un
Whendatesarespoken,asopposedtowritten,dix-neufcentmaybeused
insteadmilleof neuf cent:
dix-neuf centquarante et un

NOTE Centmust beincludedthedate,whereasinEnglishhundredis usually

omitted.

Milleandcentarenever precededbyun,whereasinEnglishthousand hundred

may be preceded by one or a:
milleone/a thousand

centone/a hundred

17.4.1 Care should be taken with49the.d7): following ser

mille(invariablnever,followedandde) bythousand
dixmillepersonnes

ten thousand people

un millier (de/d), desaboutmilliersathousand,(de/d) thousands

Il ydesamilliersdtudiants dans les rues.
There are thousands of students in the streets.
un million (de/d), cinqamillionslion,(de/d)fivemillion
un milliondhabitants a million inhabitants
un milliard (de/d), douzea mbillion,ards twelve(de/) billion

17

THE NOUN GROUP 75

La banque luicinquanteprtmilliardeuros.
The bank has lent him/her fifty billion euros.
17.5 Cardinal numbers
Cardinal numbers are used in the following:
(a) dates:
le (quinze)15mars
le (trois)3janvier
Quel
jour sommes-nous?
Nous sommes(sept)le. 7

the
15th
(of) March
the
3rd (of) January
Whats the date?
Its the
7th.

but, exceptionally, the ordinal number is used for

le ler(premier)avril

the 1st (of) April

NOTE Months and days of thesmallweeklettersbeginFrencwith.

(b) names of kings and queens:

Henri (quatre),IVLouis XIV(quatorze) butFranois(premier)ler
(c) chapter and page numbers:
chapitredeux, trois,quatre but chapitrepremier or chapitreun
la page (dix18-huit)
(d) time:
cinq heures

at five oclock

The 24 hour clock is used in timetables:

quatorzeheures

at two oclock

17.6 Punctuation in numbers

French
1000 or 1.000
15294 or 15.294

English
1,000 or 1000
15,294

8,5

8.5 (decimal point)

76

STRUCTURES

17.7 Ordinal numbers

Ordinal numbers are adjectives, but may be used a 17.7.Le1
premier,lapremirefirst;lesecond,lasecondeorle/la
deuximesecond:
Elle laestpremirede la classe.She is top of
the class.
Ils taientlespremiers partir. They were the
first to
Voil un billetsecondeclassede. Here is a second class
18
Cest un politiciensecondrangde. Hes a minor politician.
Cestla deuxime foisquilesten Its the second time hes b retard.
17.7.2 For most ordinalimeis numbersaddedto the cardinal.
trois>troisimethird
dix-sept>dix-septime seventeenth
vingt etvingtun>et unime
twenty-first
cent>centime hundredth
but there are some exceptions:
un>premier (see17.7).1

first

deux>second, deuxime (see17.7).1

cinq>cinquime (addu)
fifth
neuf>neuvime (f>v) ninth

second

and there is a small groupeof twherecardinalthefinalnumber is

quatre>quatrime

fourth

trentrentimee>
thirtieth
mille>millime thousandth
and in two casesofthethefinalcardinal number is dropped:
quatre-vingts>quatre-vingtime
six cents>sixcentime
neuf cents>neufcentime

eightieth

six hundredth
nine hundredth

leav
tick

Theabbreviatedformsarethenumber+-me(notethat-meissometimes further
shortened eto): a superscript
THE NOUN GROUP 77

la33me tage
le57me livre

the
the

33rd
57th

floor
book

but
Jean-Paul1er

John-Paul 1

(You say:Jean-Paul premier.)

Some examples with numbers used as nouns and adje
Je suisenpremire(anne).
Qui estonzime?le no( elision)
Cestquinzimelesicle.
Pour nimela fois!

Im in the sixth form.

Who is eleventh?
Its the fifteenth century
For the umpteenth time!

18
Fractions (see49.)7

un demibut when half is notla amoitifraction(de)use

un tiers

deux tiers
un quart

trois quarts

20
and for all the rest, the ordinal forms are used:
un dixime
1 un et demi1
un centime

un onzime
deux cinquimes
un et un tiers6ix (et) artstrois qu
un millime

Some examples:
unedemi-bouteille
trois kilosdemi et
unedemi-heure
une heuredmiet

a half bottle
3 kilos
a half hour
1.30 (a.m.)

NOTE Demis invariable,etdemi(e)butagrees in gender (not number) its noun10(see.c)6.

Je serai lun quartdansdheure.Ill be

there in quarter of a On a bu les trois

quarts de la Wevedrunkthreequartersofthe bouteille. bottle.

78

STRUCTURES

19 Approximate
quantities(see49.)7
Approximate quantities arede/dallif afollowednounis byspecified.
unedizaine
une(demi-)/douzaine
unevingtaine
unecentaine
unmillier

about ten
(half) a dozen
about twenty
about
a hundred
about
a thousand

and
plus de/d

more than moins de/d

less than

Some examples:
Je voudraisune demi-douzaine Id like half a dozen eggs.
dufs.
Il y avaitdescentaines cafardsde.There were hundreds of cockro
Ellestaientplus de/moins de Thereweremore/lessthanthirty(of
trente. them).
20
Dimensions (see49.)6

There are various ways of expressing length, bread

whicharegivenbelowPerhaps.thebestwaytodealwiththemistoselectthe
form that you find easiest to remember.
20
20.Length1
for things and animals:
Quelle
Quelle
Quelle
Quelle

est
est
est
est

la
la
la
la

longueurcorde? de Howla long is the

largeur de laHowrue?wide is the
limmeublhauteurde? How high is the
profondeurltang? deHow deep is the

and for people:

Combien mesure-t-il?

How tall is he?

20.2Long de, large de, haut de, profond de

rope?
street?
building?
pond?

THE NOUN GROUP 79

une cordelongue de5 mtres

une ruelarge de3 mtres
un immeublehaut dequatretages
untangprofond dunmtre

a rope
5 metres
long
a street
3 metres wide
a
building four
storeys hi
a pond
one metre deep

and if a verb avoir/faisrequired:+szde+longortre+long+sizde:

Cette cordea5mtresdelong. This rope is 5 metres long Cette faitrue3
mtresdelarge. This street is 3 metres wi Cette cordeestlongue de5 mtres. This
rope is 5 metres long Ce fossestprofond undmtre. This ditch is one metre de
Different verbs are required forpeople:expressing the he
Cestun hommedun mtre quatre-vingts.
Hes 6 feet tall.
Ellemsure peu prsunmtre quatre-vingts.
Shes almost 6 feet tall.
Ilest plus grandquelle.
Hes bigger than she is.
Elleest plus petite luiqe.
Shes smaller than him.
IIs ontpasla mme taille.
Theyre not the same height.
Cest vrai,npasellelamme tailleque lui.
Thats right, she isnt the same height as him.
20.3 Weight
for things and animals:
Combien psellphant? What does the elephant weigh?
21
or
Quel poids fait-il?
What does it weight?
Ilpseenvironje ne sais pasIt. weighs aboutI
Ilpseplus lourd que toi.
Its
heavier than
Ilest moins lourd(or plus lger)quelle.Its
lighter than
and for people:
Combien pse-t-il?

What is his weight?

dont kn
you.
her.

80

STRUCTURES

Ilpse plus 127dekilos.

Hes over 127 kilos/20 st
Cestune femmede60kilogrammes 500. Shes 60 kilos/10 stone. and when
shopping:
Je voudrais500grammes de fromage.
Id like 500g of cheese.
Environ250grammes de cerisesil, vous plat.
About 250g of cherries, please.
Etun kilo de tomates.
And a kilo of tomatoes.
Et enfinunedemi-livre sucrede. Merci!
And finally 250g of sugar. Thank you!
Note the different order in English and French in
a two-kilo packet un paquetdedeux kilos
21
Adverbs of quantity(see 4.,349.)7
Theseadverbscanintroduceanoun,ormodifyaverbIf.theyintroduceanoun
theyarefollowedbye/d(see4.)3.Somemayalsobefollowedbyquein
comparisons.
assez (de)enough autant (de/que)so/as much/many un peu (de)alittle,
somebeaucoup (de)a lot of, many peu (de) little, fewplus (de/que)more
tant (de)so much/manycombien (de)?how much? trop (de)too
much/manymoins (de/que)fewer, less
Il assezdargent.
He has enough money.
Elleassezentendu.
She has heard enough.
Nous avonsbeaucoup detravail.We have a lot of
work.
Moi aussi,beaucoupjaltravaillIve. worked hard
too.
Combien dinfluence a-t-il?How
much influence does he ha
Ce livrecombienvaut?
How much is this
book?
Il ymoinsa degens ce soir. There are fewer people tonigh Il gagnemoins que son
frre. He earns less than his brothe
21
Note thatunpeu hasde a more positivepeumeaningde: than
THE NOUN GROUP 81

Jaiun peu dargent.

Jaipeu dargent.

I
I

have a little money.

havent much money.

trop (de)can be modifiedbeaucouporbyun peu:

Il beaucoup tropdargent. He has far too much money. Elle aun bupeu trop. She
has drunk a bit too much.
beaucoupisnever precededtrs:by
Mercibeaucoup!

Thank you very much.

II
The verb group

22
Agreement of verb and subject
Theverbisformedofthestem,andanendingFor.exampleintheinfinitive
donner,thestemisdonnand-thendingis-er.Mostverbsarelistedina
dictionaryintheinfinitiverform,whichisthepartoftheverbwhichdoesnot
indicasubjectte(first,secondorthirdperson)ornumber(singularorplural).
TheEnglishequivalentoftheinfinitiveisto+verbThere.arethreemain groups, or
conjugations, of verbs, identified- accor er, -reir,.

donner
finir
vendre

donn-+-er
fin-+-ir
vend-+-re

to give
to finish
to sell

Therearealsoverbswhichhaveaninfinitiveending-oirecevoir:toeceive, sasseoirto
sit down. Verb endingsin contrast to t person, the number, time (tenses) and mood
(indica endings the verb is called a finite verb.
22.1Theverbendingalways agreeswiththesubject:singularsubject +singular verb
ending, plural subject+plural verb
Ellechantebien.

She sings well.

Nous parlons franais.

We speak French.

22.2 Guidelines for verb/subject agreement

Normally,itisclearwhethersubjectisingularorplural,butherearesome
subjectswhichcausedifficultyWhenthe.subjectofheverbisqui,theverb agrees
with the antecedent15.)1. (see

THE VERB GROUP 83

Toi et ton frre,qui avez t

touslesdeuxtrsparesseux,vousallez redoubler cette anne.
You and your brother, who have both been very la this year.
Cestnous qui seronsresponsables.
Well be responsible.
22 Cestisusedwithallthesingularemphaticpronouns,andalso,ininformal
contexts, for all the plural emphatic pronouns. In French the third personce
sontplural(see6.a,314form.c)2. is
Cest ellesqui font toujours la vaisselle.
They always do the washing-up.
Ce sont euxqui vont donner la rponse au ministre.
They are going to reply to the Minister. andnotetheexpressionce
nestunless,exceptfor,ifnot
(invariable):
Si ce nest (pas) quiex, est-ce?
If itsthem,notwho is it?
22.3 Compound subject+singular and/or plural verb
Un desfilmsqui luia/ontbeaucoup plu, cest La liste de S
One of the films he liked very much was Schind
Plus dunde mes amisva/vonten France cet t.
Several of my friends are going to France this
A singular noun referring to a group, orla famillequantity
familey,comitcommittlepartie,socialistethesocialistparlay,foule crowd:
Le parti socialistropea de candidats.
The socialist party has too many candidates.
Inthecaseofsingularnounsexpressingquantityfollowedbyapluralnoun,the
verb can be orsingularplural:lemanquelackdeleof,resteremainder of, other,
restlafoulef,crowdde of:
Le manque dargent estun problme peu supportable.
The lack of money is a major problem.
Le manque dauditeurs estvraiment dcevant.
The lack of an audience is really disappointing

84

STRUCTURES

Butthespeakerorwritermaywantofocusfirmlyonthepluralpartofthe compound subject,

and in this case, the verb agree
Une foule de gens manifestaientdans les rues.
A crowd of people were demonstrating in the str
22.3Beaucoup.1 de, combien de?, peuarede,followedlaplupartby plde verbs when
they are used as subjects.
Beaucoup dtudiantsnont pas de bourse.
Many students dont have a grant.
Combien dAnglais sont allsau match?
How many English people went to the match?
Peu de gens ont aimla pice.
Few people liked the play.
22
La plupart des tudiants travaillentdurant lt.
Most students work during the summer.
Ifcombiende?andlaplupartdearefollowedbyasingularnoun,theverbis
also in the singular.
Combien de la tarte reste-t-il?
How much of the tart is left?
La plupart est dj mange.
Most of it has already been eaten.
22.3.2 Compound subjet:ctsthelinkedverb isby always plural.
Pierre et Marie iroensemblet.
Peter and Mary will go together.
Lun et lautre sont fatigus.
They are both tired.
Isabelle et moi allonsprendre un caf.
Isabelle and I are going for a coffee.
22.3.3 Compound subjectsouorni:linkedtheverbby is usually plur the subject is, in
fact, really singular.
Michel ou Marc viendrontte chercher.
Michel or Marc will come and pick you up.
Vous ou elles devezrester la maison.
You or they must stay at home.

Ni mon frrenima surnaident ma mre.

THE VERB GROUP 85

Neither my brother nor my sister help(s) my mot

Ni lui ni moi navons reuun cadeau.
Neither he nor I received a present.
Nilunilautremaybefollowedbya singularveb,uthepluralisalso
possible11(see.7):.1
Ni lun ni lautre nest all/ne sontluiallsparler.
Neither of them went to talk to him/her. Note thatlun ou
lautrealwayshas a singular verb:
Lun ou lautre pourravenir.
One or the other will be able to come.
Thefollowingruleofthumbforcompoundsubjectsandtheirverbsmayprove
useful:

1
2

if the subjectsetareuse linkedapluralby verb

if the subjectsouareornilinkedapluralby verbunlessis preferred

1 the subject is logically

2 the
speaker
or writer is
3 the
subjectlun ouis lautre

singular
thinking

of a singular

In these three cases the verb is singular.

24
22.3.4 Impersonal ilverbs,ythereasuchils/are,asresthere remain(s)
ilestarrivsomething happened/occurred(see46),usuallyremainsingular, whatever
the subject is.
Il y aura des manifestationssivous nacceptez pascomitladcisio
dentreprise.
Therewillbedemonstratiifyonsudontacceptthedecisionofthe works
council.
Ilestvenu des gens daffaires laropcommertprvumaislevol
avait t annul.
Somebusinesspeoplearrivedattheairportasarranged,butheflight had
been cancelled.

86

STRUCTURES

23
Formation of tenses
Guideliontheesformationoftensesaregivenbelow,butunlessanduntilyouare absolutely
sure of the forms and the irregularities
itisgoodpracticetocheckinverbtableswhichincludethemostuseful
irregularverbs(seeVerbtables)The.guidelinesrefertoverbsand their
compounds,venir,.g. devenir,revenir, convenir.
In each of the conjugations there are irregular v theinfinitiveendings-er,-ir,-re,oirbutwhosestemschangeundercertain conditionsTwoof.theirregularverbsavoir
andtrearethemostimportant
of all the irregular verbs because they are used t 23.1All of the tenses have a basic
meaningthey ar
futureorpasttimeEach.ofthemisalsousedwithadditionmeaningslThese. additional
meanings are usually made clear in an ad
whichindicatesexactlywhathespeakerorwritermeansHowever,.itisnot
alwaysnecessarytoconfirmthexactmeaningtheense,orcontext,maybe enough. For
example, the present tense alone may b
Elles lvett.

She gets up early.

Butthespeakerorwritermayfeelitnecessarytoindicatequiteclearlythatthe
actionisa habit.
Elles lvetttous les jours.

She gets up early every day.

24
The indicative tenses; the present tense

Therearetwomaingroupsofindicatenses,iveandtheycanbedivided
accordingtotheirform:thesimpletensesandthecompound tensesEach.ofthe simple
tenses has a corresponding compoundavoirortre.tense,
Simple tenses Compound tenses
present(prsent)(see24.,24.)4perfect(pass compos)(see 28,29)
future(futur) (see25)
futureperfect(futurantrieur) (see28,
30)
24
imperfect (imparfait)(see26)

pluperfect(plus-que- parfait)(see28,
31)

past historic(passhistoriqu(see)past anterior(passantrieur)(see 27)

28,32)

THE VERB GROUP 87

Thepasthistoricalsocalledthesimplepast (passimple)orthepreterite
(prtrit).
Theconditionaltense(conditionnel)anditscorrespondingcompoundform,
theconditionalperfect(conditionnelpass)(see 33),aretreatseparatelyd because they
form a bridge, in terms of meaning, b subjunctive34).(see
24.2 The present tense
(a)-erverbs:donnerto give, composeddonn+theof-thendingsstem-e,-es,
--ons,e, -ez, -ent:
je
donne
tu
donnes
il/elledonne

I give, am givingnous
donnons
vous
donnez
ils/ellesdonnent

All-erverbs have the same presedonnertwithtensetheformsexceptionas allerto

jego:vais,tuvas,il/elleva,nousallons,vousallez,ils/ellesvont
(b)-irverbs:finirto finish, composedfin+the-of endthe-is,ngsstem-is, - it,-issons,
-issez, -issent:
je
tu
il/elle

finis
finis
finit

nous
vous
ils/elles

finissons
finissez
finissent

Regularverbsinthe-irgrouphave-issinserted-thepluralformsofthe present tense,

throughoutjethefinis imperfect(s 26eeais),in tense:theprese participle:finissant(see
43),andinthepluralimperativeforms:finissons, finissez (see44).
Someverbswithan-irinfinitivehavethendingsofthe-ergroupinthe present
tense:
ouvrirtopen:jouvre,tuouvres,il/elleouvr,nousouvrons,vous
ouvrez,ils/ellouvrents
Some verbs -wirthinfinitivean have the-regroupendings(seeof below)the
thepresenttenseThey.mayalsohavechangesinthestem,forexamplecueillir
topick,dormirtosleep,mentirtotellalie,offrirtoffer,partirto
leave,serepentirtorepent,sentirtofeel,servirtoserveandtheir compounds.
dormirtosleep:jedors, tudors, il/elledort,nousdormons, vous
dormez,ils/elldorments

88

STRUCTURES

(c)-reverbs:vendreto sell, composvend+theof-theendings-stems,-s, -t or -d,-ons,

-ez, -ent:
24
je
tu
il/elle

vends
vends
vend

nous
vous
ils/elles

vendons
vendez
vendent

Verbswhosestemendsind donotadd-tor-dinthethirdpersonsingular:il/ ellevnd;

il/ellerpond he/sheanswers;il/elleserend he/shegoes;il/elle prend
he/shetakesthed oftheinfinitivestemisenoughOtherwise,. verbs have-t:

boireto drink il/elleboit

rompreto break
faireto do, make

il/ellerompt

il/ellefait

Theoneexceptiothisnruleisvaincretoconquer(anditscompound
convaincretoconvince)Thethird.personsingularendingis-c:il/ellevainc
(convainc).
With verbs ending-aindre, -eindre, cha-oingesdre,-gnto-before-nd- a vowel:
joindretojoin:jejoins,tujoins,il/ellejoint,nousjoignons,vous
joignez,ils/ellesjoignent
Thereisalsogroupofverbsending-atre,-otre,someofwhicharevery
common:accrotretogrow,apparatretoappear,connatretoknow,
disparatodisappereparatre,toappearTheseverbshavebeforet, buti (no
circumflex) everywhere else:
connatretoknow:jeconnais, tu connais, il/elleconnat, nous
connaissons,vousconnaissez,ils/ellesconnaissent
(d)-oirverbs:recevoirto receive: Theseverbsallhavethesamendingsasreverbs:-s,-s,-t,-ons,-ez,-ent,
but the stem may have changes.
je
tu
il/elle

reois
reois
reoit

nous
vous
ils/elles

recevons
recevez
reoivent

THE VERB GROUP 89

Inmostcasesthefirstandsecondpersonspluralkeeptheinfinistem,ivewith changes
occurring in the singular and in the third
devoirtowe;must,should:jedois,tudois,il/elledoit,nousdevons,
vousdevez,ils/elldoivents
pouvoirtobeableto;can,may:jepeux, tupeux, il/ellepeut,nous
pouvons,vouspouvez,ils/ellespeuvent. (Note the interrogativeje fo peux: puis)je?
savoirto know; knowjesais,howtusais,to:il/ellesait,noussavons,
voussavez,ils/ellessavent
vouloirto want (to);jeveux,tuwish:veux,il/elleveut,nousvoulons,
vousvoulez,ils/ellveulents

falloiralwaysintheinfinitiveorth3rdpersonsingular:ilfautitis
necessary; must
24
24.2.avoir1to havetretoand be avoir:

jai
tuas
il/ellea

nousavons
vousavez
ils/ellesont

tre:
jesuis
tues
il/elleest

nousommes
voustes
ils/ellessont

24.2.2 Points to remember about some present tense three verbs have-testhenot(ezend)wivous:ngth
treto be
direto say
faireto do; make

vous tes
vous dites
vous faites

four verbs have-ont,theor endingfontrm(not-entorent) withils/elles:

aller
faire

ils/elles
ils/elles

vont avoir
font tre

ils/elles
ils/elles

ont
sont

90

STRUCTURES

24.2Some.3furtherguidelionchangesinthespellingandformof-erverbs
the changes may also occur in otherverb partstables).of the v
verbs ending-+consonant+-in-er
Thefollowingverbsarexamplesofverbswhichstrengthesoundofthe middlewhen the
following syllable is not pronounced
renouvelertorenewdoublesthel:jerenouvelle,turenouvelles,il/elle
renouvelle,ils/ellesrenouvellentbut nousrenouvelons,vousrenouvelez
jetertothrowdoublesthet:jejette,tujettes,il/ellejettils/elles, jettentbut
nousjetons,vousjetez
achetertobuychangesthemiddleto:jachte,tuachtes,il/elle
achte,ils/ellesachtentbut nousachetons,vousachetez
verbs ending-cer in
Theseverbschangethec to beforeaando:commencertobeginnous
commenons
verbs ending-ger in
These verbsbeforeaddando: partagerto sharenouspartageons
verbs ending-oyerandin-uyer
These verbs changeytoibeforethe an e that is silent:
employertoemploy:jemploie,tuemploies,il/elleemploie,ils/elles
emploientbut nousemployons,vousemployez
24
verbs ending-ayerin
These verbs may ychangetoibeforethethatan is silent,cankeepbut they y:
payerto pay je(for):paye(orpaie),tupayes(orpaies),il/ellepaye(or
paie),nouspayons,vouspayez,ils/ellespayent(orpaient)
verbs ending-+consonant+-in-er

These verbs usuallytochangebeforefinaltheathat is not pronounce

THE VERB GROUP 91

esprertohope(for)jespre,:tuespres,il/elleespre,ils/elles esprentbut
nousesprons,vousesprez
24.2.4 Spelling changes-drein verbs ending in
verbs ending-aindre, -eindre,change-oi-ndthere-of the stem-gn- to in the
plural forms:
craindretobefrightenedof:jecrains,tucrains,il/ellecraintbut nous
craignons,vouscraignez,ils/ellescraignent
verbs ending-oudreinchange-udthe-of the -stemlvin- tothe plural for
rsoudretoresolve;solve:jersous,tursous,il/ellersoutbut nous
rsolvons,vousrsolvez,ils/ellesrsolvent
These someare of the changes which occur in the stem or is always advisable to
check the forms in verb tab
24.3 How the present tense is used

to express any action that takes places, or is ta

Ilrpareson auto.

He is repairing his car.

to express facts, proverbs and general or univers

Nousommes le 15 mars.
Its the 15th of March.
Je nefume pas.
I dont
smoke.
3 etfont47.
3 and 4
make 7.
Pierre roulequinamasse pas mousseA. rolling stone gathers no
tonarratestorytheenseisthencalledthehistoricpreseandtoccursin
the informal narrating of a story, or in literatu tomakea
storymorevividThe.followingextractistakenfromUn Jeune
Homme Seul byRogerVailland,publishedin1951The.mainarrativeense of
the novel is the past historic:
Il passe sans rpondre, court sa chambre et se les yeux fixs, au del de la
fentre, sur la Tou
pasIl.rptevoixhaute:Jesuislhommelepluseulaumonde,je
suis
Hewentpastwithoutanswering,rantohisroomandthrewhimselfon
the bed. He stared out of the window at the Eiffe

92

STRUCTURES

itHe. saidoverandoveragain,Iam theloneliestmanintheworld,I am

24
toexpressthenear,orverynear,futureorpast,especiallyinspoken, informal
context:
Jyvais. Im off/leavingorrightIll seenow.to( it. Ellesortdans un instantShes. coming
out in a minute. Ilpartdimanche prochainHes. leaving next Sunday. Nousallonsau
cinema ceWeresoir.going to the cinema tonigh Jerevienstout de suiteIll. be right
back.
Le trainarrivede Paris. The Paris train is (just) in. Ilsort linstant. He has just
left.
andnotetheverbphrasevnirde+infinitivehaveojust+participlest(see
26.)1.
Nousvenons decommencer.

We have just begun.

to express habit or repetition:

Il couchese tard.
Il taillela haietouteslestroisHe
semaines.

He goes
cuts

to bed late.
the hedge every thre

to express a condition,siclause33in(see.1):.the1
Silarrivebientt, nous pourrons/pouvons partir.
If he arrives soon, we can leave.
24.4 Differences in French and English present ten
It is important to rememberonepresentthatFrenchtense hasform but
hasthreeforms:asimplepresenttake,IIlisten,Iwrite,acontinuous(or
progressive)presentamItaking,Iam listening,Iamwriting,andthe emphatic or
negative form with doI do/dont ta
Ilchante.

He singsorHe. (is singing.)

The verb trphasen train+infinitivede can be used to indica is in progress:

Ilest en traindcrire une lettre.

THE VERB GROUP 93

He is writing a letter. (at this very moment)

Theverbphrasealler+(en)+presentparticiplecanalsobeusedtoexpressan action, or
event, in progress at the present time:
Certains secteurs de lconomievontensamliorantbritannique.
Some sectors of the British economy are improvi
24.4.1 When a continuouscontinuingactionand is expressed along w
itbegan(sinceor)alongwiththeperiodftimeithasbeengoingon (for). French uses
the present tense:
Ilpleutdepuis dimanche.
It has been raining since Sunday.
a/Celafaitun quart dheure que je lattends.
Thats a quarter of an hour Ive been waiting f
25
Depuis quandtes-vousen Ecosse?
How long have you been in Scotland?
Depuis combien estde-elletempstudiante?
How long has she been a student?
Il y a trois moissommesquel.nous
Weve been here for three months.
and
Voil une heure queattendonnous! vous
Weve been waiting for you for an hour!
Inthepreviousexamplethephrasevoilqueisusedonlywiththepresent
tense:voilrefers to the present moment.
In each of the examples,continuingthecontinuousactionis andexpresse
thepresenttenseinFrench:theEnglishequivalentishave/hasbeen(+present participle).

25
The future tense
The future tense of most French verbs is composed
-ai,-as-, -a, -ons,. -ez, -ont donner:
donnerons

je

donnerai

I shall givenous

94 STRUCTURES

tu
donneras
il/elledonnera

vous
donnerez
ils/ellesdonneront

finir:
je
finirai
tu
finiras
il/elle finira

I shall finishnous
fiirons
vous
finirez
ils/elles finiront

The-reinfinitivesdropthefinal-e:jcriraiIshallwrite,jeprendraiIshall take
vendre:
je
vendrai
tu
vendras
il/elle vendra

I shall sellnous
vendrons
vous
vendrez
ils/ellesvendront

25.Many1ofthe-oirverbs,andtheirregularverbsofthe-er,-irand-re
conjugations,havechangesinthestem,buttheyallhavethesameendings.
Someexamplesofthestemchangesaregivenhere,butitisgoodpractice,as always, to
check in the verb tables for possible c
25
25.1.1 Examples-oirverbs:of
recevoir:
voir:
25.1devoir,.2
devoir:
pouvoir:
savoir:
vouloir:
falloir:

jerecevrai
jeverrai

I shall receive
I shall see

pouvoir, savoir, vouloir, falloir:

jedevrai
jepourrai
jesaurai
jevoudrai
ilfaudra

I shall have to; I must

I shall be able to; I can
I shall know (how to)
I shall want/wish to
pronoun+will have to; must

25.1.3 Some of the irregular verbs of the other co

aller:
courir:
avoir:
cuellir:
tre:
venir:

jirai
jecourrai
jaurai
jecueillerai
jeserai
jeviendrai

I
I
I
I
I
I

shall
shall
shall
shall
shall
shall

go
run
have
pick
be
come

THE VERB GROUP 95

faire:
tenir:

jeferai
jetiendrai

I shall
I shall

do; make
hold

25.2 How the future tense is used

to express an action or event in future time:
Ilviendra.
Elleferaledemain.

Hell come.
She will do

it tomorrow.

to express habit, or repeated action (with an adv

Nouslironsun journaltousles jours.
Well read a paper every day.
to express conjecture, supposition30): or probability
Quelquun vient darriverseratesinvits.Ce.
Someone has just arrived. It will be your guest to express absolute refusal:

Ninsiste npas,iraipasje.
Dont go on about it. I wont go.
to indicate some distance from someone:
Voudrez-vousencore du th?
Would you like some more tea?
Javoueraique je prfre un verre deau.
I would prefer a glass of water.
as a stylistic device, in a narrative in literatu
Ctait un jeune homme trsresteratimidtoute,saetviel. le
He was a very shy young man, and remained so al
25
asthetenseofthemainverb,accompanyingsi+presenttenseexpressing
condition33.(see1):.1

96

STRUCTURES

On ferala vaisselle, si on a le temps.

Well do the washing-up, if weve time.
25.3 Differences in French and English usage
French and English usage are different in certain
withquand/lorsquewhen:Frenchusesthefuturetense;Englishusesthe
present tense.
Quand tu lrejoindras,tes parents seront vraiment ravis.
When you join your parents, theyll be really d with reference to a future
action French is much
Il fera cevoudraquil. Hell do what he wants. 25.3.1 to express a continuous
action in the fut
Jeseraien train de prparer un repas quand tu arriv
Ill be preparing a meal when you arrive.
Lconomieira(en)saggravant.
The economy will continue to get worse.
25.3To.2expressthenearfuture(lefuturproche):aller+infinitive,withaller
normallyinthepresent,orimperfect,tenseThis.verbphraseisusedinspoken
andwritten,formalndinformalFrench,andoftenreplacesthefuturetense.
DespiteitsnameitcanrefertoanactioninremotefutureItcarries.withitan
ideaofcertaintyabouttheaction,whichisnotnecessarilythereinthefuture tense. It
may express intention.
Elleva russir/russira.
She will succeed.
Les coursvont commencer/commencerontlasemaine prochaine.
Classes begin next week.
Le congrsvaavoir lieulanne prochaine.
The conference will take place next year.
If an actionreallyimmediate,is the present24tense.):3 is used (s
Ellevientdans un instant.She will be here in a moment. The near future is used to
express certainty:

Si tu continues,vasmennuyertu.

THE VERB GROUP 97

If you continue, youll bore me (stiff).

and to express an intention:
Tuvas voir!
Youll see!
Ilva nousmontrer comment le faire.
Hell show us how to do it.
26
26
The imperfect tense
The imperfect tense of most verbs is formed by usi
pluralofthepresenttenseandaddingthendings-ais,-ais,-ait,-ions,-iez,-aient.It is
recommended that you use the first pers because the imperfect tense of every
Frenchtre,canverb, be composed with this form.
donner:
je
tu

donnais
donnais
il/elledonnait

I was giving/gavenous
donnions
vous
donniez
ils/ellesdonnaient

and some more examples:

nousomm
es: jtais

nousfinissons:jefinissais
nousvendons:jevendais
nousrecevons:jerecevais
nousmettons:jemettais

nousfaisons:je
faisais
nouspouvons:
jepouvais
nousavons:ja
vais

buttre:

nousmangeon
s: jemangeais

26.1 How the imperfect

tense is used

inde
scrip
tiono

fpeople,animals,things,st
ateventss,
(ofanylength)inthe past:

98

STRUCTURES

Nousnoussommesretrouvsdansun campdanslecentrede la
FranceNous.logionsdansdestentesCtait.enjuillet,nousavions
froid.
(The Guardian 14.2.95)
We found ourselves in a camp in the centre of F It was July, and we were cold.
in description, as opposed to action:
Jtaislane,jeparlaisparfaitemlefranais,ntjetravaillaisbien lcole. Mes
parents ont eu besoindinterprtedemoi.Je. leu
(The Guardian 14.2.95)
Iwastheldest,IspokeperfectFrench,IworkedwellatschoolMy.
parents needed me. I was their interpreter.
toexpresshabit,orrepeatedaction(frequentlyanadverbialphraseconfirms the
habit, or repeated action):
Nousattendionsltous les jours.
We waited there every day.
Chaque vendredi elle allaitau march.
Every Friday she went to market.
26
to express suggestion:
Si jefaisaislepour toi?
What if I were to do it for you?
to express discretion (usually in the first perso
Je venaisvous parler de son mari.
I came to talk to you about her husband.
to express simultaneity of actions (usually comb the past historic):
Iltraversaitla rue quand il a entendu/entendit son cri
He was crossing the street when he heard his/he
Thetwoactionsccuratthesametime;theimperfectexpressesacontinuousor prolonged
action, the perfect or past historic exp

THE VERB GROUP 99

asa stylisticdevicreplacing,theperfectorpasthistoric,whennarrating story (in

literature or in journalism):
Sonreprsentdanstlex-Yougoslaviedisaitpersuadquele cessez-le-feu ntait
pas encore dfinitivement e
(Le Monde 23.3.95)
His/Her/ItsrepresentativeintheformerYugoslaviasaidhe was
convinced that the cease-fire had not completely
to express conjecture, supposition or probabilit in the past33.1):(see.5
Un pas de plustombaitet. il
One more step, and hed have fallen. to express the
immediate24.):3 past (see
Le trainarrivaitde Paris.
The train had just arrived from Paris.
Ellesortaitde la salle de classe.
She had just left the classroom.
TheseexamplescouldalsomeanThetrainwasarrivingfromParis,Shewas leaving the
classroom. Thevnimperfinthectverbtensevenirphraseofde +infinitive may be used to
express24.)3.the immediate p
Nousvenions decommencer. We had just begun.
to express a condition,siclause33in(see.1):.the1
Siltravaillailt, russirait.
If he worked, he would be successful.
26.1When.1a continuousbutcompletedactioninthepastisexpressedalong
withthetimeitbegan(sinceor)alongwiththeperiofdtimeitlasted (for),
French uses the24imperfect.4):.1 tense (see
Ilneigeaitdepuis trois semaines.
It had been snowing for three weeks.
27
a/Cela faisait un moissavionsque. nous le
We had known for a month.
Depuis combien habitaitdetemps-il en France?

How long had he been living in France?

100

STRUCTURES

Il y avait dixattendaitjourslaquillettre.
He had been waiting for the letter for ten days
In each of the examples,complthetedconactinuousoni andexpressed imperfect tense
in French: the English equivalent i past participle.

27
The past historic
Thepasthistoric(orsimplepastorpreterite)ofmostverbsisformedbyusing
thestemoftheinfinitiveandaddingthendingsofthepasthistoric(see27.)1.
However,irregularverbsmaynotfollowthisrule,anditisadvisabletocheck the
stem in verb tables.
27.1 Past historic endings
Thefollowiendingsareaddedto-erverbs:-ai,-as,-a,-mes,-tes,-rent.
donner:
je
tu
il/elle

donnai
donnas
donna

I gave

nous
donnmes
vous
donntes
ils/elles donnrent

and the following end-irngsverbs:-tois,regular-is,-it, -.mes, -t finir:

je
tu
il/elle

finis
finis
finit

I finished

nous
vous

finmes
fintes
ils/elles finirent

Some-oirverbs, and -almostreverbs,allalso-irhavegrouptheendings. Som examples

with changes in the stem:
voir:vis,jetuvis, il/ellevit,nousvmes, vousvtes,ils/ellesvirent
faire:fis,jetufis,il/ellefit,nousfmes, vousftes, ils/elles firent
mettre:jemis, tumis, il/ellemit,nousmmes, vousmtes,ils/elles
mirent
Note the excvenirptionsandtenir:
venir:jevins,tuvins,il/ellevint,nousvnmes, vousvntes,ils/elles vinrent

THE VERB GROUP 101

tenir:jetins,tutins,il/elletint,noustnmes,voustntes,ils/elles tinrent
85
Thereisa thirdgroupofendingsidentoticalhe-irgroupexceptforthe
vowelInstead.ofi,theyhaveu:-us,-ut,-mes,-tes,-urent.Theseendings
areusedwithmost-oirverbs,includingdevoir,pouvoir,savoir,vouloirand falloir.
recevoir:reus,jetureus,il/ellereut,nousremes,vousretes,ils/
ellesreurent
devoir:jedus, tudus, il/elledut,nousdmes, vousdtes,ils/elles durent
pouvoir:pus,jevouloir:voulus,jesavoir:sus,jefalloir:fallutil
and
avoir:jeus,tueus,il/elleeut,nousemes, vousetes,ils/elleseurent
The-usendings are also used with-reverbs,asmallincludingtre:groupof
tre:fus,jetufus,il/ellefut,nousfmes,vousftes,ils/ellesfurent
and some other examples:
connatreto know:
lireto read:
vivreto live:

jeconnus

jelus
jevcus

There are two-irregularverbswhich-ushaveendings:the

courirto run: jecourus
mourirto die: il/ellemourut
27.2 How the past historic is used
The past historic is not used very frequently, an
FrenchbytheperfecttenseHowever,.itmayoccurinformalwrittenorspoken contexts: in
some newspapers and magazines, in lite
publicspeechesItis.mostcommonlyfoundinthethirdpersonsingularand plural. The past
historic is used to express:
an event or action, of long or short duration, th necessarily remote in time:

102

STRUCTURES

Le Gnral devcutGaulle80ans.
General de Gaulle lived for eighty years.
Le sportspanouitdanslesdmocraties:maisilfut lhonneur
sousle totalitarisme stalinien.
Sportwasencouragedindemocraticcountries:butitwasworshipped under
Stalins totalitarian rgime.
En 1991, lquipe tdennisFrancegagnala decoupe Davis.
In 1991, the French team won the Davis Cup.
Note that the English equivalent in each of the ex was encouraged (passive), was
worshipped (passive)
a series of completed events, perceived as points
The following examples are takenLeMondefrom(23.an3.95),articlethe id
aftercampaignmeetingheldbytheSocialistcandidateinthePresidential elections:
28
limagefut bonnecelaparut poursonentouragelssentielon
sentittout de mmeson pousefitsigne luide
the impression was goodthat seemed to be the e entouragethey felt
neverthelesshis wife signall
andincombinationwithandincontrasttoheimperfecttense,which describes the
background of the event26.):1 or series o
Puis,iltourna lerobinetdelvier,selava lesmains,essuya aulinge
accroch sous le grelleguettaittuyausesEtmoindresgestes
(Henri TroyatGrandeur(1936)Nature)
Thenheturnedonthetap,washedhishands,driedthemonthetowel
hanging under the thin pipe. And she watched his
Inthefollowingexamplethepasthistoricacompaniedbysupporting adverbial phrase:
Ilregardaitpassertouteslesvoituresettout coup compritpourquoi
elle tait partie.
Hewaswatchingallthecarsgoingpastandsuddenlyunderstoodwhy she
had left.
Thedescriptionofwhathemanwasdoing(regardaisinterruptedt)suddenly by an
event(comprit).

THE VERB GROUP 103

28
The compound tenses
The compound tenses of the indicative are formed by a
verbtooneofthesimpletnsesoftheauxiliaverbsyavoirandtre.The
compoundtensesofthemajorityofverbsareformedwithavoir.Reflexive
(pronominal)verbs (see40),someintransitiveverbs(see42.),2andthepassive (see41)
are formedtre.with
28.Avoir1+past participle
the perfect tensejai donn
the future perfectjaurai tensedonn
the
pluperfect jtenavaisedonn
the
past anteriorjeus tedonnse

I gave,
I shall
I had
I had

I have given, I have bee

have given
given, gave
given, gave

28.1.1 The past participle in the avoircompoundagreestenseswith aprecedingdirect

objectin gender and number. The preceding be a personal pronoun12),a
relative(seeque/qu,pronoun: lequel(see15); the interrogativequel?adjective:
(see16.4);.or3combien (seede?16.4).4
Je les aivu(e)s.
I have seen them.
29
Jai vu ltudiantequevousavez mentionne.
I have seen the student you mentioned.
Je ne saislaquellepasdes voitures eil. a achet
I dont know which of the cars he bought.
Quels conseils lui avezs?-vous donn
What advice did you give him/her?
Combien de lettres ases-?tu crit
How many letters did you write?
The past participleneveragresen:with
On disait que trente jeunes filles attendaientn vu que dix.
They said that thirty girls were waiting at the
28.2tre+past participle
the perfect tense jesuis all(e)
the
future perfect tjenseserai all(e)
the
pluperfect tensejtais all(e)

I went,
have gone
I shall
have gone
I had gone, went

104

STRUCTURES

the past anterior tensejefus all(e)

I had gone, went

28.2The.1pastparticipleinthcompoundtensesformedwithtreagreeswith
thesubject in gender and number.
je suisall, alle
tu all,es alle
il allest
elle alleest

nous sommesalls, alles

vous tesall, alls, alle, alles
ils sontalls
elles allessont

29
How the perfect is used
Theperfecttenseisthemostwidelyusedofallthepastenses,inspoken, written, formal
and informal contexts. It is used
completed actions or events, without any implicat
Jai vu le film. I saw the film.
Frequently a precise time is given:
Elleest arrive six heures. She arrived at six oclock.
a series of completed actions or events:
Ila voulu allenrvacancesIIa.consultunecarteIl.a lou une
voitureest. partiIlhier.
He wanted to go on holiday. He looked at a map. yesterday.
29
Adverbssuchasdabord,puis,ensuite,enfinmaybeaddedtomakeitclear that
one action or event follows another.
Dabord ellesst leve, puisellesst lave, ensuiteellesst
peignet, enfinelleest sortie.
Firshetgotup,thenshegotwashed,thenshecombedherhair,andfinally she
went out.
Examples of the perfect in a formal context:

THE VERB GROUP 105

Danslercententretienquilaaccord auMonde(18.3.Boris95)
Eltsinearaffirmsonoppositionueextensimmdiateon lOTAN.
(Le Monde 23.3.95)
IntherecentinterviewwithLeMonde,BorisYeltsinreaffirmedhis
opposition to an immediate enlargement of NATO.
Lampleurdu nonau rfrendumsudoisdu 14 septembrea
surpristout le monde.
(Le Monde 17.9.03)
ThesizeofthenovoteintheSwedishreferendumof14September
took everyone by surprise.
and in an informal context:
Tu vas faire tes devoirs maintenant!faitsMais je les
Youre going to do your homework now!But Ive
The action or event may be related to the present, Note how remote some of the
following events are:
Jaimang, on peut sortir si tu veux.
Ive had something to eat. We can go out, if yo
Jaivu le film cet aprs-midi.
I saw the film this afternoon.
Ilsont vule film il y a un mois.
They saw the film a month ago.
Elleest morteil y a cinquante ans.
She died fifty years ago.
Le Gnral deestGaullenen1890.
General de Gaulle was born in 1890.
Inthefollowingexamplesnotehowthecontextcreatesadditionmeaningslfor the
perfect:
the action is completed and in the past, but one are still shut:
On a fermles fentres.
Weve shut (We shut) the windows.
theactionprobablyofsomedurationcompletedwasinthepast,buthe
speakerfeelstheffectsoftheactionashe/sheisspeakingThe.context
suggestsarelationofcauseandeffectbetweenthetwoactionsNote.the English
tense form:

106

STRUCTURES

30
Je le sens! Cestas affreux!fum. Tu
I can smell it! Its awful! Youve been smoking
theactionswerecompletedinthepastbutwereclearepeatlysedveral times:
Cette phrase?lairpteJecinquante fois!
That phrase? Ive repeated it fifty times!
Nousavons coutle bulletin mtorologique tous les m
We listened to the weather forecast every morni
The perfect is often found in close proximity to t
theperfectisexpressinganactiorneventhe,imperfectisdescribingthe background,
and/or giving 26an.)1.explanation (see
Nous noussommes lev(e)stt ce matfaisaitn.beauII et
sommesnous parti(e)spasser la journe la campagne.
We got up early this morning. The weather was l day in the country.
In the following example the imperfect describes t expresses an event which cuts
across the backgroun suddenness of the event.
Ilregardaitpassertouteslesvoituresettout coup ila compris
pourquoi ses amis prfrent la bicyclette.
He waswatchingallthecarsgoingpastandsuddenlyheunderstood why his
friends prefer to go by bike.
TheimmediatepastisoftexpressedninFrenchbyvenirde+infinitive(see 24.,263.)1 where
English has the perfect or pluperfect
Jeviens dele lui dire.
Ellevnait departir.

Ive just told him/her.

Shed just left.

Theperfectmaybeusedtoexpressacompletedactiorneventinthenear future. An
adverbial would be required to confirm
Jai finidans une demi-heure.
Ill have finished in half an hour.

THE VERB GROUP 107

30
How the future perfect is used
Thefutureperfectalwaysreferstoanactioreventwhichtakesplaceinthe future. The tense
may occur in a main clause or in
inmain clauses to express a completed action or eve
Elleaurabienttfini.
Shell have finished soon.
Nouserons parti(e)s cette heure-l.
Well have left at/by that time.
Dans deux semaurontines terminilsleurs tudes.
In two weeks theyll have finished their studie
31
independentclauses,whicharealwaysintroducedbyconjunctionssucha
ds que,aussitt que; quand, lorsque;by aprelativesque, pro
toexpresscompletionofaactioreventbeforeanotheractioreventin
the future. The verb in the main clause25.is):3 usuall
Ds que nousaurons mang nousironsles chercher.
As soon as weve eaten well go and look for th
Ellepourra le fairequand tuauras toutexpliqu.
She will be able to do it when you have explain
Jeteprteraile livrequejaurai avantlu la fin de la semaine.
Ill lend you the book which Ill have read bef
Note the English equivalent of the future perfect:
as soon
youhave
ds que auronsnous mang quand aurastu haves
explained
expliqu quejaurai lu
eatenwe
whichll
when
Ihave read
bably) have told him
H

w
that w
i
i
toexpressconjecture,
Ils ne sont
s
l
pasaurontarrivs!
suppositionorpossibil
l
manquleIlstrain.
m
itylike
They havent arrived!
o
thejustfuturetense
(
They (must) have
t
(see25.):2
p
missed t
h
r
e
Sa mreauraluiditque
o to express a mild
r
nous sommes l.

imperative or warning:

108

STRUCTURES

Tuauras rangta chambre cet aprs-midi!

Youll tidy your room this afternoon!
31
How the pluperfect is used
Thepluperfectalwaysreferstoanactionoreventwhichtakesplaceinthepast.
It may occur in a main clause or in a dependent cl expresses, or suggests,
completibeforen anotherofactionevent.or
inmain clauses:
Elleavait terminses tudes.
She had finished her studies.
Nousavions parlau prsident avant sa dmission.
We had spoken/spoke to the president before he
Tutais entr(e)au moment o elle commenait chanter
You had (just) entered/entered at the moment sh
Note the English equivalent of the pluperfect:
avait termin
avions parl
tais entr(e)

had finished
had spoken/spoke
had entered/entered

32
independent clauses,whereitisfrequentlyaccompaniedbyperfector imperfect in the
main clause. The dependent claus
isalwaysintroducedbyaconjunctionsuchaspuisque;aprsque;depuis
que; quand,lorsque; parceor byquea relative pronoun.
Ctaitsansespoirpuisquilnavaitpaseu lecouragedposerla
question.
It was hopeless because he hadnt had the coura
Aprs quelleavait critsalettrededmission,elletaittombe
malade.
After she wrote her letter of resignation, she
Jai dpens toutlargentquejavaisreu demon preavantson
dpart.
I have spent all the money I received from my f

THE VERB GROUP 109

Inthefollowingexamplethepluperfectconveysasenseofdiffidenceor
politenessordiscretionItmay.evenimplymildcriticismasjustitcanin English, with the
appropriate stress on the auxili
Iltait venutinviter dner ce soir.
Hehad come to invite you to dinner tonight.
The pluperfect is also used to33express.1),.1but ainconditionthiscas condition is
unfulfilledthe action or event never
On lui aurait donn largent dontlavaitildemandavait. besoin
We would have given him the money if he had ask
Thepluperfectisusedinindirect(oreported)speechiftheverbinthemain clause refers to
an action or event in past time.
Ma mrenesavaitpas/nau/navaitjamaissuquandnoustions
rentr(e)s.
My mother didnt know/never knew when we got ho
32
How the past anterior is used
Thepastanteriorbelongsessentiallytowritten,formalFrenchItcan.occurina
main clause or a dependent clause.
when it is mainusedclausein it is accompanied by an adv
usuallyindicatesthattheactiorneventissuddenorrapidVerbs.inother
maintensesinthetextwillbeinthepasthistoricTheEnglish.equivalentis had+past
participle, or simply the past tense.
Ileut bientttropbu.On luidonna manger.
Hed soon had too much to drink. We gave him so
A peine fut-ellearrivequilcommena chanter la Marseillaise
She had scarcely arrived when he began to sing
ina dependentclause,thepastanteriorisalways introducedbyoneofthe following
conjunctions:aprsque; quand, lorsque; aussitt peine,and the
mainalwaysverbin isthe past historic.
33
Ilrougit ds quileut ditle mot.
As soon as he had said/said the word, he blushe

110

STRUCTURES

If the mainotverbintheis past historic,not theusedpast. anterio

Ila rougi ds quila ditle mot.
33
The conditional and the conditional perfe
The conditional tense is composed of25)+the stemendingsof t of the imperfect:-ais,ais, -ait, .-ions, -iez, -aient
donner:
je
donnerais
tu
donnerais
il/elledonnerait

I would givenous
donnerions
vous
donneriez
ils/ellesdonneraient

finir:
je
finirais
tu
finirais
il/ellefinirait

I would finishnous
finirions
vous
finiriez
ils/ellesfiniraient

vendre:
je
vendrais
tu
vendrais
il/ellevendrait

I would sellnous
vendrions
vous
vendriez
ils/ellesvendraient

Theconditionalperfectiscomposedoftheconditionalofavoirortre+past
participle:
avoir:jaurais,tuaurais,il/elleaurait,nousaurions,vousauriez,ils/
ellesauraient
tre:jeserais,tuserais,il/elleserait,nouserions,vouseriez,ils/
ellesseraient
jaurais donn
jeserais all(e)

I
I

would
would

have
have

given
gone

33.1 How the conditional and the conditional perfe

The conditional has three main functions. It is u conditions. In an indirect (or
reported) context, is in one of the past tenses, the conditional is us to a future action
or event in 50 the.d,5 51context.b). of past

THE VERB GROUP 111

Elle a mditquelleverraitmetout lheure. (Je te verrai

She said she would see me soon. (Ill see you
33
Ilmcrivaitquilnarriveraitpas avant la fin du mois.
He wrote (to say) that he would not be here bef
Jesavaisquilpleuvrait.
I knew it would rain.
Theconditionalperfectnormallyimpliesthattheactiorneventiscomplete before
another action or event:
Pierreapromisquillaurait terminquand nousserions rentr(e)s.
Peter promised (that) he would have finished be
Le professeuraditquilaurait rendules copies avant les vacan
The teacher said he would return the papers bef
Jesavaisquilnauraittoujoursreupasta lettre.
I knew he would still not have received your le
Theconditionalandtheconditionalperfectoftenoccurindependentclauses
introducedds byque, aussitt que; (seequand,30).Thelorsquemain verb in one
of the past tenses. Note the tense in the E
Ilrpondaitqueds quilauraitassez dargentiraitvoiril le film.
He replied that as soon as he had enough money film.
Jeluiai demand dallumerlatlvisionquandelleauraitfinises
devoirs.
I asked her to put on the television when she ha
33.1.1 The conditional and thesiconditionalmeaningifperfect. Thereisa
sequenceoftenseswhichastobeusedwhenconditionsare
expressedinFrenchThe.sequenceisthesameasthesequenceoftensesin
EnglishconditiotenalsesThe.dependentsiclausecanprecedeorfollowthemain
clause.

Dependent verb

Main verb

si+present
future or
imperative
Silfait beau demain
jirai la plage.
If its fine tomorrow Ill go to the beach.
Si tusors
If you go out
si+imperfect

branche le rpondeurtlphonique.
switch on the answering machine.
conditional

Si vousaviezde largent

vouspourriezpartirvacancesen

112

STRUCTURES

Dependent verb Main verb

If you had some money you could go on holiday.

In the following sequence, the action or event exp never actually took placethe
condition was unfulf

si+pluperfect
Si mon rveilavaitsonn
If my alarm had rung

conditional perfect

jeserais arriv(e)temps.
I would have arrived in time.

33
Thefollowingexamplesshowhowtheorderoftheclausesinconditional
can be changed round:

sentences

Si tunavaispasdonn latarteauxcerisestonfrretasurlaurait
mange .
If you hadnt given the cherry tart to your brot eaten it.
Ta suraurait mangla tarte
auxsitucerisesnelavaispasdonne ton frre.
Yoursisterwouldhaveatenthecherrytartifyouhadntgivenitto your
brother.
33.1When.2thereismorethanoneconditioninasentence,siisusedwiththe
appropriatesequenceoftensesforthefirstconditiForsubsequeconditionsn. siis
replacque+sudbyjunctive.
Si vousavez assezdargentetque vousfassiezdesconomies,vous
pourrezpartir en vacances.
If you have enough money and you save a bit, yo
33.1.The3conditionalisusedespeciallywithaimer,prfrer,devoir,
pouvoirandvouloir:
to express politeness:
Elle a trspourraischaud,-tuouvrir la fentre?

She is very hot, could you open the window?

Vousdevriezlui dire merci.
You should say thank you to him/her.
Ilvoudraitun billet aller et retour Paris-Londres.
Hed like a return ticket Paris-London.

THE VERB GROUP 113

to express a wish or desire to do something:

Jaimeraisvisiter les muses de Paris.
Id like to visit the museums in Paris.
33.1The.4conditionalperfectisusedwithaimer,prfrer,devoir,pouvoir
andvouloir:
to express regret:
Ilauraitbienaim voirlapeinturedePicassomaislexpositionsest
termine la semaine dernire.
He wouldhavelikedtoseethePicassobuthexhibitionendedlast week.
Le snack-bar estJauraisfermbienvoulu. toffrir un caf.
The snack-bars shut. Id have liked to buy you 33.1.5 The conditional and the
conditional perfect
to give information that is doubtful, unconfirmed media:
34
Est-ce vrainyauraitquilpas de runion demain matin?
Is it true there wont be a meeting tomorrow mo
Laccident ferroviaireauraitfaittrentedhier-trois victimes.
Thirty-three people are feared dead in yesterda to imply conjecture,
supposition25.,302):or probability (
On diraitquil va pleuvoir.
Youd think it was going to rain.
Selon elle une fouledevraitattendrenorme larPrsidentivedu.
According to her a huge crowd was waiting for t
Il nest toujoursauraitpasmanqullautobus?.Il
Hes still not here. Could he have missed the b
Tu vas tre en auraisretard;dprendretu un taxi.
You are going to be late. You should have taken

114

STRUCTURES

34
The subjunctive
Theessentdialfferencebetweentheindicativeandthesubjunctivehastodo
with meaning: whereas the indicative refers to act orfuturetime
(see24),thesubjunctiveisustodexpressfeelingpossibilities,
doubts,wishes,orders,etcIn.otherwords,thesubjunctiveisusdwhenan action or event is
notyeta afact,or whennot there is some or reservation about a possible action or
event.
Thesubjunctiveissometimesusedasa mainverb,utitusuallyoccursin
dependentclausesfollowingverbssuchasavoirpeurquetofear,croireque
tothink,vouloirquetowant,wishorconjunctionssuchasavantque before,pourvu
queprovidedsupposthat,supposing/assumingque th
The subjunctive is not frequently used in English
Frenchsubjunctivetensesmaybeindistinguishablefromtheindicatensesive.
However,sometimesitisappropriatetoincludemay,might,shouldin English
translations.
34.1 The subjunctive tenses
There are four subjunctive tenses:

Simple tenses

Compound tenses

present(subjonctif prsent)(see35perfect(subjonctif (seepass)37

imperfect(subjonctif imparfait)(see36pluperfect(subjonctif plus-queparfait
(see38)

35
35
The present subjunctive
Thepresentsubjunctiveofmostverbsiscomposedofthestemofthethird
person plural of the present-e,indicative+the-es,-e,-.ions,ending-ie
donner:quejedonne, quetudonnes, quil/elledonne, quenous
donnions,que vousdonniez,quils/ellesdonnent
finir:quejefinisse,quetufinisses,quil/ellefinisse,quenous
finissions,que vousfinissiez,quils/ellfinissents
vendre:quejevende, quetuvendes, quil/ellevende,quenous

vendions,que vousvendiez,quils/vendentlles
35.Some1ofthendingsofthepresentsubjunctivearethesameascertain endings in
indicative tenses:

THE VERB GROUP 115

someverbshavethesameformsforallthe singularandthethirdperson
plural of the present indicative and the present sub
donner:
present je
indicativetu

donne
donnes
il/elledonne
ils/ellesdonnent

present que
je
donne
subjunctiveque
tu
donnes
quil/elledonne
quils/ellesdonnent

someverbshavethesameformsforthethirdperson pluralofthepresent indicative and

the present subjunctive, for examp
quils/ellfinisse
ls
finir: ils/ellesfinissent mettre: ils/ellmettents nts
quils/ell
recevoir: ils/ellesreoivent venir:
quils/mettentlle
esvienne
ils/ellesviennent
s
nt
quils/reoiventl
savoir:nousavions
que
most verbs have the
avoir:nous
finir:nousfinissions
sachio
tre: nous
samefirstandformssecond
vendre:nousvendions35.1Verbs.2whichavestem
personsforthepluralof the
faire:nous
chaangesinthepresentindic
imperfect indicative and the
ative(se24.),2 have similar
present subjunctive:
The exceptions pouvoir:nous
changes in the present
donner:nousdonnions que
subjunctive:

116

STRUCTURES

boire: queboive,jeque boives,tuquil/elleboive,quils/ellesboivent

que nobuvions,que vobuviezs

36 devoir:quejedoive, quetudoives,quil/elledoive,quils/elles
doivent
que nousdevions, que vousdeviez
prendre: queprenne,jeque prennes,tu quil/elleprenne,quils/elles
prennentque nousprenions, que vouspreniez
venir: quevienne,jeque viennes,tu quil/ellevienne,quils/elles
viennentque nousvenions, que vousveniez
35.1There.3isa small,butimportant,groupofirregularverbsinwhichthe present
subjunctive has a completely different for
faire: quefasse,jeque fasses,tuquil/ellefasse,que
nousfassions,que vousfassiez,quils/ellesfassent
pouvoir:quejepuisse,quetupuisses,quil/ellepuisse,quenous
puissions,que vouspuisiez,quils/ellespuissent
savoir:quejesache, quetusaches, quil/ellesache,quenous
sachions,que voussachiez,quils/ellessachent
falloir:faillequil
35.1A.4fewverbsnotonlyhavedifferentformfromthepreseindicative they also have
changes in the first and second per
aller:quejaille,quetuailles,quil/elleaille,quils/ellesaillentque
nousallions,que vousalliez
avoir:quejaie,quetuaies,quil/elleait,quils/ellesaientque
nousayons, que vousayez
tre:quejesois,quetusois,quil/ellesoit,quils/ellessoientque
nousoyons, que vsoyezus
vouloir: veuille,quejeque veuilles,tuquil/eveuille,quils/elles veuillent
que nousvoulions, que vvouliezs
36
The imperfect subjunctive
The imperfect subjunctive is composed of the stem of the past historic+the
minusendings-sse,the-sses, -t/-t/-t, -ssent.Theimperfectsubjunctivekeepsthevowel(a,i,u)ofthepasthistoric. The third
persons singular and plural are the ones they are the forms given below.

donner: quil/elledonnt,quils/ellesdonnassent

THE VERB GROUP 117

finir: quil/ellefint,quils/ellfinissents vendre:

quil/ellevendt,quils/vendissentlles

Thereisa smallgroupofverbswhichkeeptheu ofthepasthistoricofmost theoirverbs,includingthedevoirgoup,anda few-reverbssuchasboire,

connatre,lire.
recevoir: quil/elret,ls/ereussentlls
devoir: quil/eldt,ls/ellesdussent
Avoirandtrealso keepuofthetheir past historic form:
avoir: quil/elleet,quils/elleseussent
tre: quil/elleft,quils/ellesfussent
39
37
The perfect subjunctive
Theperfectsubjunctiveiscomposedofthepresentsubjunctiofavoireortre
+past participle.
donner: queaiedonnj

venir: quesois venu(e)je

finir: aiequefinij
arriver: soisquearriv(e)je
vendre: aiequevenduj
se reposer: quesois repos(jeme)
38
The pluperfect subjunctive
The pluperfect subjunctive is composed avoiroftheor impe tre+ past participle.
donner: jqueeusse donn

venir: qfusse jevnu(e)

finir:jeussque fini
arriver: fussque arriv(e)je
vendre: jeusseque vendu
se reposer: qfusse jerpos(e)me
39
Sequence of tenses; uses of the subjuncti
Therearerulesgoverningthesequenceoftensesusedinthemainclauseanda dependent
clause, when the main verb is in the ind is in the subjunctive.

118

STRUCTURES

Main clause (indicative)

Dependent clause (subjunctive)

present

Jattends

either the presentquil finisse

or the perfectquil ait fini

future

Jattendrai

future perfectJaurai attendu

perfect

Jai attendu

imperative

Attends

imperfect

Jattendais

past historicJattendis
pluperfect
conditional

either the imperfectquilfint

or the pluperfectquil et fini

Javais attendu
Jattendrais

conditional perfectJaurais attendu

There is a tendency in contemporary French to avo pluperfect tenses of the

subjunctive. The present place in written, spoken, and informal French. In very formal
spoken French the imperfect and the plup occur.
A guideline for the sequence of tenses in contem tense of the main verb is present,
future or pas subjunctive in the dependent clause. Reference to or events will help in
deciding whether to use th and events in the present or future), or the perfec in the
past).
39
Elleveut que tu partes.
She wants you to go.
Ellevoulait quetu sois couch(e) 9 heures.
She wanted you to be in bed by 9 oclock.

39.1 The subjunctive in main clauses

The subjunctive may occur in main clausesfrequen usually in the third person
singular or plural.

THE VERB GROUP 119

to express a wish or desire that an action or eve

(Que) Viennentles vacances!(note the inversion) I wish it
were (was) the holidays!
Pourvu quilfassebeau demain!
I hope its fine tomorrow!
as a form of imperative, or of encoque:ragement, usu
Qu ellesviennent monbureau!
Que ces idessoutiennentte!
Soitu
to express
n
indignation,que: following
trian
gle
Que jetoffreun
ABC
cadeau? Jamais de la

vie!
Let
Me give you a
ABC
present? Not likely!
be a
triang

le
Soitl
toexpresspossi
es
bility,orassump
deux
tionThesubjunc
hypo
tive.mayfollow
ths
que,and
es
suiva
inversion may
ntes
occur:

Give
Qu ellerponde et
n the
nous verrons bien si
two
elle a appris sa
hypot
Let her answer and
hese
well see if she has
s
learned

Tell them to come to

my offi I hope these
ideas help you!
which
ivehastobe used
follow followingcertainverbsorconj
unctions(see
in certain 39.2).The2listswhichfollowgi
idiomatic
vethemostcommonofthever
expressions: bsand conjunctions which
introduce
Que Dieu
thenotsubjuncexhaustive.:
bnissete!
Onthe ol
May God
twooftheverbsmayalsobefoll
bless you!
owedbyanindicativdepe,ndio
Sauve qui
ngthe meaning, for
peut! Run for example:
your
life!/Every
39
man for hi
direquetos
Vive la
Rpublique!
ay+indicati
Long live
vebutdireq
France!
uetotellso
meonetodo
39.2 The
something
subjunctive
in dependent +subjunctiv
clauses
e
Thesubjunct

120

STRUCTURES

Thesubjunctivemayalsobeusedwithoutanyintroductoryverbconjunction whena
speakerowriterwantstosuggestthathe/sheassomedoubtor uncertainty about
something.
39.2.The1subjunctivemustbe usedfollowingverbsorverbphrases expressing
doubt, uncertainty, possibility:

douter que

to doubt (that)

il
il
il
il
il
il

its
its
its
its
its
its

douteuxest que
improbableest que
peuestprobable que
impossibleest que
peuestsr que
incertainest que

doubtful (that)
unlikely (that)
unlikely (that)
impossible (that)
not certain (that)
not certain (that)

Ilest peu probable elqulesache.

Its unlikely that she knows.
Notethatnepasdouterquemeanstohaveno doubtthatandisfollowedby the
indicative:
Jedoute quevousayez raison.
I dont think you are right.
Jene doute pas quevousavez raison.
I have no doubt that youre right.
Expressionssuchasilestpossiblequ/ilsepeutqueItispossible,ilsemble
que it seems are followedor theby thesubjunctiveindicativedependin
whetherspeakerorwriterfeelscertainty(indicative)ordoubt(subjunctive) about what is
said or written. When the expression they are followed by
Croiretheandsubjunctivepenserarealso. followed b subjunctive if they are
interrogative or negative. always observed, as in the fifth example below.
Ilestpossiblequelleviendra.
Its possible (very likely) that shell come.
Ilestpossiblequellevienne.
Its possible (not really likely) that shell c
Est-ilpossible quellevienne?
Is it possible that shell come?

Ilnest pas possiblequellevienne.

It is not possible that shell come.

THE VERB GROUP 121

Jene crois pas quelleseral demain.

I dont think shell be here tomorrow.
necessity, obligation, restriction, advantage:
39
ilfaut que

necessary

il utileest que worth it

il essentiel que
essential
ilconvient que should be
ilimporte que important
ilvaut mieux que
be better
Ilfaudra quetusoisl midi. You must be there at noon.
Ilvaut mieux quetu aillesy.

Youd better go.

wanting, wishing, agreeing, accepting:

vouloir wantque prfrer preferquepermettre allowque exiger
demandqueviter que+neavoidsattendre expectceque tenir
ceinsistqueordonner orderquedire queorder
Que veux-tuquejefasse?
What do you want me to do?
(andnotetheveryinformwaylofsayingthesamething:Questtu-cveux que
jyfasse?)
Jene supporte pasque turpondesmecomme a!
I will not stand for you answering me like that
feelings, emotions, attitudes (whenever they car the explnetiveincertain
47cases.):12 (see
craindre+nequefear

trecontent que pleased

avoir peur+nequefear treravi que delighted

redouter (+neque) fear tretonn que astonished
regretter(+neque)regret tredsol que upset
se rjouirbe quedlighted tresatisfait quesatisfied
stonnerbequeastonishedcestdommage que its a pity

Jai peur quilne soiten retard.

122

STRUCTURES

Im afraid he may be late.

Cestdommage quellesnepuissentpas taccompagner.
Its a pity they cant go with you.
39.2.2 The subjunctive must be used after the foll
time:
avant que(+n) before
en attendant que
jusqu ce que

while
until

Il faut avantpartirquil(ne)fassenuit.
We must leave before it gets dark.
Elle est jusqurestec quelenfantsoit endormi(e).
She stayed until the child was asleep.
39
NotethatininformalFrench,thesubjunctivesomtimesoccursfollowing aprs quewhen
the conjunction refers to an action31). or
Thisprobablyhappensbecausethespeakerorwriterisassociatingaprsque
with the avantrule for.que
Aprs quelleait/aannonc lesrsultatsnousommesall(e)sprendre
un petit verre.
After she announced the results we went for a q
concession:
bien que/quoique/malgrque/encore quealthough, even though
qui que
whoever
quoi
que
whatever
quel
que(usuallytre)with
whatever
o que
wherever
and the adverbssi/quelque/pour+adjective+que however+adjectiv
Bien queje sache,leje narrive pas y croire.
Although I know it, I cant believe it.
Quoi que tufasses,tu ne vas pas changer sa dcision.
Whatever you do, you wont change his/her mind.
Quelles que soientleurs raisons, ils nauraient pas d

Whatever their reasons, they shouldnt have sai

Si durquelletravaillelle, ne russit jamais.

THE VERB GROUP 123

However hard she works, she doesnt succeed.

Note the following use of the third person singula trein the setftphrase-ce:
Ft-cepour les encourager un peu!
If only to give them a little encouragement!
On a constatlesignesdunchangemenft-,cedunchangement
progressif!
There have been signs of change, even if its o
hypothesis, introducedqueandfrequentlyby followed by an a asou nonor not:
Qu ilaille (ou non)avec moi, je vais au match.
Whether he goes with me or not, Im going to th
condition:
pourvu que/ condition que
suppos
que
moins
que+ne

provided that
assuming that
unless

Ils taiderontcondition quetu nedisesrien tes amis.

Theyll help you provided (that) you say nothin
39
aim/intended result; result/consequence:
pour que/afin que
in
order
to
trop/assez+adjective+pour que too+adjective+to
de peur que+ne/deque+necrainteforfear
that, so thatnot
viter que+nesans que
to avoid
(something happening)
Les enfantssezsontgrand(e)spour quon puisseles laisser seul(e)s
The children are old enough to be left on their
De crainte quevousne manquiez lavion, je vous ai rserv u
So that you dont miss the plane, Ive called y
Elles sont sanspartiqueleurs parentsaient entenduesles.
They left without their parents hearing them.
and some expressionslintentionsuchastheest queintentionlefaits to,que the fact
that:

124

STRUCTURES

Lintention est quil puissetravailler chez lui.

The intention is that he should be able to work
Sometim(especiallynspokenadinformalFrench,andusuallyfollowingan
imperative)quealone is enough to express an intended re
Approchez queje vousvoie!
Come closer so that I can see you!
Notetheconjunctionaupointquetothextentthatwhichisfollowedbythe subjunctive
when it is used to express (unfulfille is negative or interrogative:
Cespaquetsnesont pas lourdsaupointque nousdevionslesporter
trois.
These parcels are not so heavy that it will need
Andtherearethreeconjunctionswhicharefollowedbythesubjunctiveorthe
indicativedependinguponwhetheraimwasonlyintended,orhopedfor,
merelyapossibility(+subjunctivorwhe),therinfacttheresultorconsequence actually
occurred (+indicative).
de sorte que/deque/demanirefaon que

so that

Lve-detoifaon quetu puisses voir le dfil.

Stand up so that (hopefully) you can see the pr Lve-toidefaon voir le
dfil(same.subject in both clause
+the infinitive)
Stand up and youll (definitely) be able to see
Finally, there isnonthe(pas)expressionnotquethat which is used
dismiss,acauseorreasonThe.followingclausefrequentlyprovidesthereal cause. In the
example, note how the consequence pr
39
EllenevapasvenirNon. quellenenaitpasenvie,maisellesera
ltranger.
She isnt coming. Not that she doesnt want to,
place:
o quewherever
do que

from where

jusquo

how far

THE VERB GROUP 125

O quelleaille,jirai aussi.
Wherever she goes. Ill go too.
39.3 The subjunctive or indicative in a relative c
Thechoiceofsubjunctiveorindicativerelativeclausedpendsupon
whetherinformationtheclauseismerelyapossibility(subjunctive),or whether it is a
reality (indicative).
Jeveuxvivredansup paysarabequi ailleavecmon prnom,ma
couleur de peau, ma culture.
(The Guardian 16.2.95)
I want to live in an Arab country which suits m skin, and my culistheuresuch.
(Buta country?)
Jeveuxvivredansun paysarabequi va avecmon prnom,ma
couleur de peau, ma culture.
IwantoliveinanArabcountrywhichsuitsmyname(Andthereis one!)
Elle
She
Elle
She
And only
il ny a
il
ny
il
ny

cherche unequi soitmaisonplus petite.

is looking for a smallermightbe houseone.). (There
cherche unequi estmaisonplus petite.
is looking for a smallarersomehouseon. the(Andmarketthere.)
the subjunctive is used following some ne
rien qui
there
is nothing that
a personne qui
there
is nobody who
a aucun homme/livretherequiisnt a man/book that

Il ny a rien qui puissemaider.

There is nothing that can help me.
39.The4subjunctivefollowingsuperlativeadjctivesandexpressionssuch
as
premier/dernier
first/last
le meilleur/le pire the best/worst
le plus grand/le moinsbiggergrandothebiggest/smallerorthe smallest
seul only nepersonne/nejamais/nenobody/never/not one
aucun
These expressions are usually followedqui, que,by.a dontrelati

40

126

STRUCTURES

Cest/Celesontderniersquiaient rpondu.
They were the last people who replied.
Cestla meilleurehistoirequejaiejamaisentendue.
Its the best story Ive ever heard.
Il estseullvelequi ait comprisla question.
He is the only pupil who understood the questio
Ellen connatpersonne qui soitaussi jolie quelle.
She doesnt know anyone as pretty as she is.

NOTE
Theexpressionslapremire/dernfoistherefirst/lasttimeare
adverbialphrasesanddo notinfluencethuseoftheindicativeorthe subjunctive.

39.5 Ways of avoiding the subjunctive

ItissometimesposibletoavoidthesubjunctiveThisusually.dependsupon
theavailabiliofalternativeyconstructionsfollowingverbsandconjunctions, and on the
main and dependentsame claussubjects.havingSome examplthe
verbs and impersonal verbs:
avoir peur+infinitiveinsteaddeavoirof peur+ne+subjunctiveque
viter+infinitivede insteadviterof+neque+subjunctive voulo+irnfinitive
insteadvouloirf+subjunctiveque
il faut+infinitive insteadiloffaut+subjunctiveque
il est poss+iblenfinitiveinsteaddeilofest possible+subjunctiveque il
convient+infinitiveinsteaddeilofconvient+subjunctiveq
conjunctions:
sans+infinitive
instead sansof
+subjunctiveque
pour+infinitive
instead pourof
que+subjunctive
avant+infinitivede
instead avantof
que(+n) subjunctive
afin+indicativede
instead afinof
+subjunctiveque

moins+infinitiveins
teadde
ofmoins que+ne+subjunctive
de
peur+infinitiveinst
eadde
deof peur+neque+subjunctive
manire+infinitive
de
instead
deof manire+subjunctiveque
de
faon+infinitivein deof faon+subjunctiveque

stead
Some conjunctions may also be used as prepositions
avant sonarrive,il/ellemalgr leurdpart,ils/ellesjusqu ton
retour, tu

THE VERB GROUP 127

40 Reflexive
verbs
Reflexiveverbs(alsocalledpronominalverbs)areverbswhichareprecededby reflexive
objectme,pronouns:te,se, nous, (see13)vous,.Withsethe infini and with
40 participltheeflexivespronousednisalwaystheonewhichcorrespondsto
thesubjectofheclauseorsentenceThe.positionofthereflexivepronouns
followsthesamerulesathoseforotherobjectpronouns(see14.)3.Forpast participle
agreement42.3 see
Je vaisme reposerun peu.

Im going to rest for a bit.

40.1 Tenses of reflexive verbs

(In the following examples only the masculine sin given.)

Infinitive
Present se reposerto

restPerfect

stre repostohave
rested

Indicative
Present jeme repose
Perfect
jeme suis repos
Future jeme reposerai
Future perfectjeme serai repos
Imperfectjeme reposais
Pluperfect
jemtais repos
Past historicjemereposai
Past anteriorjeme fus repos
Conditionaljeme reposerais
Conditional jepmerfectserais repos
Subjunctive
Present que mejerepose
Perfect
que mejesois repos
Imperfectque mejereposasse Pluperfect
que mejefusserepos

40.2 How reflexive verbs are used

Someverbsaregenuinelyreflexiveactiontheirreflectsback tothesubject.
Inthefollowingexample,inFrenchand inEnglisthtransitive,verbcouper to cut is
used reflexively:
Elle sest coupe.

She cut herself.

Remember thatnotheagreementis of the past participle wh is used with a

part2.ofb,442the.)3. body (see
Elle sestles cheveuxlav.

She washed her hair.

128

STRUCTURES

40.2.1 Some transitive verbs are used reflexively in fact reflexive. The
correspondingnotnecessarilyEnglishreflexivverb
laver

to wash se laver to get washed/wash

Ilavela vaisselle.
He is washing the dishes.
Ilse laveavant de se coucher.
He gets washed before he goes to bed.
41
ExamplesofverbswhichcanbetransitiveorreflexiveinFrench,butonly
transitive or intransitive in English.
coucherto put (someone) seto coucherbedto
habillerto
dress (someone)shabillerto
promenerto
take (someone/se promenerto
something) for a walk

go to bed
get dressed/dres
go for a walk

40.2Some.2verbsarereflexiveinFrenchtheEnglishequivalentisnot.Some
examples:
sasseoir to sit down sapprocherto approach se diriger verstogo
to/towardsseservir deto use
40.2Some.3reflexiveverbshavereciprocmeaning:leachother(see11.)7.
Some examples:
se tlphoner:
Nous nous tlphononsle weekend.
We telephone each other at the weekend.
scrire:
Ellesnese sontjamaiscrit.
They have never written to each other.
se rencontrer:
Ils se rencontrentsans dire un mot.
They meet but dont speak to each other. se dtester:

THE VERB GROUP 129

Ilsse dtestent.
They hate each other.
40.2.4 Some verbs have a different meaning when th
agir to act sagir de to be a matter/question of aller to go sen allerto go away
40.2.5 Reflexive verbs may have41a.)3palthoughssivemeaon+aning active verb is
frequently used for the 41passive.):3 ins
Cela seneditjamais en angladits!/Onjamaisnecela en anglais!
That is never said in English!
40.2.6 The subject of impersonalilreflexive(see12.d2): verbs i
Il se trouveque nous sommes n(e)s dans la mme ville.
We happen to have been born in the same city.
41
The passive
The passive in French is very similar to the passi theverbtre(intheappropriatetense)
+pastparticinple,Englishtheverbto
be
41
(intheappropriatetense)+pastparticipleTheparticiple.alwaysagreeswith the
subject.
Active form:
Le directeurareules nouveaux lves.
The headmaster welcomed the new pupils.
Passive form:
Les nouveauxontlvestreuspar le directeur.
The new pupils were welcomed by the headmaster.
Theobject(lesnouveauxlves)ofadirectlytransitiveverb(recevoir)inan
activeclause>thesubjectinapassiveclauseThe.subject(ledirecteur)inthe
activeclause>theagentinthepassiveclauseThe.agentisintroducedbyparor
byde.Partendstobeusedmorefrequentlythande,but,ifindoubt,he following
guidelinesparmayforhelp:anactionuse and for referen

130

STRUCTURES

people or things,deforand usestate of affairs, feelings o for general reference to

people or things.
Elleat inviteau cinmaparun ami.
She has been invited to the cinema by a friend.
Ilsera accompagn deplusieurs amis.
Hell be accompanied by several friends.
41.1The agentnotalwaysis present:
Si elles continuent traverser la ruetresans faire blesses.
Iftheygooncrossingthestreetwithoutlooking,theyregoingtoget hurt.

41.1.1 The passive is typically found with directl whichcanhave

directobject:.grespecter,.aimeraconter,.Someverbs which are directly transitive in
French may not be and vice versa:
entrerdans
to listentothe
la maison se
couterla radio chercherla femme to
radio
to
souvdenirso
enterthe house
lookforthe
n nom
to remember her name
woman
41.2 Formation of the
passive
(In the following examples
only the masculine sin given.)

Active Passive
Infinitive
Presentinviterto invite tre
invit to be invited Perfectavoir
invitto have invitedavoirt
invitto have been invited

41

Indicative
Present
jinvite
Future
jinviterai
Imperfect
jinvitais
Past historicjinvitai
Perfect
jai invit

jesuis invit
jeserai invit
jtais invit
jefus invit
jai t invit

was invited
shall be invited
was invited
was invited
have been invited
THE VERB GROUP 131

Future perfectjaurai invit

Pluperfect
javais invit
Past anteriorjeus invit
Conditional jinviterais
Conditional jperfectauraisinvit
Subjunctive
Present
Imperfect
Perfect
Pluperfect

jaurai t invit

shall have been

invited
javais t invit
had been invited
jeus t invit
had been invited
jeserais invit
should be invited
jaurais t invit should have been
invited

quejinvite
que invitassej
que aiejinvit

que soisje invit am/may be invited

que fusseje invit was/might be invited
que aiejt invit(may) have been
invited
que eussej invitque eussej t
had (might have)
invit
been invited

41.3 Other ways of expressing the passive

on+third person singular of an active tense:
Le terroristeatinterrog.On/ a interrogle terroriste.
The terrorist was interrogated.
Ilsseront avertisdu danger./Onavertiralesdu danger.
Theyll be warned of the danger.
reflexive verbs (remember not all verbs40): can be us
Le champagneseboittrs frais.
Champagne is drunk chilled.
Ces lgumessevendentpartout.
These vegetables are sold everywhere.
In less formalse French,faire, se voir,+infinisentendreivecan also b to express
the passive:
Le garonsest fait renverserpar un autobus.
The boy was knocked over by a bus.

Ellesest vue excluredu parti.

She was excluded from party membership.
impersonalverbs(whicharealwaysinthethirdpersonsingular (see46)),
especiallytre+pastwith participle, or in the reflexive
42

132

STRUCTURES

Il a t desit choses terribles.

Awful things were said.
Ilse prsentequelques problmes.
There are some problems.
41.A4 fewdirectlytransitiveverbscannotbeusedinthepassive,forexample avoirwhen it
means to possess. The following exam English either:
Elleaun trs bel appartement.
She has a very beautiful flat.
41.4It.1isimportanttorememberthatwhereasinEnglishapassiveformis
possible with an indirectnot Frenchobject,. it is
He gave me the book.
Il ma donn le livre.
Iwas given the book./The book was given to me.
On ma donn le livre.
41.4There.2arethreevrbswithanindirectobjectwhichcan beusedinthe passive
indirecttheobject>thesubjectofhepassiveclauseThe.verbsare obir toqn obey
somedsobirne, toqndisobey pardonnersomeone, qnto forgive
someone.
Les lvesobiront linstitutrice.
The pupils will obey the teacher.
Linstitutriceseraobiede ses lves.
The teacher will be obeyed by her pupils.
42
The past participle
Some guidelines on the formation of past participl
Verbswhoseinfinitiveendsin-er:thestemoftheinfinitive+;.g. donner:
donngiven
Verbswhoseinfinitiveends-ir:thestemoftheinfinitive+i;.g.
finir:finished
Verbswhoseinfinitiveends-re:thestemoftheinfinitive+u;.g. vendre:
vendusold
Butmany verbs, including-oirgroup,the do not follow these guid past participles
simply have to be learned (see ve

THE VERB GROUP 133

tre: t
avoir: eu
connatre:connu
prendre:pris
devoir:d (accenton
ms only)

been boire:
bu
drunk
had convaincre:convainconvincedu
knownvenir:
venu
come
takencraindre:craint
feared

42.Past1participlesmaybeusedasnouns,adjectives,verbs,prepositionsand
conjunctions.
nouns:
42
laprisede notes

notetaking

lamise en uvre
implementation
lemort the dead man
lavue sight, view
larrive
arrival
lereu receipt
adjectives (agreeing with their nouns):
laporte ferme
desfilms connus

the closed
well-known

door
films

Frequenthely,EnglishequivalentofpastparticipleinFrnchisa present participle:

agenouill
assis

kneeling
sitting

pench
pendu

leaning
hanging

On laagenouill(e)vudevant lautel.
We saw him/her kneeling before the altar.
verbs (agreeing with nouns or pronouns):
Les devoirstermins,les lves sont sorti(e)s.
When their homework was finished the pupils lef
Bienququipedunouveausystmedalarme,voitureat vole.
Although it had a new alarm system, the car had
Tu y vas demaiEntendu?!

134

STRUCTURES

Youre going tomorrow?OK!

prepositions (some of these are very useful in bu normally precede the noun and
there is no agreeme
approuv
agreed
vu
except
apart from
suppos
entendu
decided/agreed-joint/ci-inclusenclosed
y comprisincluding

given
assuming

Vous trouverezci-jointles pices demandes.

The documents requested are enclosed.
Butsomeofthem,suchasexcept,ycompris,ci-joint,mayfollowthenoun
and when they do, they agree with it in gender and
La GrandeBretagneexcepte,touslespaysmembresontacceptle
contrat social.
ApartfromGreatBritain,allthemembercountrieshaveacceptedhe
Social Contract.
Notetant donngivenagreement is variable with this
tant donnes/donnles circonstancesgiventhe circumstances
conjunctionsnoagreement):(
42
vu que since
attendu que given
suppos que assuming
Vu quiltait si tard, elle est partie de la runion
Since it was so late, she left the meeting.
42.2 The past partreiciple(see28.)2with
Someintransitiveverbs(verbswhichcannothave directobject)andall
reflexiveverbsareconjugatedwithtreintheircompoundtensesTheir.past participle
agrees in gender and number with the su havetreare:
aller
arriver

to
to

go
arrive

partir
rentrer

to
to

leave
return

THE VERB GROUP 135

demeurer
descendre
entrer
monter
mourir
natre

to
to
to
to
to
to

stay, liverester
go down
enter
go up
die
be born

retourner
sortir
tomber
venir

to
to
to
to
to

stay
return
go out
fall
come

andalltheircompounds,forexample:venir,convenir,devenir,parvenir,
redevenir.Someoftheseverbscanbe usedtransitively,andthentheir
compoundtensesareformedwithavoir:descendre,monter,rentrer,
retourner,sortir.Themeaningoftheverbschangeswhentheyareused transitively.
Elleest sortieavant leur arrive.
She went out before they arrived.
Elleasortison argent.
She got her money out.
42.3 Agreement of the past participle with reflexi
The past participle agrees with the subject of re
Ellesse sont rencontresdevant le cinma.
They met at the cinema.
Ifthereflexivepronounisequivalenttoanindirectobjectitasiswithsuch
verbsassediretosaytoeachotherscrire,towritoeeachother,se
tlphonerto telephone each nootheragreementthere. is
Vousvous tiez ditbonjour au moins!
You said hello to each other at least!
Ellesse sont tlphonhier.
They phoned each other yesterday.
But,ifthereisa directobjectinhesentenceanditprecedestheverb,thepast participle
agrees with that preceding direct objec
Voil lesquellegantssest achets.
Here are the gloves she bought herself.
42
Combien dactions sest-ilachetes?
How many shares did he buy himself?

136

STRUCTURES

If there is a directfollowsobjecttheverb,andno theitagreementis.

Ellesest cass le.nez
She broke her nose.
Pourprparerlexamen,ilsstaientpos des questionstrsdifficiles.
Inpreparationforthexam,theyaskedeachothersomeverydifficult questions.
42.4 Agreement of the pastavoirparticiple with
The past participleneveragres with subject of verbsavoir. conjug
Elle avait travailltoute la nuit.
She had worked all night.
Ils ont assistcette runion.
They were present at that meeting.
Ifthereisa directobjectinthesentencewhichprecedestheverb,thepast
participleagreeswiththatprecedingdirectobjectThe.directobjectmaybea
personalpronoun(me,te,le);therelativepronounsque,lequel,laquelle,
lesquellesquelles;,oranounintroducedbytheinterrogativeorexclamatory
adjectivequel(le)(s)orthe interrogativecombin.adverb
Ces lettres,lesaidjlues.
Ive already read these letters.
Voil la jeunequonfemmearencontrehier.
Theres the young woman we met yesterday.
Je ne savaislesquelspasdes discoursaviezvousenregistrs.
I didnt know which of the speeches you had rec
Quelles propositions aurait-ilfaites?
Which proposals will he have made, do you think
Combien de cadeauxas-tureuspour ton anniversaire?
How many presents did you get for your birthday
The past participleneveragresenwith.
Des chocolats,enmangellebeaucoup trop!
Shes eaten far too many chocolates!
42.5 The past participle with impersonal verbs
Thereno isagreement of the past participle with impe
Ilavait rnanqudes dtails importants.
Important details were missing.

Ila t trouvtoutes sortes dobjets sur les pistes de

THE VERB GROUP 137

All kinds of things have been found on the ski

43
42.Verbs6 of the senses and past participle agreem
Pastparticiplofverbsofthesenses:coutentendr,regarder,voir, sentir+infinitive
there is agreement if the precedin of the verb of the senses, but not if it is the ob
Ce sont les jequonnesa entenduefilles chanter la radio.
Its the girls we heard singing on the radio.
Cest la chanson que jai entendu chanter la
Its the song I heard sung on the radio.
andwithlaisser+infinitive,thepastparticipleusuallyagreeswiththepreceding direct
object.
Voil la voquilturealaisse passerhier.
Theres the car he let through yesterday.
Note that there is an increasing tendency today no
42.7 The past participlefaire+infinitiveof
Thereno isagreement of the past participle in this c
As-tu vu laquemaisonjfait restaurer?
Have you seen the house Ive had restored?
Elles a fait sortir.
She made them leave.
43
The present participle
Thepresentparticipleisusuallyformedofthestemofthefirstpersonplural present
indicative+-ant:
donnantgiving finissantfinishing vendantselling Some exceptions to the
above guideline:
avoir:ayanthavingtre:tantbeingsavoir:sachantknowing
43.1Presentparticiplesmaybeusedasnouns,adjectives,verbs,gerunds,
prepositions and conjunctions.
nouns

138

STRUCTURES

le/laparticipant(e)

participant, delegate

le/lareprsentant(e)

representative

adjectives
Theseparticiplagreeings,withthenounorpronounigenderandnumber,are really verbal
adjectives describing a quality or s
Ctait une tonnantequestion.
It was an astonishing question.
43
Ils ont descharmantsvoisins.
They have delightful neighbours.
verbadjectiveslmayhave differentspellingfromthecorresponding present
participle. Some examples:

Verbal adjective Participle

diffrent different diffrant differing excellent excellent excellant excelling
fatigant tiring fatiguant tiring prcdent preceding prcdant preceding
ngligent negligent ngligeant neglecting

verbs
In contrast to verbal adjectives, the present part
Ctait une intressantdciiontous les spectateurs.
It was a decision of interest to all the specta
Because the participles are functioning as verbs t
beusedinthenegative,theymaybereflexiveandtheymaybequalifiedby adverbs.
Relisantle texte, elle a trouv beaucoup de fautes d
When she read the text again, she found many ty
Stantcass le bras, il narrivait pas crire.

Because hed broken his arm, he couldnt write.

gerunds

THE VERB GROUP 139

The gerund is a verbalenotoutunrand.enThefollowsEnglish equival while, in, on by,

if+present(Tout)+presenpartparticiple. may a variety of different meanings, some
of which are
En enlevantvotre manteau, vous serez(condition)pluslaise.
If you take your coat off, youll be more comfo
Elleadonnlimpressiondtrepluscalme,(tout)en cachant ses
pleurs(cause).
She appeared calmer because she was hiding her
Ils perdront touten legaspillanturargentcomme a(explanation).
Theyll lose all their money wasting it like th
Prenez un ensigeattendant. (simultaneity) Take a
seat while youre waiting.
Nous avons enrougientendantces mots(anteriority).
We blushed when we heard those words.
prepositions
Examples include:durant, pendant
Il coutaitpendantlesdesCD heures.
He listened to CDs for hours on end.
44
conjunctions
Examples include:enattendant(see39que.2),.2pendant que
Je peux travaillerpendantquilregarde la tl.
I can work while he is watching telly.
44
The imperative
There are three imperative forms in French. For th indicative tense provides
withouttheverbthe personalformsusedpronoun second person singular, and the first
and -seconder p verbsthesecondpersonsingulardropsthes.Forthepositionofpersonal
pronouns14see.3
donner: donnegive,donnonsletsdonnezgivgive, finir:
finis, finissons, finissez vendre: vends, vendons,
vendez

140

STRUCTURES

Ifthe-erverbisfollowedbythepronounsy,enthesecondpersonsingular
imperative keepss: the
Vas-y! Go on!
Ny va pas!
Dont go there!
Donnes-en la petite fille!Give some to the little girl
44.The1imperativeformsofsomeverbs,.gtre,.avoir,savoir,vouloiare, irregular. The
forms should always be checked in v
tre: sois, soyons, soyez avoir: aie, ayons, ayez
savoir: sache, sachons, sachez
vouloir: veuille, veuillons, veuillez
Veuillezagrer, Madame, Iexpressionrespectueuxdemessentimen.
Yours faithfully,
44.1Reflexive.1verbsusethemphaticpronounithesecondpersonsingular imperative.
The negative form and the plural forms
Repose-toiun peu!
Have a little rest!
Nete htepas!
Dont hurry!
Habillez-vousvite!
Hurry up and get dressed!
Nenous couchons pas avant minuit!
Lets not go to bed before midnight!
44.2 How the imperatives are used
Thesecondpersonssingularandpluralcanbeusedtogiveanorder,an
instruction,advice,aninvitation,makeanappeal,orexpressawarning,wish, etc.:
44
Viens!
Nerecommencez pas!

Come here! (order)

Dont start again!

Faitestout dabord cuire les pommes de terre.

First cook the potatoes. (instruction)
Tlphonez-lui avant daller la voir.
Ring her before you go and see her. (advice)

(order)

Venez dner ce soir!

THE VERB GROUP 141

Come to dinner tonight! (invitation)

Ne moubliez pas.
Dont forget me. (appeal)
Continue comme a et tu vas la catastrophe.
Go on like that and youre asking for trouble.
Dors bien, ma petite!
Sleep well, dear! (wish)
The first person plural imperative is often used t
Allons-y! OK! Lets go!/Lets get started! (enc Restonstranquilles!Lets take it easy!
(advice)
44.2.1 The imperative may also be used as an excla
Tiens!Prends-le!
Here! Take it/him!
Voyons! On peut partir immdiatement!
OK! We can leave right away!
44.2.2 There are various ways of giving an order i (see 70.)3.

que+subjunctive (main verb):

Que tout le metteondeun casque de protection!
Everyone must wear a safety helmet! future tense:

Les hommessortirontpar la gauche!

Men leave by the left! infinitive:

Ne passe pencher au-dehors!

Dont lean out!
andfora politeimperative,useaninterrogativeformand/ortheconditional tense:
Pouvez-vous/Pourriez-vousouvrir la fentre (sil vous plat
Please open the window.

142

STRUCTURES

45
45
The infinitive
There are two infinitive formsthedonner,presentfinir,infinitvend and the perfect
infinitive,avoirortre+pastcomposedparticiple:of
avoir donnto have avoirgiven,finito have finished,avoirvenduto
havesold,avoirreutohavereceived,strerepostohaverested, tre allto
haveavoirgne,toeu haveavoirhad,to have been
45.1 Infinitives used as other parts of speech
Infinitives can be used as nouns:
Nager est trs agrable.
Swimming is very enjoyable.
Avoir finises devoirs est aussi trs agrable.
Having finished ones homework is also very nic
45.1The.1infinitivecanbeusedasanimperative,anexclamation,andasan
interrogative:
Prendre un billet la porteTake. a ticket at the door.
Ne laissezparlerpascereprsentantDont. let that representativ
Croire tes salades!
Believe
your
rubbish!
Quefaire?
What can we do?
O aller?
Where can we
go?
Quicroire?
Who can
we believe?
45.1The.2infinitivemaybeusedfollowingdeoretde,mainlywritten French and
replacing a tenseto add a little varie
Levindoitsedgustertable,ditlejeunetudiantEtdajouter:.
Lentement!
Winemustbetastedattable/theyoungstudentsaidAnd.headded,
Slowly!
45.1.3 The infinitive may follow the prepositions:
pour,sans,avantde+present(andsometimperfect)sinfinitive,aprs
+perfect infinitive

THE VERB GROUP 143

Theseconstructionscanbeusedprovidingthesubjectofbothpartsofthe sentence is the

same, otherwise a different constr note the English equivalents:
Ces bottes sontpour marcherfaites.
These boots are made for walking.
Elle est sansentreavoir fait/ fairedebruit.
She came in without making any noise.
Aprs avoir mang,nous nous sommes repos(e)s.
After eating we had a rest.
44
Avant de manger,nous nous sommes lav les mains.
Before eating we washed our hands.
45.2 Same subject in both parts of the sentence
Whenthesubjectofbothpartsofthesentenceisthesame,someverbsare
followeddirectlybytheinfinitiveSomexamples:.aimer,aller,compter,
devoir,entrer,esprer,falloir,manquer,penser,pouvoirfrer,savoir, venir,
vouloir.
Nouscomptons yallerdemain.
We hope to go there tomorrow.
45.Faire3+infinitivenot the English equivalent:
Elleafait venirle mdecin.
She called the doctor.
Cest bien!fait dormira.
Thats good. It makes you sleep.
Fais rparerla voiture, si tu veux.
Have the car repaired, if you like.
Ila fait travailesr tudiants.
He made the students work.
If there are two objects in this type of sentence that object is:preceded by
Ellefait parlerfranais ses enfants.
She makes her children speak French.
If the infinitive is reflexive the reflexive prono

144

STRUCTURES

Faites taireces enfants!

Make the children shut up!
45.4 Verbs of the senses+infinitive
Verbs of thecouter,senses: entendre, regarder,+infinitive,voir,
laisser,envoyer+infinitivenote the alternative relative equivalent:

senan

Jelentends pleurer.(Je lentends qui pleure.)

I can hear him/her crying.
On a vudes tudiantsfairedu stop. (qui faisaient)
We saw students hitch-hiking.
45.5 Verbs+preposition(,de,pour)+infinitive
Thistypeofconstructionispossiblewhnthesubjectofbothclausesisthe
same. It is very important to know the correct pre themeaningoftheverbchangesifa
differentprepositionisusedThe. preposition and the meaning should be checked in a
finir+infinitivedeIlafini de manger. He has finished eating. finir+infinitiveparIlafini
parle/lacasser. He finished up breaking
46
Some verbs may have differentnochangeprepositionsmeaning:with
commenceror de+infinitive
continuerorde+infinitive
sefforcerde+infinitive

to begin to do/doing
to continue
to
to try hard
to

45.5.1 Some examples+infinitive:ofverbs+

apprendre , sattacher , avoir , consentir ,
and some examplesde+infinitive:ofverbs+
accepterde,cesserde,convenirde,dtestde,rsempresserde,
essayer de
Nousnous sommes mis fairele mnage.
We began to do the housework.
Ila cess de parlerpendant le film.
He stopped talking during the film.

do/doing
do

45.6 Nouns and adjectives may also be+infinitivefollowedby

THE VERB GROUP 145

laptitudeaptitudefor,ladterminationdeterminationto,
lintrtinterest in
la raisonreasondelefor,besoinneeddelesto,moyensmeansde to
(Andnoteunemaisonvendreahouseforsale,unefemme craindrea
woman to be unefeared,machine acoudresewing machine)
disposewillingto,lentslowto,prparpreparedto,capable
de capableresponsableof,responsibledecertainfor,certainde to
Note:
Il est difficiledecomprendrel finnois.
It is difficult to understand Finnish.
Ce livre est difficile lire.
This book is difficult6.b3) to read. (see
And noteassezandtrop+adjective+pour+infinitive:
Ils sonttroppetits pour sortirseuls.
They are too little to go out alone.
46 Impersonal
verbs
ImpersonalverbsarefairlycommoninFrenchThe.subjectiseitherilorce,
cela,ceci,andtheverbisalwaysinthethirdpersonsingularofthetense required, indicative
or subjunctive. Past particip
Il est venuplusieurs personnes.
Several people came.
Il nest pas tombbeaucoup de pluie.
There wasnt a lot of rain.
46
46.Impersonal1 verbs are used for expressing dates
Cestaujourdhui le 16 avrilIts. the 16th of April today
Iltaitsix heures.
It
was six oclock.
Il pleuvrademain.
It
will rain tomorrow.
The weather may also ilbe faitexpressed: by

146

STRUCTURES

Il faitbeau, maisilnefaitpas chaud.

Its fine, but its not warm.
46.2 Examples of impersonal verbs
ilfautque+subjunctivemust,needto,havetooril(me)faut+infinitive
(using indirect objectme,te,pronouns:):lui
Il faudra quetuobisses ton pre.
You must do what your father tells you.
Il leur fallait montrerleur carte didentit.
They had to show their identity cards.
il ytherea is/are (note that theavoirverbnottre):in this expr
Y a-t-ilquelquun la porte?IlnyapersonneNon. la porte.
Is there someone at the door? No. Theres nobod il sagit+noundeor infinitive
it is a matter/question
Ilsagitdune grossesomme dargent.
Its a matter of a large amount of money.
De plus il sagira de la immdiatementpayer.
And its a matter of paying it immediately. Some more examples:

Il nest venupersonne.
Nobody came.
Ilme manquera du temps pour faire cela.
I wont have enough time to do that.
Il a t convenudune date.
A date was agreed.
Note the passive form of the last example:
Une date a t convenue(notan.impersonal verb in this ca
46.il3(me) sembleit seems (to me) that il
semble+subjunctive:que
Il semblequelleailleen France cet t.
It seems shes going to France this summer.

THE VERB GROUP 147

ilsembleque+indicativeoccursinspokenFrench,andwhentheverbinthe
dependent clause is in the imperfect:
47
Ilsemble quellepouvaitne pas y aller.
It seems she couldnt go.
and whenil sembleaddsque a pronoun (indirect object prono
Il me semble quejeai lentendu chanter.
I think Ive heard him sing. il +indirectne
objectsemblepronoun+pas+subjunctive:que
Il ne leur semble pasellequpuisse le faire avant jeudi.
They dont think she can do it before Thursday. il (me) semble+infinitive
(same subjector+adjective:inbothclauses
Il me semblelavoir vue quelque part.
I think I may have seen her somewhere.
Cela nenous semblaitpas trsintressant.
That didnt seem very interesting to us.
47
Adverbs
Adverbs are generally formed from adjectives, but
invariable.Theyareusedwithverbstravaillerdurtoworkhard,with
adjectivestrsfacileveryeasy,andwithotheradverbsassezbienquite
good/wellThere.arethreemaintypesofadverb:ofmannervitequick/
quickly,placeicihere,andtime demaintomorrowTothe.sehouldbe
addedadverbsofqualitybienwellandnegationjamaisneverAdverbs.
mayconsistofoneworddifficilementwithdifficulty,acompoundword aprsdemainthedayaftertomorrow,of a phrasetout fait completely.
47.1 Formation of adverbs of manner
Ingeneraladverbsofmannerarecomposedofthefeminineformofan
adjective-mnt.+
doux, douce, doucemquietly,nt gently
premier, premire, premirementfirstofall, firstly complet, complte,
compltcompletmely,nt totally srieux, srieuse, seriouslyement

148

STRUCTURES

47.1Adjectives.1ending-entor-antdropthe-ntofthemasculineformand addmment.
vident, videmmentevidently
suffisant, suffisammentsufficiently, enough
There are some exceptions to this rule:
lent, lente, slowlylentement
prsent, prsente, prsentementatpresent
47.1.2 Adjectives which end einormallyvowelsimplyother-ment addthan to the
masculine form:
47
poli, polimentpolitely absolu,
absolumentabsolutely ais,
aismenteasily
47.1Some.3adjectivareusedasadverbs,withoutanychangeofform:dur
hard,bon good,netshort (as in to stop short):
refuser tout rnefuset point blank
Insomecasesdifferentadverbialformsareavailable,uttheyarenot
interchangeableTheyare.usedindifferecontextsandmayhaveslightly different
meanings.
dur; durementhard; deeply, badly
fort; fortementextremely; strongly, highly
Cestfort dommage.
Its a great pity.
Il estforement recommand de se munir dun vtement d
Its strongly recommended that you/we take some
Some adverbial phrases of manner:
avec soincarefully,duncoupsuddenly,cte sidecte byenside,
dangerindanger,horsdhaleineoutofbreath,souspeusoon,sur
un ton tristesadly
47.2 Comparative and superlative adverbs
These adverbs are formedplus,byaussi,placingbefmoreinsthe adverb if
appropriate,queinaddingthecomparativedeintheandsupluserlatvitev:

THE VERB GROUP 149

(que)quicker(than),aussivite(que)asquickas,moinsvite(que)less quick
(than);leplusvitethe(de)quickestlemoins(of),vitethe(de)slowest (of).
Elle parleplusvite (que .lui)
She speaks more quickly (than he does).
Nous avons aussimangrapidement (que .toi)
We ate as quickly (as you).
Ils voyagentmoins(que leurs enfants).
They travel less (than their children).
Je suis vlenu(e)plusvite possible.
I came as quickly as possible.
Cest le cheval blanclemoinsquiv.tecourt
Its the white horse thats going slowest.
47.2Comparative.1andsuperlativeformsoftheirregularadverbien,smal,
beaucoup, peu:
bienwell;mieux(que)better(than);lemieux(de)thebest(of)mal
badly;pis/plusmal(que)worse(than);lepis/leplusmal(de)worst (of)
beaucoupmuch;plus/autant(que)more/asmuch(than/as);leplus
(de)most (of)
peulittle;moins/aussipeu(que)less/aslittle(than/as);lemoins(de)
least
47
Tu aimes ce livre?Non, beaucoupjene.laime pas
You like this book?No, not much.
Jaimieux celui(que-cicelui-l).
I like this one better (than that one).
Moi, cest ce livrele-lmieuxque(detous)jaime.
I likethatbook best (of all).
Eh bien! Tantpis!
Oh well! Too bad!
Some expressionsplusandusingmoins:
de plus en plus
increasingly
de mal en pis
from
bad
de moins en moins intressantless
and
Plus elle travaipluselle, gagne de largent.
The more she works, the more she earns.
Moins je mange,plusjai envie de manger.

to worse
less interesting

150

STRUCTURES

The less I eat, the more I want to.

Notethene beforetheverbina dependentclause,followingapositive comparison:
Johan travaillequejeneplus(le)croyais.
Johan works more than I thought.
47.2Bien.2usedwithvouloir:thepositionofbienmayindicaltevelof formality
or informality:
Ellevut bienrpondre la question(formal/informal).
She will be pleased to answer the question.
Ilvoudrait bienque tu lcoutes(informal). Il
vous prievouloirdebienlcouter(formal).
He would like you to listen to him/her.
47.3 Adverbs of (see quantity4.,321)
Some examples:
assezenough,peulittle,notmuch,autantasmuch,plusmore,
beaucoupmuch,moinsless,combien?howmuch?,troptoo
much,davantagemore,trsvery,tellementsomuch,tantso much
Some adverbial phrases of quantity:
peinehardly,tout completely,faitpeuprsalmost
47.4 Adverbs of time
Some examples:
alorsthen,aprsafter,aujourdhuitoday,auparavantbefore,
aussittimmediately,bienttsoon,djalready,demain
47
tomorrow,dsormais(from)now(on),enfinatlast,finally,hier
yesterday,longtempsfor a longmaintenatime,now,tpuisthen
Some adverbial phrases of time:
prsentatpresent,detempsentempsfromtimetotime,tout
lheuresoon, later

47.5 Adverbs of place

THE VERB GROUP 151

Some examples:
autourround,contreagainst,dedansinsidehors,outside,
derrirebhind,dessousunderneath,devantbefore,icihere,l here,
there,owhere
Some adverbial phrases of place:
en arrirebackwards,enavantforwards,nulle partnowhere
47.6 Position of adverbs
Withsimpletnses,adverbsuuallyfollowtheverb,andwithcompound tenses they are
usually placed between the auxilia Normally they precede an infinitive.
Ellestravaillent beaucoup.
Ellesont beaucoup travaill.
Il fautbienttpartir.

They work
They have
Well have to

a lot.
worked a lot.
leave soon.

For emphasis, they are placed at the

beginningor

Vraiment,tu mennuies!
Really, you are annoying me!
Theyareplacedbeforeanadjective,pastparticipleoranotheradverbwhich they
modify.
Elles toujourssont bienhabilles.
They are always well dressed.
Cet Allemandassezparlemalle franais.
That German speaks French rather badly.
But,theseareonlyguideliontheespositionofadverbs,andtheymay,for
variousreasons,bemovedfromtheirusualpositiFonrexample,.iftheadverb
is quite long it is frequently placed at the end o
Elle viendra toutnous lheurevoir.
Shell come and see us later on.
Ifmorethanoneadverbisbeingusedinthesentenctheorder,theycomeinis manner, then
place, then timejust as in English.
Il est horsarivdhaleine chez nous minuit.
He arrived out of breath at our house at midnig

152

STRUCTURES

47
47.Adverbs7 of negation(see53)
The forms are:
non
pas
nepas
neplus

no
negure/(peine)hardly
no
nenini
neithernor
not
neque
only
no more, longerneaucun(e)/nulot a, not one
(le)
nepersonneobody, none-onenullement notatall,by no
means
nerien
nothing
neaucunementnotatall,notinany
way
nejamaisnever
nenulle partnowhere
47.7Non.1 andpas
Non is the main adverb of negation.
Tu veux du Nonsucre?(or Merci).
Like some sugar? No.
Pasis usednonlinkesome ways, but is less formal.
Il veut chanterpasmoi!mais
He will sing but not me!
Jaime le franaisnon/pas litalienmais.
I like French but not Italian.
Pourquoi pas?
Why not?
Pas possible!
Thats not possible.
Some expressionsnonandwithpas:
Mais non!/Absolumentpas!/Pasdu No!
tout!
Pas un seul!
Not one!
Jamais
de la vie!
Never!
Moi njeaipasbudu tout!
I havent been drinking!
Ilnyamme pas un verredau! Theres not even a glass o
And more gently:

Je croisquenon.

I dont think so.

THE VERB GROUP 153

Sans doutenonque./Probablement pas.Probably not.

47.7A.2positiveanswer,whichcontradictsnegativequstionorstatement,is usually
introducedsi(nui).by
Vousne voulezpas maccompagner?Maissi!
You dont want to come with me? Yes, I do!
47
47.7.3 For the partitive article4..1 in a negative co
47.8 Position of negative adverbs
In simplenetensesprecedes the verbpas,andplus,followjamaisthe verb. In
compound tensesneprecedes the auxiliarypas,verbplus,andfollowjamaisthe
auxiliary verb.
Jene voisrien. I cant see anything.
Ellesnysontjamaisalles. They have never been there.
Butpersonne,rien,aucun(e)canfollowtheverb,thepastparticiple,or preposition.
Nousnavons entpersonnendu.
We didnt hear anyone.
Ellen poserait cettepourquestionrienaumonde.
She wouldnt ask that question for anything (in
Personneandrienmay be used as subjects mustof thehaveverb,theirbu ne!
Personne nest venu hier soir.
Nobody came last night.
Aucun(e)maybereplacedbynul(le)informalFrench,andbypasun(e)in
informal French.
Nousnavonsaucun souci concernant cette tudiante.
We have no worries about this student.
Nulle rponsena t donne au ministre.
No reply was given to the minister.
Ilne sait unpasmot de franais.
He doesnt know a word of French.
Both parts of the negative precede an infinitive i

154

STRUCTURES

Jene veuxpas y aller. I dont want to go.

Il prfrenejamaisy aller. He prefers never to go there.

NOTE Personalpronounsareplacedbetweentheneandtheverborthe
auxiliary14.)(see3.

47.8ne.1nini
Ilna vuni sa mrenisa sur.
He hasnt seen his mother or his sister.
Ni sa merenisa surneviendra/viendront(see22.3).3
Neither his mother nor his sister will come. 47.8Nulle.2 palwaysrt follows the
verb or the auxiliary
Jene lainullevu part.
I havent seen him/it anywhere.
47
47.Omission9e andofpas
Ne maybeomittedininformalspokenFrench,andofteninshortphrases without a
verb.
Jsais pas.

Dont know.

Cest pas vrai!

Not true!

Tu veux un chocolat?Merci, pas de chocolat. Je s

You want a chocolate?No thanks, no chocolate.
Pasmay be omittcesser,dafteroser, pouvoir,. savoir
Elle cessenede parler.She never stops talking.
47.9Sans.1+negative adverbsnotpas): examples(sansicludeplus, sans ri
sansaucun(e).
Nous sommes parti(e)ssansriendire.
We left without saying a word.
47.10Neque
QueisalwaysplacedbeforetheworditreferstoNote.ne quesinot unless.

THE VERB GROUP 155

Ilnest sorti avec quela lejeunesamediflle.

He only went out with the girl on Saturdays.
Cette femme,nefaitellequefaire des histoires!
That woman! All she does is make a fuss!
Jene te donnerai unequerponsesijaides nouvelles.
I wont give you an answer unless I have any ne
47.11Nepas toujours not always;netoujours pas still not
Ellesnesontpas toujours la maison.
Theyre not always at home.
Ellesnesonttoujours pas la maison.
Theyre still not at home.
47.12 The expletivene
Thisneoccursinformal,verycorrectFrench,butonlyincertaincotexts. It is frequently
omitted from informal French. It
after verbs expressing feeling, and verbs express
Il a peur nequellesoitmalade.
Hes afraid (that) she may be ill.
after verbs expressing doubt, when these verbs ar
On ne doute jamaisneserontquilsl.
We never doubt that theyll be there.
followingmoins andqueavant que:
48
Je prendrai unmoinsmperquil fassene trs chaud.
Ill take a mac unless its very warm.
in comparisons:
Cestplusdifficilequeje ne(le) croyais.
Its more difficult than I thought.
47.13 Formation of negative adjectives
Thenegativeprfixesim-in,-il,-ir,-m,-,mal-areusedtoformthese adjectives:
156 STRUCTURES

patientimpatient
correcteincorrecte

lgalilgal
rgulierirrgulier

contentmcontent
honntemalhonnte

Peu may be used instead of the prefixes:

Le livreestpu intressant.
The book is not very interesting.
48
Prepositions
Prepositions may be single,dvant,words,phrases,.aug.-dessous.g. de,
ductde.SomeusesareverysimilartoEnglishuses,butheydonotalways
correspondtoeachotherSome.examplesaregivenhere,butitalwaysgood practice to
check in a dictionaryunless you are a and
aboutwhichverb,noun,adjective,oradverbtheprepositionisusedwith.
The examples given here are grouped according to t
48.1 Manner or means
Au moyen dune chelle nous
We got into the house by a
A forcedtudier, il a russi
By studying hard, he passed

sommes entr(e)s dans la

ladder.
ses examens.
his exams.

en voitureby car par le trainbytrain par avionby plane

48.2

Place

la campagne
la tl
au bas de la page
auprs de la fentre
autour du feu
chez moi
dans le train
en face dela gare
entre guillemets
jusqu lglise

in the country
on telly
at the foot of the page
near the window
around the fire
at my place
on the train
opposite the station
in inverted commas
as far as the church

48
loin delcole
par terre

far from the school

on the ground
THE VERB GROUP 157

parmi les tudiants

versla banque

among the students

towards the bank

48.3 Time
trois heures
aprston anniversaire
avant le repas
au printemps
depuisvendredi
ds ce jour
en 1996
il y huita
jours
jusquminuit
par jour
pendant la nuit
vers cinq heures

at three oclock
after your birthday
before the meal
in spring
since Friday
from today
in 1996
a week ago
until midnight
by day
during the night
about five oclock

48.4 Cause
When the causenegative:is

When the causepositive:is

causedu travail
grce cette aimable jeune fille
because of the work
thanks to that friendly girl
en raison unddsaccord
la faveur desa comptence
because of a disagreemeontaccount of his/her efficiency

48.5 Restriction of some kind

exceptle boulanger except for the baker
sauf lordre du jour
except for the agenda
quant nous as far as we are concerned
faute detemps through lack of time
hors deprix
too expensive
en dehors devous trois
apart from you three
48.6 Aim or purpose
afin derussir in order to succeed
de faon comprendreso as to understand
de manire clarifier so as to clarify
de peur detennuyer so as not to bore you
en vue definir with a view to finishing

pour terminer in conclusion

Section B
Functions

III
Exposition

49
Referring to people, things and places
49.1
Physical characteristics
The simplest way to describe someonetre+adjective:orsomething
Ilest grandetbeau comme au cinma.
Hes tall and handsome like a film star. ortre+noun phrase
introducedde: by
Mais non!est deIltaille moyenneetdune laideur indescriptible.
No! Hes average height and indescribably ugly.
Manyadjectivesmaybeusedtodescribehair,eyes,etcNote.thatcompound
adjectivesofcoloursuchaschtainfoncorgrisvertandsomenounslike
marronare invariable in French:
Elleestgrande,mince,auxyeuxmarron,
auxcheveuxbouclschtain clair. (see2.b4)
Shes tall, thin, with brown eyes and light bro
Thedefinitearticleoravoir+definitearticleusedtorefertopartsofthe body:
Commeilestmignontucroisquilvagarderles yeux bleus? (see
2.b4)
Hes a little darling! Do you think hell keep

160

FUNCTIONS

A lasuitedsachutelle,avaitlpauledmiseetlesdeux jambes
dans le pltre.
After she fell she had a dislocated shoulder an
Butnotethattheindefinitearticleisalsoused,inparticularwhentheadjective precedes
the noun:
Tasdbeaux yeux,tu sai(s4!ee.)2
Youve lovely eyes, you know!
Mre-grand, comme devousgrandesavezdents!
What big teeth youve got, Grandmother!
Prepositions orsuchavecmasy also be used:
49
Commejevoudraisavoirunepetitefillela peau blanchecommela
neige,aux
lvresrougescommelesangetaux
cheveux
noirscomme lbne!(see2.b4)
HowIwouldlovealittlegirlwithskinaswhiteassnow,lipsasredas blood,
and hair as black as ebony!
La serveuseauteintblme et la chevelureblonde luirenditsa
monnaie.
The waitress with the pale face and the blonde h
Inthefollowinglinesfeaturingavecfroma well-knownFrenchsong,note
howphysicharacteristicsalaremphasizedbythepossessiveadjctivesma,
mes which are used to paint a complete portraitbod
Avec ma gueule de mtque, de juif errant, de ptre cheveux aux quatre
vents,
Avec mes yeux bleus dlavs qui me donnent lair de rve plus souvent,
Avec mes mains de maraudeur, de musicien et de rde tant de jardins,
Avec ma bouche qui a bu, qui a embrass et mordu sa assouvir sa faim
(Moustaki)
With my foreign facea wandering Jew and peasant And pale blue eyes and
dreamers gazebut I dont any more
My thieving handsmusicians handsmy plundering My greedy mouth has
tasted wineand flesha thirs

EXPOSITION

161

satisfied
Whendescribinganobject,usecest,ilsagitdeits,forwithverbssuch asseservirtode
use in relativequi clausessert, suchqui east util which is useddont fonr,a
besoinwhichlorsqueyou needque when,lon utilise whichpour you use for:
Cest un petitoutil,avecun manche,dont on se sertpour vissetr
dvisser.
Itsasmalltoolwitha handle(whichyouuse)fortighteningor loosening
screws.
Il sagit dustensile de cuisine percquipermdetparpetits tro
exempledcumer un bouillon.
Itsakitchenutenswithlsmallholeswhichyoucanuseforskimming stock,
for example.
49.2
Personality
Onceagain,manyadjectivesorpastparticiplesareusedfollowingavoir+noun
ortrein order to describe someones qualities:
MademoiselleFraintoujourstponctuelleetconsciencieusedans
sontravailElle.aunepersonnalitenjoue quifacilitecontactavec la
clientle.
49
Miss Frain has always been punctual and conscie has a cheerful personality
which makes for good c
or defects:
Sivousvoulezmon avis,ilest prtentieuxeta un comportement
paternalisteavec les secrtaires qui ne me plat pas d
Ifyouwantmy opinion,hesa pretentiousmanandbehavesina
paternalisticmannertowardsthesecretarwhieschIdontlikeonelittle bit.
Notehowthearticleissometimesomitted,forexamplebforeexpressions
involvingbonormauvais:
Ilest bon vivantmaisaussi mauvaistrs caractre.
Hes a nice guy but he can also be very bad-tem

162

FUNCTIONS

Avoir+airmay be used in two ways:

(a)avoir un+adjectiveair to look+adjective:
Elleatoujounrsair condescendant,a mnerve!
She always looks condescending, it really annoy
(b)avoir +adjectivelairsembler+adjective)( to seem+adjective
Ilsont lairpluttsympathique(s)tes copains!
Your friends seem quite nice guys.

NOTE Agreement of the adjective in theairorpevwithous exam

Ils.

49.3
Relationships
Whenintroducingyourselforsomeoneelse,youmaywantorefertopersonal and social
relationships, or professional relation
(a)Forpersonalandsocialrelationushipstre+adjectiveorpastparticiple, or a noun
phrase:
Mon frreest mari, ma surest divorceetmoi,jesuis encore
clibataire.
My brothers married, my sisters divorced, and
Elleest mre de familledepuis peu(see3.b1)
She recently became a mother.
Note that most of these adjectives and past partic
Lui, cestclibataireunendurci, et elle une divorce.
Hes a confirmed bachelor and shes a divorcee.
Avoirmay also be used with expressionschargeor+infinitive:suchas
49
Jai deux enfantscharge.
I have two dependent children.
Ilavaitsix enfantsnourrir.
He had six children to feed.

EXPOSITION

163

(b)Inordertostateyouridentity,youmaysimplygiveyourname,orgiveit following
an appropriate verb:
Jean-Paul Murat
Jemappelle Alice Mirabeauet vous tes?
My name is Alice Mirabeau and you are?
Inordertointroducesomeoneelse,againsimplystathenameIn.a fairly informal
situation,cestoryouvoil:can add
Laurence,viens voircesttiens,JacquesetCyrille. (see6.a3)
Laurence, come and seelook, its Jacques and C
Bernard,un vieux copain voildcoleCamilletBeatrice.
Bernard, an old school friendand this is Camil
You can make clear exactly what the relationship i (see7):

Ma fille, Bernadette.
My daughter, Bernadette.
Mon collgue, Frdric Rolland.
My colleague, Frdric Rolland.
Ina moreformalsituation,introductionsmightbeslightlymorecomplexand
include theprsentervrbto introduce:
Madame Moreau, je vous prsente Monsieur Detrait.
Madame Moreau, let me introduce Monsieur Detrai
Youmayalsousepoliteverbalexpressicons,mbinedwithexpressions
appositionorrelativeclausesinordertobemorespecificaboutoccupationor
circumstances:
Jai le plaisir de vous prsenter Mlle Lamie, jou
It is my pleasure to introduce Mlle Lamie, a re
Note the lack of journalarticeistenbappositionfore.
Permettezde-moivousprsenterLucBessonier,duservicerelations
publiques.
Allow me to introduce Luc Bessonier of Customer
Puis-vousjeprsentmesr parents,quiviennentdarriver Londrets

ne parlent pas un mot danglais.

164

FUNCTIONS

MayIintroducemyparentswhohavejustarrivedinLondonanddont speak
any English.
(c) Occupations may be giventre+nounbysimplywithoutusingan articl
3.b1):
Vous tes avocat,nest-ce pas?
Youre a lawyer, arent you?
49
Je suis directeurdu marketingma femme est directricedes
ressources humaines dans la mme socit.
Imthemarketingmanagerandmy wifeisdirectorofpersonnelinthe
same company.
Inthepreviousexample,notehowthedefinitearticle(d+le<du,de+les<des)
hastobeusedafterdirecteur/dir.Keepctriceinmindthatnumberofnouns used for
professions have no9.)5feminine form (see
Jai deuxsurs,il y uneen quia est prof(essetur)lautre ingnieur.
I have two sisters. Ones a teacher and the oth
Manyotherverbsandverbphrasesareavailablesuchastravaillertowork,
trecharg+infinidetreive,responsable+noun tode be responsible many different
prepositions48)canbe u(sededepending on what
chezis used with proper namesof organizations or
Maintenant,travailile chez Peugeotmais avant,tait chezilChaumont

1& Frres Loches.

He works for Peugeot now but he used to be with
Loches.
dansis used with sectors or organizationswhen the
Elleauraitvouluentrerdans lenseignementetvoilquellese
retrouvait employedansunebanquedu centre-ville.
She would have liked to go into teaching, but th bank in the centre of town.
isusedwithnamesinvolvingadefinitearticle,withinstitutionsandalino
order to be specific about departments within a co
Ma belle-surestresponsabledesachatsMarks& Spencetrmon frre
travlaMairie,illeauDpartement de lEtat Civil.

EXPOSITION

My sister-inshead-lawbuyerforMarks& Spencerandmy brother

works for the local authority in the Registry Off
Naturally, these prepositions are often combined i
Jesuischargedorganislesrxpditionsdansunegrandesocit
dinformatique,auservice exportation.
Iminchargeofdispatchinggoodsina bigcomputercompany,inthe
export department.
49.4
Age
Avoiris used to give precise detansilsafterof agethe. numberDonot
Catherinedux ans et trois .mois
Catherine is 2 years and 3 months (old).
Ilaura trente-cinq ansen lan deux mille vingt.
Hell be 35 in the year two thousand and twenty
With other verb phrases you can be less precise:
49
Ma fillevient davoir quinze etans mon vafilssurses douze .ans
My daughterhasjustturned15(hadherfifteenthbirthday)andmy son is
almost 12.
Nouns may also be used to give an indication of ag
Cestun octognairetrs dynamique!
Hes a very lively 80-year-old!
A mon avis,elleaune quarantainedannes.TuplaisantJes!?
dirais pluttlacinquantainebien tasse.
Inmy opinion,shesabout40.Youmustbejoking!Sheswellpast 50.
Verbsuchastre,paratremay be combinedwithadjectivesandpast
participlesjeune,such asg:
Ilparattrsjeune pourtrePDG (Prsident-DirecteurGnral)de
lentreprise!
He seemsveryoungtobeChairmandManagingDirectorofthe
company!

165

166

FUNCTIONS

Notethattheadjectiveorpastparticipleissometimesomitted,inparticularin
comparative expressions:
Entre gratuite pour(gs)lesde moinsefantsdecinq ans.
Admission free for children under 5.
Itisusefultobeabletotalkorwriteaboutagegroups,forexamplewhen analysing an age
pyramid. There are various ways o
You cangusede:
les gnrations ges1915de681919,72 ans au ler janvier 198
thegeneratibornnsbetween19151919,agedfrom68to72on1st
January 1988
oravoir entreet:
les gnrationsayantactuellemententre15et35 ans
the generations in the present age-band 15 to 3 or orde and a hyphen
between the two age limits:
A 7074ans,ilneresteque70hommespour100femmeset,8084
ans, seulement 50.
Intheagegroup7074,therearenow70malesfor100femalesandin the
age group 8084, only 50.
19% pourlesfemmesde 2124anset17% pourleshommesde 24
29 ans
19%forfemalesintheagegroup2124and17%formalesintheage
group 2429
and use the definite and partitive articles with c
Au recensementde1954,les plus de dix ans formentunepyramide
dun genre nouveau, en forme (leffectifdemeuledes de paille 49
1019 ans tantmoins nombreux que celuides 2029 ans),maisles
moins de 10 ans,ns du baby sontboom,nettementnombreuxplus .Au
dernierrecensement(1982),enfin,lapyramidetoutentireacette forme de
meule ladepartpaille,des2029 anspeu prsgalit avec celledes
1019 ans, est nettementsuprieure celledes 09 ans,

marque par la baisse rcente de la fcondit.

(Vallin, JLa. Population(1989) franaise,Paris: La Dcouverte
Inthe1954census,thenumberofchildrenover10influencthed

profile of the age pyramid (the proportion of tho

EXPOSITION

167

lowerthantheproportionofthosebetween20and29),butherewasa significant increase

in the number of those under boom. Finally, in the last census (1982), the age
populationhadchangedcompletely,withtheproportionofthoseaged
between20and29atalmostthesamelevelasthoseagedbetween10and
19,butsignificantlyhigherthanthenumbersofchildrenunder9,caused
by the recent downward trend in fertility rates.
49.5
Ownership
(a) A simple way to refer to what someoneavoirownsor is possder:
Ila un appartement Paris et une rsidence seconda
He has a flat in Paris and a second home in the
La familledeLisieuxaperdupeu peutouslesterrainsquelle
possdaitautrefois.
The Lisieux family gradually lost all the land
Notethatsometimesyouhavetousedeaftertheverbwhenthequantisty indefinite:

Son fiancdelargentetpas mal de terraindans la rgion(see4).

Her fianc has (some) money and quite a bit of
In the followingde isexample,usedbefore an adjective preced
Mre-grand, commeavz vousdegrandes oreille(see!4.)2
What big ears youve got, Grandmother!
Nounsdenotingownershipmayalsobeused,andaremostoftenprecededby
tre:
Elleestdepuis possesseurpeu unedimmense fortune.
Shes recently inherited a large fortune.
In the previous example,possesseurnotehas nothatfeminine9.):5form. (se
Lantiquairetaitdtenteurnombreuxde objets vols.
The antique dealer had a lot of stolen goods in
MonsieurleProcureur,cesdocumentssont dsormaisennotre
possession.

Your Honour, the documents are now in our posse

168

FUNCTIONS

Cestis used to introduce a reference to ownership, such asmoi, , toiorde mes,

de, ortesmon propre, ton (seepropre 7):
49
Cest vousces beaux yeux(see6-.l!?a,38.)2
Are they yours, those beautiful eyes!?
Aussi incroyable que celacestpuisseundems cadeauxparatre,de
mariage!
Unbelievable though it may seem, its one of my
Mais non!Cest ma proprebrosse dents!
No! Its my own toothbrush!
(b)Insomeoftheaboveexamples,thepossessiveadjctivesmon,tonare included
(see7).Theseandpossessivepronounslemien,letienmine, yours are frequently
used to8.express):1 ownership (
Il a vendusesvieuxtous disques.
He has sold all his old records.
Sur cette photo,monvousmarivoyezetmoi-notremmaisone, en
arrire-plan,noschiensetici.
Inthisphoto,youcanseemy husbandandme,ourhouseinthe
background, and here are our dogs.
Cestma chambremoi etjeveuxquetuenlvestoustesjouetsde
l!(see6.a3)
Itsmy room and I want you to take all your toys o
Aprslarunion,lesdirecteurssontpartisdneravecleursfemmes
(orleur femme).
After the meeting, the managers went for dinner
Tu croissonquehorloge est lheure?
Do you think his/her clock is right?
Noublietonpasbonnettonetcharpe!
Dont forget your cap and your scarf!

NOTE Son/toan,dnot sa/ta,areusedwithorlogeandcharpe(feminine nouns)

because they beginh/vowelwith.78(see.,7a1.mute1)a.

The possessive adjective is not always 7repeated.c1): wi

Veuillezindiquervos nom,prnoms,titrets qualitssurce
formulaire.

Please enter your name, first names, titles and

EXPOSITION

169

To avoid repeating the noun a possessive pronoun m

Ton nouveau sac ne mele platmienest pas,beaucoup plus pratiqu
I dont like your new bag. Mine is much more pr
Le matin, jema prendsvoiture et mon mlarisenneprend.
In the mornings, I take my car and my husband t
Leur maison est plus lagrandesienn. que
Their house is bigger than his/hers.
49
Nos enfantssonturbulentsmaisles leurssontencorepires!(see
8.b1)
Our children are rowdy, but theirs are worse!
Notethedifferencebetweenlesleurs(possessivepronoun)intheprevious example
lesand leur(personal pronouns) in the following o
Jai reu les lesphotos,leurmontreras?tu (see12,14.)4
Ive got the photos. Will you show them to them
In some expressions, the article may be dropped be
Ctaitunepetitemaisonsanscachet,ellelafitsienneeny disposant tous
ses bibelots.
Itwasanordinarylittlehouse,butshemadeithersonceshehad arranged
her own things in it.
(c)Withinaounphrase,ownershipmaybeexpressedusingde(andu,dela,
des,d, de) (seel2):
Le manteaudePatrick est rest dans la classe.
Patricks coat is still in the classroom.
Linstituteur a reldesvlvesles.cahiers
The teacher took in the pupils notebooks.
Le passeportdelcrivain tait en rgle.
The writers passport was in order.
On na pas retrouv le permisdeltudiantede.conduire
They/We havent found the students driving lic
Notethatinthesefourexamples,thedestructurecouldbereplacedwitha
possessive adjective:
Linstituteurleursacahiersrelev.
Son passeport tait en rgle.

170

FUNCTIONS

However,ifthepossessorisaninanimateobjectorthingasinthefollowing example:
Il est all consulterdela Mairiele.cadastre
He went to check in the land register in the To then a change of structure will
involve a change o
Il est all laen consulterMairiepourle cadastre.
He went to the Town Hall to check in the (its)
Thecombinationdemon,detonisalsoused,inparticularafteranindication of
quantity:
Troisde mes fichiers ont disparu!
Three of my files have disappeared!
andthecombinationde+possessivepronounsdumien,dutienofmine,of
yours:
Mon tracteur est en panne; les propritairesmont de l prt desunleurs.
My tractorhasbrokendown;theownersoftheneighbouringfarmhave
lent me one of theirs.
49
(d) The prepositionhasto be used with certainappartenirverbsto suc belong:
Cette voitureappartient mon frre.
This car belongs to my brother.
or replaced, when appropriate, with a personal pro
Cette voitureluiappartient.
This car belongs to him/her.
The preposition+emphatic pronoun may alsotre(sbe6.ea,3used8.):2 with
A quiestce livre?nous,PasMonsieurest. IlPaul.
Whose is this book?Not ours, Sir. Its Pauls.
Tout ceestquimoi est . toi
Everything thats mine is yours.

EXPOSITION

171

A quisont cesvtements?manteauLeest luietlesgantssont

elle.
Who dotheseclothbelongsto?Thecoatishisandtheglovesare hers.
In the spoken, rather than written, language and to any ambiguity, the following forms
may be found:
Touche pacest,ma poupemoi!
Dont touch, its my doll!
Tu veux dire quilsaJaguar?prisNon, ilsa voitureapriselle, la
Clio.
You mean hes taken his Jaguar?No, hes taken
(e)BeforepartsofthebodyoritemsofclothingwhereEnglishusesthe possessive
adjectiveFrench uses2.):the4 definite arti
Jevoudraisquetutelaveslevisageetlesmains,etquetutebrosses
lesdentslesetcheveux avant de partir.
Idlikeyoutowashyourfaceandhands,brushyourteethandhair before
you leave.
Levezla main droite et dites Je le jure
Raise your right hand and repeat after me, I s
Il se tenaitlesmainsl,danslespoches.
He was standing there with his hands in his poc
However,thisnota hardandfastruleandtherearemanyexceptioit,nsin particular when
you want to emphasize possession o
Jai posmamain surmon cur.
I put my hand on my heart.
or when the part of the body is qualified by an ad
Le bb a sesouvertgrandsyeuxbleus.
The baby opened his/its big blue eyes.
or to avoid ambiguity. For example, compare:
49
Donne-moilamainpour traverser la route.
Give me your hand to cross the street.

and

172

FUNCTIONS

Donnez-moivotre main,je vais examiner la blessure.

Give me your hand (the one thats hurt), Im goi
It is worth noting the difference in these laveruseofleth visageet les mains, se
brosserandalsoles indentsthe following e
Rassurez-vous,vousvoustesnepaslecasspoignet (see .13,40)
Dont worry, you havent broken your wrist.
andtheuseoftheindirectobjectpronounithefollowingexampletoindicate that an action
affects someone other than the subj
Ellenous a serrlamain en arrivant.
She shook our hands when she arrived.
Sa mreluia broslescheveux avant quil parte.
His mother brushed his hair before he left.
(f)Finally,notethatthemeaningofsomeverbsandnounsallowsyoutorefer more
specifically to the action leading to ownersh
La famillesest appropricette terre qui me revenait de dro
The family took over this land which was rightf
Que penses-matudernire acquisition?
What do you think of my latest acquisition?
49.6
Dimensions (see20)

Specificverbsmaybeusedinordertorefertolength,width,deptheight, thickness, size,

surface area,mesurer,capacity,chausser,.etc.faire,.g
Cette planchemesure2mtres.
This plank is 2 metres long.
Ilmesure un mtre quatreetpse-vingtsquatre-vingt-quinze kilo
Hes 6 foot tall and weighs 13 stone.
Jechausse du 38.
I take a (size) 38 shoe.
The verbfaireis often used to refer to dimensions and s
La cordefait3 mtres.
The rope is 3 metres long.

Ma cousinefaitun mtre soixante-quinze.

My cousin is 5 foot 10.

EXPOSITION

173

En chaussures faisdeduski,40.je
I take a 40 in ski boots.
49
La piscinefait4 mtres.
The swimming-pool is 4 metres deep.
Intheabsenceofcontextforthepreviousexample,youmightneedtospecify
thatyouarereferringtodepth(asopposedtolength,forexample)andthe structure
usedde:requires
La piscinefait25 mtres de long(uetur)2mtres de profondeur.
The swimming-pool is 25 metres long and 2 metre
Inthecaseoflength,widthandheight(not depth),anadjectivecanbeused instead
of thede:noun, after
Cette picefait3 mtres de haut(eur).
This room is 3 metres high.
After the object being described, when the noun is byde+ the expression of size:
Cest un petitdenvironchemin2kilomtres.
Its a small road about 1 miles long.
Il a une cicatricede10centimtressur la jambe.
He has a 4-inch scar on his leg.
Similarly,whenthenounexpressdingmensisubjectonoftheverbtre,you need
tode:use
Mesdames et messieurs,altitude notreestactuellementde5000mtres.
Ladies and gentlemen, we are flying at (an alti
La profondeurde ce puitsestdenviron 10 mtres.
This well is about 10 metres deep.
The same applies after using an adjective of dimen
Le rseau routierestlongdanoisdenviron 70900 km.
The road network in Denmark totals some 70,900
Differentprepositionssucha,de,par+definiarteicanlebeusedtoreferto
different measurement49.12):tools (see
Examples :with

174

FUNCTIONS

Les expertsontmesurla profondeur ladusondelac.

The experts have measured the depth of the lake
Le maonvrifieson travaauniveaul bulle.
The mason checks his work with a level.
Notethatifyouuseanalternativeexprssionuchas laide,thedefinite article
becomes indefinite:
La profondeuratmesure laide dune .sonde
Ilvrifieson travaillaide dun niveau .bulle
Examples dewithandpar:
49
Layant mesure des yeux,il sut tout de suite quelle serai pour le rle.
Helookedherupanddownandknewrightawaythatshewouldbetoo tall
for the part.
Les rsultatsonttestims par lobservaetvrifision parcalculle.
Theresultswereassessedby(further)observationandverifiedby
calculation.
Finally,notetheuseofreflexiveverbscombinedwithprepositions(+singular, en+
plural) to indicate the unit of measurement:
Chez nous, lesse pommesvendentau kiloet le aucidrelitre.
In our country, apples are sold by the kilo and
Suivant leur importance,semesurentles
terrainsenmtrescarrsou en hectares.
Dependiontheirgsize,areasoflandaremeasuredinsquaremtresor
hectares.
49.7 Quantity and
number (see 21,17)
Whenyouwantobepreciseaboutquantityandnumber,youusecardinal
numbersInthe.followingexamples,notecertainsmallchanges,inparticularin the
spellicentandgofvingt(see17.b3):
Il ytroisa cent soixante-jourscinq dans lanne.
There are 365 days in the year.
Surquatre cent cinquante tudiantsincritsenpremireanne
danglais,quatre-vingtspasseront en deuxime anne.

EXPOSITION

175

Of450studentsregisteredinfirstyearEnglish,80willgointosecond year.
LechiffredaffairesduGroupestdenvirtroisncentsmillionsde
euros,dontquatre-vingt-dixmillions
reprsentlesntventes
ltranger(see17..)3
TheGroupsturnoverisapproximately300millioneuros,ofwhich90
million represent exports.
When you do not need to be so dizaine,precise, centaine,nounssuchmi may be
used19):(see
Jaiune vingtaine delivres de cuisine.
Ive got about twenty cookery books.
Des amisen?feraIldes centaines.
Friends? Hell make hundreds of them.
Plusieurs millierspersonnesde ont assist au match.
Several thousand people were at the match.
Ifyouwantorankthings,orexpressfractions,useordinalumberspremier,
deuxime, dixime,(sece17ntime.)7.
49
(a) as adjectives:
Attention,deux lespremiersbarreaux de lchelle sont casss
Careful, the first two rungs of the ladder are
Note the order of numbers in the previous example.
Cestle cinquime pays le plus riche du.monde
Its the fifth richest country in the world.
Note the place of the superlative adjective10.)11. in the The following example
illustratespremiernot(un) thein dates:useof
Le congrsleapremierliou le deuxjuin? (see17.a)5
Will the conference take place on the first or
(b) as nouns, with an article (or a possessive adj
Cestle quatrime seplaindreauchefde rayon,nousdevons
intervenir!(see17.7).2
Hes the fourth to complain to the departmental do something.

176

FUNCTIONS

Mon premier estlopposderien,mon second estunoiseaurput

voleur, mon tout est(see17un.7).jouet!2
My firstisheoppositeofnothingMy.secondisa birdthatswell-known thief.
Im a toy.
Je naiquunfaitquart demon travail(see18.)
Ive only done a quarter of my work.
Les les reprsententuncinquimedela superficie totale de la
(see18)
The islands account for about one fifth of the
(c) Difficulties can arise with collectivelaexpress
moitihalf)andwithfractions(forexamples,deuxtierstwothirds)when
theyarepartofthesubjectofaverb,ecauseyouhavetodecidewhether
verb should be singular22.3):or.1 plural (see
Plus de la moiti des personnes interrogessesont dclares favora au
projet.
Morethanhalfofthepeoplequestionedsaitheywereinfavourofthe
project.
La moiti des lvesa opt pourlevoyageenAngleterre,lautre
moitipour le voyage en Allemagne.
Half of the pupils have chosen the trip to Engl trip to Germany.
Inthepreviousexample,theemphasison thequantity(lamoiti)and therefore the verb
agrees with the singular noun.
Les quatre cinquimesdu budgetontt absorbs.
Four-fifths of the budget have been spent.
49
Une bonne partiedu budgeta absorbe(orabsorb).
A considerable part of the budget has been spen
You often have the choice of focusingbudgeton)theor oncompl
thequantity(unebonnepartie)andhavetomaketheverbagreewiththe
subjectInthis.examplethefemininepastparticindicatesplefocuson the
quantityThis.appliestomanyexpressionssuchasleplusgrandnombre,un certain
nombre, unemajorit,partie, la. plupartThenoun following can often be considered
as the subject in22.terms):3 of
La plupart des Grecs appartiennentlEglise chrtienne orthodo
The majority of Greeks belong to the Greek Orth

(d) Other ways of expressing fractionssurofordont:awhole

EXPOSITION

177

Un Allemandsur quatretravaille pour lexportation.

One in every four Germans is employed in the ex
Le Danemark comprendont483100environles, sont habites.
Denmarkhasapproximately483islandsofwhichabout100are
inhabited.
Youmayneedtoexpressquantityandnumberswhenreferringtoanillustrative
documentsuchasa tableThe.followingtablecontainformatisfromthen
1982 census in France:

Taille des unitsNombre de

urbaines
communes
Units urbaines
Agglomration335
parisienne
Plus de 100 00078
hab.
10 000 100 413
000 hab.
Moins de 102 062
000 hab.
Total units4 888
urbaines
Communes
31 545
rurales
TOTAL
36
433

Nombre
dunits
urbaines

Population(en Part de la
milliers)
population
totale (%)

56

15

365

9 947

18,3
11,2

707
142

16,0
27,9

360

6 079

782

39

875

73,4

14

460

26,6

54

335

100,0

(1

782)

You may simply want to draw attention to some of t table:

Le nombre total de communes4888.(Whenslvereading this alou yousay
quatre mille huit cent .quatre)-vingt-huit
The total number of (urban) communities is 4,88
Ily a 1 413 communesde10000 100 000 habitants.(andyousay quatorze
centormilletreizequatre cent treize/dix) mille
There are 1,413 districts with a population of
Note that you do not use a comma, but leave a space big numbers. However, you do
use a comma before de
49

26,6% de la population totale vit dans(anddes ycommunes say vingt-six

virgule) six pour cent

178

FUNCTIONS

26.6% of the total population lives in rural co

In the above populatexample,ions taken as the subjectvivre,so ofthethe
verbissingularIfyou.placethemphasisonthepercentage,youhaveplural verb:

26,6%

de la populaviventdansion des communes rurales.

When describing a table, one of the difficulties l

writtentospokenformHere,.forexample,whenusingthefourthcolumn
Populationenmilliers,youwould8,707writemillionsandyou say:would
Huit millions septcentseptmillepersonnesviventdans
lagglomration parisienne.
Eight million seven hundred and seven thousand p its suburbs.
Anotherwayofdealingwiththenumbers,andlesspreciselythantheversion above, would
be the followingde (inotehisthecaseadditionafter ot millions):
Prs de neuf millions de personnesviventdanslagglomration
parisienne.
Almost nine million people live in Paris and it
An alternativeprsadverbdeisenviron:for
Environ huit millions et demipersonnesde viventlagglomrationdans
parisienne.
Around eight and a half million people live in
Finally,iftheunitindicatedbracketthestopofa columnoffourfigure numbers
enweremillions,youwouldsaythe numbermilliardsnbillions:
Accroissement prvu de la population mondiale en lan de vingt-cinq
Population (en millions)
2000
6
000
2025
8
000
Expected increase in world6billioninpopulatio20008billionand:in 2025.

stsofusingbracketswhen writing:
Anotherusefulwayofexpressingnumbersconsi

EXPOSITION

179

Outrelagglomrationparisiennetrspeuple(8700 000 habitants), 56

agglomrations hbergent20millionsprsdeFranaisde.
In addition to the densely populated area of Pa 000 inhabitants), 56 other
suburban areas have a
49

49.8
Quality
(a)Todescribesomethingaccordingtodistinguishingfeaturesyoucanusethe
verbtre+adjectivetre+deor+noun phrase:
En Allemagne,43% deshabitantssont protestantset43,3%de
confession catholique romaine.
InGermany,43% ofthepopulationareProtestantsand43.3%are
Roman Catholic.
or simplytre+noun:
La Franceestune rpublique.
France is a republic.
The verbtrealso features in a number of expressions w past
participltres,marque.g.orpar,nouns,tre.ung. exemple de:
LereliefdelEspagneestmarqu par unealternanceentreleschanes
de montagne et les vall(se 41e)s fluviales.
TheSpanishlandscapeischaracterizedbyalternatimoungtainchains and
river valleys.
Madridest un exempleuniquedes diffrentes cultures qui ont leurs traces
en Espagne.
Madridisa uniqueexampleofthedifferentculureswhichaveleft their mark
on Spain.
Particulirementriche,lapeintureespagnoledelpoquebaroque
estexceptionnellementreprsentebienau muse du Prado.
The glory of Spanish baroque painting is except in the Prado.
Note how the pair adverb+adjective(particulirementin appositionriche)la to
peintureespagnolesocontributesadistinguishingcharacteristicofSpanish baroque
paintings 49.2toSeereferalso to a persons qualities

180

FUNCTIONS

(b)A numberofreflexiveverbsareusedwiththeprepositionparsuchasse
caractriser par, se distinguer par:
LaGrcese caractrisepar lecontrasteentredehautesmontagneset
les eaux bleues de la (seeMditerrane41).
Greeceischaracterizbythecontrastdbetweenhighmountaindsthe blue
waters of the Mediterranean.
(c) Many transitive verbs, that is, verbs with a d presenter, possder.Note the place
of the adjectives in the
La Franceprsente une grande diversit de paysages et possde un riche
patrimoinehistorique et culturel.
Francehasa widediversityoflandscapes richhistoricaland cultural
heritage.
(d) The passive form is often used when describing referring to quantity 41):and
quality (see
49
En Grce,lepouvoirlgislatifestexercparleParlementetparle
prsidentlaRpubliqueLes300.membresduParlement,sauf12
dentre eux, sont lus au suffrage universel dire dEtat sont dsigns par les
partis politiques.
InGreece,legislativepowerisexercisedbytheparliamentandbythe
PresidentoftheRepublicThe.300membersofparliamentarelectedby
directuniversalsuffrage,exceptfor12whoareappointedbythepolitical parties.

49.9
Comparison(see10.1012)

(a) You can compare two different objects in terms

La chaiseest plus hautelebanc.que
The chair is higher than the bench.
or two different qualities in one object:
Le jardinestplus long que large.
The garden is longer than it is wide.
Thecomparativeformsplusormoins,whichexpressinequality,areoftenused

with adjectives, as in the two previous and the tw

EXPOSITION

181

Je suisplu grande quelui.

I am taller than he is.
Ilest plus petit moique.
He is smaller than I am. and with
adverbs:
Paris moinsest loin queLyon.
Paris is not as orfarParisas Lyonsisless.( distant than Lyo
Lyon estmoins prs queParis.
Lyons is less nearor Lyonsthan Parisnot. (as near as Paris or with nouns:

Il a montrplusde culot que de talent.

Hes demonstrated more cheek than talent.
Il a montrmoinsde talent que de culot.
Hes demonstrated less talent than cheek.
In order to express total superiority or inferiori
10.):11
Ne vapastranerparl,cestun des quartierslesplus pourrisde la
ville.
Dont hang around there, its one of the worst
Ne me provoquezpas,vousavezbienquede nous trois,jesuisle
plusfortetle moins bte!
Dontprovokem!YouknowverywellImthestrongestandtheleast stupid of
the three of us.
49
Cestllve le moins assidu de. tous
Hes the laziest pupil of the lot.
La Francele estdeuxime grand producteur de vin aprs .lItalie
France is the second biggest producer of wine a
Je suislemeilleur en mathsmaisle dernier en anglais.
Im top in maths but bottom in English.
Inthepreviousexample,notetheuseoftheirregularformeilleur(see10.)12
and also how you can compareleordernierra.kthings using
(b)Sometimes,youmakecomparisontoshowequality,orsimilarity,using
phrases suchaussiasquewith adjectives10.10): (see
La chaiseestaussi haute quele banc.

The seat is as high as the bench.

182

FUNCTIONS

Le jardinaussiestlarge quelong.
The garden is as broad as its long. or with adverbs:

Je coursausi vite quelui.

I can run as fast as him.
orwithnounsHere,.youcanusea verbtre,avoir,faire+article+mme
+noun (see20.):2
Le banc et lasontchaisedelamme hauteur.
The bench and the chair are the same height.
Ma mre etfaisonsmi la mme taille.
My mother and I are the same size.
Ces deux supermarchssontlamme distance de chez. moi
These two supermarkets are the same distance aw
Ilsont le mme costume.
Theyve got the same suits.
When referring specificallyquantity,useautanttoequaldeque:
Elleautant delivresqueson frre.
She has as many books as her brother.
(c) Other ways of comparing include:
usingprepositionsinphrasessuchas lamanirede, lafaondeto
emphasize similarity:
Elle traversa la picela maenireonunedulant,lionne.
She went slinking across the room like a liones
orcontrairement , latodiffrenceemphasize dedifference:
Contrairement son frre, Jacques ne sintressait pas
Unlike his brother, Jacques was not interested
49
usingconjunctionssuchas comme,ainsique,de mme que for
straightforward comparison10.d10): (see

Il est stupide,commesa sur dailleurs!

EXPOSITION

183

Hes stupid, just like his sister!

Iltravaillelarreainsique lont faitsonpretsongrand-pre avant lui.
He works on the land, like his father and grand
usingdautantplus/moinsorqueplus/moinsplus/moinsorderto
indicate proportional10comparison.):10 (see
Il semblaitplus quesonfrre russissait, moins elle
consacraitdetemps ses propres tudes.
Itseemedasifthemoreherbrothersucceeded,thelesstimeshespent on
her own studies.
Cet hommedautantest plus dtest quil est. riche
They hate the man even more because he is rich.
Satrahisonlerendaitdautantmoins fierquilsavaitcombiellen
avait foi en lui.
Hisbetrayal(ofher)madehimallthemoreashamedbecauseheknew
how much she trusted him.
using comparative or superlative 10forms.):10 with two c
La socit autantna pasdedettesquon voudrait nouscroirelefaire.
The company does not have as many debts as wev
LedernierfilmdeBessonestle meilleurque jaiejamaisvu.(see
39.)4
Bessons last (latest) film is the best Ive ev
Inthefollowingexample,notetheuseofthexpletivene,inparticularwhen
writing47(see.12), and note the difference between:
Depuis huit jours,neboit paselleplus quelle ne .mange(=elle ne boit, ni ne
mange)
Shehasnteatenordrunkanythingfora week(She.doesnteat
anything.)
and
Alcoolique? Non!neboitellepasplus quelle mange.
An alcoholic?No!Shedrinksamoderatelyassheats(She.doeseat
something.)
Notethataftersuperlativeforms,itispossibletousethesubjunctiveorthe indicative the
subjunctive to indicate uniqueness fact:

184

FUNCTIONS

Cestla plus belle femme que jamaisievue! (see39.)4

Shes the loveliest woman Ive ever seen!
Cestle plus jeune des enfants dontlajaigarde.
Hes the youngest child I have in my care.
49
using adjectivels(orsuchtheasconjunctiontel),queidentique, pareil:
Elle se jetatel(orsurtelle)luiun tigre(see11..10)
She threw herself at him like a tigress.
In the previoustelagreesexample,tigre,with withtelElle.
Lesdeuxfrrestaientreststelsquellelesavaitconnus dixansplus
tt.
Thetwobrothershadstayedjustasshehadknownthemtenyears earlier.
Ils ont des identiqucostmes.
They have identical suits.
Le propredunecitpavillonnaire,cestquunehabitationest
pareille toutes les autres.
Whatispeculitoarhousingestateisthatonehouseisthesameasall the
others.
using verbs or nouns which express comparison thr
Dans sa construction,sapparenteceromanunfilm.
In the way its constructed, this novel is like
Tu croisquilressemble sonpre?Moi,jevoispluttla
ressemblanceavec sa mre et jequontrouvereconnataussi le grand-pre.
Youthinkheslikehisfather?AsfarasImconcerned,Iseemoreofa
resemblancetohismotherandIthinkyoucanseeabitofhisgrandfather too.

49.10
Directions
(a) Typically, you have to give directions orally w Imperatives are often 44used): for
this (see

EXPOSITION

185

Aprslasortiedautoroute,continuez
toutdroitjusqulaplace
DuvalTraversez.cetteplacepuisprenez ladeuximerue gauche
aprs le feu
Afterleavingthemotorway,gostraightaheadtothePlaceDuvalGo.
across the Place, then take the second street on
Youcanalsousethefuturensewithvousortuinordertodividethe explanation
into several stages:
Aprslasortiedautoroute,continueztoujourstoutdroitVous.
dboucherezdansleboulevardHeurteloupPrenez.gauchejusquau
boutVous. laisserezlhtdevilleetletribunalsurvotregaucheEn.
arrivantsurlaplacecentrauleboutduboulevard,vousapercevrez
une sorte de tour, juste derrire les fontaines
Afterleavingthemotorway,keepstraighton.Youllcomeoutinthe
BoulevardHeurteloTurnpleft.andgorighttothendYoull.passthe
TownHallandtheLawCourtsonyourleftWhen.yougetothemain
squareatthendoftheBoulevardHeurteloup,youllseea sortoftower, just
behind the fountains
49
Alternatively, it isspokennotFrenchuusualto switchin between t
examplethepreseandtthefuture,andtousetuorvousformsinsteadofthe imperative:
Alors,pourlethtre,tucontinuestoujourstoutdroitTu.vas arriver
dansleboulevardHeurteloupL,.tu prendras gaucheettu vas
tomber sur lavenue Pompidou
So,forthetheatregostraighton.YoullgettotheBoulevard Heurteloup. Turn left and
youll be in the Avenue
Markers are oftenilgivenya: using
L, vous verrez,ilyunaMonoprix qui fait langle
There, youll see, theres a Monoprix on the co
Tu vasprendreladirectionArmentires,ilya environdeux
kilomtres de voie rapide
FollowthedirectiforArmentires,nstheresabouttwokilometresof
expressway
Expressions in apposition can be used to give deta
VousdboucherezdansleboulevardHeurteloup,unegrande
avenue avec des marronniers

186

FUNCTIONS

YoullcomeoutintheBoulevardHeurteloup,awideavenuewith chestnut
trees
Au feu,gauche,jusqulaMairie,une btisseblanche avec des
massifs de fleurs devant et la piscine ct
Atthelights,ontheleft,asfarastheTownHall,whitebuildingwith flowerbeds in front of
it and the swimming-pool be
Finally,peopleoftensum
up
whattheyhavesaid,particularlywhenthe
explanationshavebeenquitelonganddetailedInthe.followingexample,note the
language shortcutsthererueisisdroppednoverbpremire:afterand
Donc,ensortanticigauche,premire droite,toutdroit,toutdroit, et
encore droite au feu.
So,youllcomeouthereontheleft,firstrighstraight,on,andanother right at
the lights.
And, if youre really stuck and you cant find you
Sil vous plat, o est la rception?
Where is the reception desk, please?
Pardon, pour aller au Muse dOrsay?
Excuse me, where is the Muse dOrsay?
(b)Inwriting,forexampleina touristguide,directionsareoftengivenusing
verbsintheinfinitiveThefollowing.examplesaretakenfromanEdinburghtourist
guide:
Commentvousrendre aumuse?En voiture:suivreladirectionde
laroportdEdimbourgpuislespanneauxindiquantlemuseEn.
autobus et prendrepied:le n 16 de la Compagnie Eastern S 49
Descendre larrtAirportInterchangeDescendre. lesescalierset
emprunter le passage souterrain
How togetothemuseum?By car:gointhedirectionofEdinburgh Airport, then follow
the signs for the museum. By
No.16EasternScottishbusGet.offattheAirportInterchangestopGo.
down the steps and through the subway
Alternativthpresently,orfuturetenses,and/orimpersonalverbs (see46)can
be used:
Vouspouvez galementprendrelautobusasurantlanavetteentre
Waverley Bridge et laroport.

EXPOSITION

187

YoucanalsotaketheshuttlebusbetweenWaverleyBridgeandthe
airport.
Il est galementpossiblededescendrelarrtNortonCottages
maisilvous faudra alorstraverserlaroutedirectement,cequiest
dangereux.
Its also possible to get off at the Norton Cott to cross the road, which is
dangerous.
49.11
Location
(a)A nounphraseoremphaticpronounitroducedbya preposition(see48)is
often used to indicate location, origin or destina
Les enfantsdansjouentlejardin.
The children are playing in the garden.
La Grce forme uneau pninsulesuddelEurope.
Greece is a peninsula in southern Europe.
Ce matin-l, elle scttaitdelui asdansiselecompartiment.
That morning, shed sat beside him in the compa
VotreprerevientdEspagne demainmaisilira daborden ville
avantderentrer chez nous.
YourfatherscomingbackfromSpaintomorrowbuthellgointotown first
before he comes home.
Comme la route nationaleentre estTours barreetLeMans,il nous
faudrapasser par les petites .routes
Since the main road between Tours and Le Mans is use the minor roads.
Sometimes, the preposition is dropped, for example
Jhabite rue des Lilasdepuis dix ans.
Ive been living in the Rue des Lilas for ten y
Ils ont t seobligsgarerplacedeGrcourt.
They have had to park in the Place Grcourt.
Inthefollowingexamples,notetheuseofthepronounsyandeninsteadofthe
complements(en Ecosseandde chez (seeeux)12.,125.):6
49
Si je connais JlEcosse?!yaivcupendant douzemyplaisaisanset je
beaucoup.
Do IknowScotland?IlivedtherefortwelveyarsandIlikeditvery much.

188

FUNCTIONS

Inutile dessayer dejn relviens,appeler,nyilpersonne.

No point trying to call them. Ive just tried a Informal or
colloquialmisuseuseofmayprepositions:leadto
Elle est o Autacoiffeur!su?(insteadchez leofcoiffeur)
Your sisters where? The hairdressers!
(b) Many adverbs and adverbial phrases indicate lo
Ellestamuseitcachertousleslivresdesonfrre,iciet l,audessus de larmoire,sousleslits,derrirelestableaux,auprs des
bouteillesdansle cellieretmme dehors, en dessous des haiesqui
bordaient le jardin.
She had a great time hiding all her brothers b
ontopofthewardrobe,underthebeds,behindthepicturbeside,bottles
in the wine-cellar, and even outside under the he
Va donc ailleursvoirsi jy suis!
Get lost!
Colloquial use may lead to redundancies, especiall
Maman, sorsje dehorsfaire un foot!
Mum, Im going out to play football.
Je vaisdescendre en baschercher une autre bouteille.
Im going down to get another bottle.
(c) Relative clauses with no antecedent are someti
Vao le vent te mne,(from va!song by Branduardi) Go where the wind
takes you, go!
Tu le vois, Dol-ilhaut?est, la vue doit tre extraord
Dyouseehimup there?Fromwherehe is,theviewmustbe
extraordinary.
and the struccest+ici,urequel for particular emphasis:
Cest ici quenous nous sommes rencontrs il y a vingt a
It was here we met twenty years ago.
Cest en Belgique quelon trouve les meilleurs(see10.12chocolatsa)
Its in Belgium that you get the best chocolate
(d)Placenamesareobviousindicatorsoflocation,whethertheyareusedon
theirown,e.gcountries,.cities,orinnounphrasessuchaslamerEgethe

EXPOSITION

189

AegeanSea,llphantdAfriquetheAfricanelephantNote.thathe
prepositionaisusuallyusedwithcountriesofmasculinegenderandenwith
countriesoffemininegenderWhen.thereisnogender,forexample,Chypre
Cyprus,is normally2.used4): (see
49
Jaivcudeuxansau Brsil,unan Madagascar, troisansen
Bolivie et je auxsuisEtats-Unisdepuis six mois.
IlivedinBrazilfortwoyears,Madagascarfoone,Boliviaforthree,
and Ive been in the United States for six months
TheprepositionisalsousedwithtownsandcitiesDonot.forgettomakethe necessary
changes when an article is part of the n
Il pleut plus Glasgowsouventqu Edimbourg .
It rains more often in Glasgow than in Edinburg
Jai dcid de partir (pour)auCaire. une semaine
Ive decided to go to Cairo for a week.
Howeveremember,thattherearenumerousexceptionscerningtheuseof
prepositionsandcountries(enIraninIran),islands(en Sardaignein
Sardinia,butLaReunion),departmendtsregions,andthatinsomecases
more than one preposition may be usedeven with ci meaning is usually affected.
DesfourgonsdepoliceontpatrouilldansParisduranttoutleweekend.
Police vans patrolled Paris the whole weekend.
Notehowthedefinitearticleisdroppedinsomenounphrasesinvolvingplace
names:
Lesvins de Francese vendent partout dans le monde.
French wines are sold all over the world.
Llphant dAfriqueest differentllphantde dAsie.
The African elephant is different from the Indi
Note the difference in meaning, and different prep
All Paris! Je me trouvedans actuellementnorddela France.
(Alternatwithvely,acapitalletter:Jeme trouvedansleNordthe
name of the region)
Hello, Paris! Im in the north of France at the

190

FUNCTIONS

and
La Manche se autrnorduve de la France.
The Channel is on the northern coast of France.
(e)Inthepreviousexample,thereisa goodillustrationofverb(se trouver)
used to introduce location. seTheresituer:are others such
Copenhaguesesituesur lle dAmager.
Copenhagen is on the island of Amager.
Passive forms of thesetr verbs,situ localise,.g.arealsoorient,frequen used
(see41):
Lle de Sardaestsituegne louest de lItalie.
Sardinia is situated to the west of Italy.
La pente que tuestaperoisorienteausud.
The hillside you can see is south-facing.
49
Naturally,pointsofthecompassarefrequentlyusedtorefertogeographical location
Les Pays-Bas stendentdunordausudsur environ 300destkmen et
ouestsur environ 200 km.
TheNetherlandsreapproximately300km fromnorthtosouthand about
200 km from east to west.
and sometimes they are combined:
Il ny a de collines quedu suddans-est. (seel47.rgions)10
The only hills are in the south-east.
La ville de Cherbourgaunordse-ouesttrouvedela France.
Cherbourg is in the north-west of France.
(f)Finally,thereisa seriesofnouns,andcorresponadingjectives,whichmay also be
used to indicate geographical location:
Cette anne, nous ne passerons lepasMidi.nos vacances d
This year we will not be spending our holidays
Le versantmridionaldes Alpes descend de faon abrupte plaine du P.
On their southern side the Alps drop steeply to

EXPOSITION

191

49.12
Manner(see47.147.)2.2
Whenreferringtomanner,thatis,broadlyansweringthequestionHow?in
relationtoactiorevent,itisusefultodistinguishbetween(a)themeans usedtodosomething,
(b)themannerinwhichsomethingsdoneand(c)the presence or absence of other
people or things duri
(a) You may use a noun phrase or pronoun introduc
, avec,sans, de, au moyen de, (see48): laide de
Tu tricoteslamainou la machine?
Do you knit by hand or do you use a machine?
Il sest hiss jusquaumoyen dunesommetcorde.
He pulled himself to the summit by a rope.
Sometimestheseprepositionsoccurwithinmorecomplexstructures,for example,
in relative clauses:
Voici laaveclimelaquelle il alessci barreaux de (seesa15cellule.)5.
Heres the file he used to saw through the bars
A numberofverbsmaybeusedtorefertothemeansormethodsuedsuchas user
employer,de, utiliser, se servir de:
Elleaus de son charmepour sintroduire dans lorganisati
She used her charm to get into the organization
En employant la langue du pays, vousgagnerezlafaveurde la
population locale.
If you use their language, local people43.)1 will lo
49
(b) Again, the manner in which something is done phrase or a pronoun introduced
sans,by prepositionde,en,: su
Cesanst enthousiasmeque les ouvriers ont accueilligrve. lor
(see 56.)2
The workers greeted the strike call without ent
Lcrire,cestbienmaisjeveuxtelentenddirede vivevoix.(see
47.1).3
Writing it, thats fine, but I want to hear you
Sometimes,thereisnoprepositionpartstheofthesentencesareimplyin
apposition:

192

FUNCTIONS

Les passants observaientlairmdusla. scne,

The passers-by watched what was going on dumbfo
Inthepreviousexample,notetheuseofthedefinitearticlel.Insome
expressionsitisomitted,andtobecertainwhetheritisusedornot,itisbestto check
in a dictionary.
Il est interditjambesdnuesntrerdans les glises(seeitaliennes45.)6.
It is forbidden to go into an Italian church wi
Note that the sansprepositionissometimes followed by an infin
Il prit son manteausans direet unsormot.(seeit45.1).3
He took his coat and left without a word.
Thegerundandthepresentparticiplewillalsoallowyoutostathemannerin
which something is done, with43.):1or without en (see
Les candidats posent souvenntrougissantcette. question
Candidates often blush when they ask that quest
Elle continuait monter,cherchantappuisespiedssur les asprit de la
roche.
Shecontinuedtoclimb,herfeetsearchingforfootholdsintheuneven
surface of the rock.
Haussant les paules, il rtorqua quil nen savait
Shrugging his shoulders, he replied that he kne
Inthepreviousexample,notethatthecomplementofmannerisinapposition. Adjectives or
relative clauses may also be used in
Courtois mais direct,le commissaire linterrogeasessur sa vi activits
nocturnes.
Politebutfirm,thesuperintendentquestionedhimabouthisprivatelife and
what he did at night.
Regarde bien cette image: un desqui jeunesbranditunmanifest bton, se
prcipiteverslesCRS (CompagnieRpublicainede Scurit)(see15..)1
Lookcarefullyatthispicture:oneoftheyoungdemonstratorwhois, wielding a stick, is
running towards the CRS (rio
Many adverbs are available for referring to the ma
50

Il parlait vite en la regardant(see43.)1 fixement.

EXPOSITION

193

He spoke quickly and he stared at her as he did

anda numberofadjectivesmaybeusedasadverbsandthereforebecome
invariable(se 47).Thisisthecaseinsetverbphrasessuchasparlerfortto speak
loudly,chanterjusteto sing voirintune,clairto see clearly.
Il me semble ontquellesvisunpeu haut.
I think theyve aimed a bit high.
Butrememberthatnewphrasesofthistypeareconstantlybeingcreatedfor particular
stylistic effect. Thus, advertising has
Les lessives quiblanclavent!(= mieux?)plus
Washing powders that wash whiter (= better?)!
(c)Naturally,avecandsansarethemainprepositionsusedtointroduceanoun
phraseorpronountoindicatethpresence,orabsence,ofanotherpersonr thing:
Je prends lavionavec demainmesdeux collgues.
Im taking the plane tomorrow with my two colle
Puisque cest commesans a,toi! jirai
OK! If thats how it is, Ill go without you!
Note that the article is sometimes omitted before
Cela fait du bien de partirsansenfants! (swe4e.ek)4-end
It does you good to go away for the weekend wit
Vous voulez faireavc laou sansvisiteguid?
Do you want to do the visit with or without a g Alternatively, an
expressionencompagniesuchmaydeasbe used:
Le comdien a clbren compagniesonsuccsdetoute la troupe.
The actor celebrated his success
with the entir
Finally, verbsse joindsuchrasaccompagner

may be

used:

Je descends prendre un verre,joindrevoulezmoi?-vous vous

Im going down for a drink. Do you want to come
LorsquelespouxDuvalsesontprsentsauCommissarilsat,
taient accompagns par/deleurs deux enfants(see41).
WhenM. andMme Duvalwenttothepolicestation,theywere
accompanied by their two children.

194

FUNCTIONS

Accompagne ton frre au magasin, sil te plat!

Go to the shop with your brother, please!
50
Narrating
Thisectisonabouthowwe usetensesItfocuses.ontheorganizationof
narrativeinpast,preseandtfuturetimeThere.aremanyinstancesofuesof
specifictensesinanothertime,forexample,theuseofthepresenttenseto express
past actions. By way
50
of introduction, it is interesting to look at the speaker or writerthe narratormay
adopt.
You may envisage an action in its duration:
Lesspectateurslisaient(lisent,liront)leprogrammeenattendantque
le rideau souvre.
The audience were (are, will be) reading the pro (are) waiting for the curtain to
go up.
or as being completed and having occurred at a par
Mes pareonttspass (passrent)deux mois de vacancesla au bord mer.
My parents have had (had) two months holiday a
or as a repeated action or habit:
Elleprenait (prend, prendra)tous les matins le train de 8h30.
She caught (catches, will catch) the 8.30 train or you may want to describe an
action as being com
Ila (avait, aura) ouvertla fentre.
He has (had, will have) opened the window.
Jai obtenuune bourse.
Ive obtained a grant.
Ilsrecherchentles coupables.
They are looking for the culprits.
Les premiresapparaissaientfleurs.
The first flowers were appearing.

EXPOSITION

195

50.1
Present time(se24.,3 24).7
(a)Inordertoindicatethatanactiorneventistakingplaceatthepresent
moment,youcanusethepresenttensehoweverlongorshorttheactiorns events
may be:
La luneluit,un criretentitdans la nuit.
The moon is shining and a cry rings out in the
Someverbsandverbphrases,suchassemettre+nounorinfinitive,treentrain
de+infinitive,nepasarrterde+infinitive,allowyoutoemphasizethstartor
development of an action in the present time:
Ah quand mmte,metstuau travail.
About time too! Youre starting your work!
Rappelletoutlheure,ilesten trainde regardersonfeuilletonla
tl.
Call back later, hes orwatchingsoapopera)his serialontelly(.
Thepresenttensecanalsoconveythenotiofnrepetition,whichmaybemade
moreexplicitthroughtheuseofexpressionssuchastouslesjours,chaque
dimanche, or verbs withre-thesuchprefixredire:as
50
Il passerepasseet toutes les cinq minutesdevant le magasin.
He walks up and down in front of the shop every
(b) Naturally, the present tense is used for direc
Ilnepleutplus,vous pouvez allerjouer dehors maintenant.
It isnt raining any more. You can go and play
Andwhenanothertense,forexample,theimperfect,isusedwithindirect speech, as
in:
Il a ditfaisaitquilbeau.
He said the weather was fine.
it refers to the present time of the corresponding
Il a dit:fait beauIl.
He said, Its fine weather.

196

FUNCTIONS

(c) The present tense is also used to indicate tha a definition, has timeless universal
value:
Lunionfaitla force. Cinq foisgaletroisquinze.
Unity is strength. Five times three equals fifteen.
So thepresenttensemay welloccurina pastnarrativeInthe.following example, the
assumption is that there is one unive children:
Les militants de ce mouvement ont parlparledes anima de ses enfants.
Theactivists/militantsinthemovementspokeaboutanimalsyou speak
about your children.
See 50.d2 for other examples of the present tense in a
(d)Othertensesaresometimesusedwithactionsoreventsorbehaviour
occurrinthegpresenttimeIn.speech,forexample,theimperfecfuture, conditional, or
pluperfect tenses may be used as a
Vous dsiriez?Jevoulaisunkilodetomatetsunelivredharicots verts,
sil vous(see33.plat1).3.
Whatwouldyoulike?Idlikeakilooftomatoesanda poundof French
beans, please.
Voudriez-vousque jevousconduiselagare?Jaccepterai
volontiers.
Would you like me to drive you to the station?
Jtais venuvous demander un petit (see31)service.
Ive come to ask a little favour of you.
Notealsotheuseoftheimperfectforexpressingendearmeinparticulart,with pets
and babies:
Ilavaitbobo sa patte ce petit chien-l.
That little dog has hurt his paw.
(e) Remember that each timepast, present, or fu
theothersandthatthereforeareconnectionsbetweenthemFor.example,
the
50
perfectisoftenusedfora pastactionwhenthereisa connectionwiththe
present time29): (see

Comme onna pasencoredcouvertlassassin, selenqutepoursuit.

EXPOSITION

197

Since they havent found the murderer yet, the

Ilne faitpas chaudici!Jai ouvertlesfentresavantdepartirpour
arer,peuxtules fermermaintenant.
Its not very warm in here! I opened the window placeyou can shut them now.

50.2 Past
time
(a) In order to focus on the duration of the actio use the imperfect for description or
26to.):1indicate a
La nuittombaitsur la villefaisaitfroidetil.
Night was falling over the city and it was cold
The imperfect is also used for repeated26actions.):1 or
Quandjtaistudiante,jemelevaistt,jepouvaistravaillertoutela
journe,sortirlesoir,puisjerecommenais
lelendemainetje,
ntaisjamais fatigue!
WhenIwasastudent,Iusedtogetupearly,Iusedtoworkallday,go
outinthevening,thenIstartedagainthenextday,andIwasnever tired!
The imperfect also occurs in historical narratives it refers to an action which is
completed, and pre reader:
En mai 1981, FranoisentraiMdanstterrandlhistoire(see26.)1.
In May 1981, Franois Mitterrand made history.
(b)Whenreferritonge,oraseries,ofcompletedactionsccurringatparticular point in the
past, you use the past historic. Note usually restricted to the27written.):2 narrative
(see
Sonvhicule,lanc120km/h,manqua levirage,heurta labarrire,
fut dportetallascraser contre un arbre de lautre c
Hiscar,travellingat75mph,missedthebend,hithebarrier,swerved
and crashed into a tree on the other side of the
When speaking, and increasingly when writing, the
pasthistoricThefunctions.ofthetwotensesare,forthepurposeofreferringto oneora
seriesofactionscompleteinthepast,oallintentsandpurposes, identical29).(see

198

FUNCTIONS

Ila manqu le virageheurtetla barrire, puisatladportevoiture

et sestil crascontre larbre de lautre ct de la rou
He missedthebendandhithebarrier,thenthecarswervedandhe
crashed into the tree on the other side of the ro
Whencombinedwiththeimperfectinacomplexsentence,thepasthistoric allows you to
emphasize the suddenness27.):2 of an actio
50
Ellecheminait enchantonnantquandun loupsurgitdederrireun
fourr.
She was walking along humming to herself when a behind a thicket.

(c)Othertenses,namelythe pluperfect(see31)andthepastanterior (see32),

willallowyoutoconsideracompletedactionfromthepointofviewofits duration:
Le professeuravaitlonguemexposnt les raisons de sa dmission
The teacher had explained the reasons for his r
from the point of view of its result:
Tous remarqurent combienavaitchang.elle
Everyone noticed how much she had changed.
or of its occurrence at a particular point in (pas is only used in specific written
contexts:
Quand il eut terminsa sieste au soledcidal,delereprendrelivre la
course (see.32)
Whentheharehadfinisheditssiestainthesun,itdecidedtocontinue the race.
(d) Note that other tenses intrude into past tim
especially in historical narratives:
Napolonentreprendalors une nouvelle cotecamplagnevieunqui
grand nombre de soldats.
ThenNapoleonudertookanothercampaignwhichcosthelivesof many
soldiers.
In the following extract, the present and future te in a narrative otherwise written in
the past tense

EXPOSITION

199

Ds 1957,les sixdcidrentmembrdes construirecommunaute

conomiqueLes.droitsde douaneseront totalementliminsle
premierjuillet1968etlespolitiquescommunesserontmises en place
durant cette dcennieet.enEn1986,1981 les adhsions de l de
lEspagneetdu Portugalrenforcrentle flancsud de la
CommunautParalllement,.laCommunautsaffirmesurleplan
internationalenrenforantleslienscontractuelsnousaveclespays
du sud de la Mditerrane.
(Fontaine, P. (1992), Les Grandes Pha inDix leons sur
lEurope,Documentation europenn
In1957,thesixmembercountriesdecidedtocreateaneconomic community.
Customs duties would be completely el
1968andcommonpolicieswouldbeputinplaceduringthatten-year period In 1981
and 1986 the entry of Greece, Sp
strengthesouthernflakoftheCommunityAt.thesametime,the
Communityestablisheditselfinternationallybystrengtheningcontractual links with
countries to the south of the Mediterr
Notesomefurtherintrusionsofthepresenttenseinpasttimeinthefollowing
narrativeThefirst.onerelatoesthecharactershoughtsinrealtime,andthe second
is an intervention by the narrator:
50
Ilavaitprislemtrocommetouslesmatins7h30Soudain,.larame
simmobilisaQuese. passe-t-il?Je vais tre en retardfurentses
premirensesPuis.voyantquepersonneragissaitetquun
silencepassifsinstalildcidaait,quaprstoutilnypouvaitrienet
quemieuxvalaitattendrepatiemmentcommetouslesautresYa.-t-il
un besoin plus irrsistible que celuiauqueldese confo on se trouveml?
Hehadtakenthemetroashedideverymorningat7.30Suddenly,.the
trainstoppedWhats.happening?Imgoingtobelatewerehisfirst
thoughtsThen.seeingthatnobodywasreactiandgthatpassivesilence
ensued,hedecidedthathecoulddonothingaboutitanywayanditwould be
bettertowaitpatientlyliketherestofthemIs.thereanymore irresistible need than to
conform to the group in
Thepresenttenseisalsoused,whenspeaking,torefertoanactioninthenear
past 24(see.):3
Je sorsde chez le coiffeur et tu nas rien remarqu!
Ive just left the hairdressers and you didnt
All oui?tu as dejarrivelachance,linstant!

Hello, yes?youre lucky! Im just in!

200

FUNCTIONS

Alternatively, you may use veniraverb+infinitivedephrase24such.):3(seeas

Vous avez de la chance jedeviensme darrivertouver,!
Youre lucky to catch me, Ive just arrived.
50.3 Future
time(se25.)3
(a)Withthefuturetenses,youcanrefertoactionswhichwilloccurata later date or time.
Note the equivalent English tenses.
Je prendrairendez-vous chez le dentiste demain matin.
Ill make an appointment at the dentists tomor You can also focus on the future
result of an acti
Asseyez-vous, Monsieursera ldansMillouun instant.
Take a seat. M.Maillou will be here in a moment
Nousattendonsavecimpatiencelesrsultatsdepremires
circonscriptioseronts communiqusqui partir de (see20h3041).
We arewaitingimpatientlyfortheresultsfromthefirstconstituencies which will
be announced from 8.30 onwards.
Tu verras,diciun moistu auras reu tonpremiersalaireettu
naurasplusde problmes dargent(see30).
Youllsee,ina monthfromnowyoullhavehadyourfirstsalaryand youll
have no more money problems.
When the realization of a future action depends on tensesinbothclauses
futuretheperfectforhefirstactionandthefuturefor
the second:
50
On ira o voudras,tu quandvoudras,tu et lonsaimera
encorelorsque lamoursea mort. (from a song by Joe Dassin)
Well go where you want, when you want, and sti love has died.
Quand elleserapartie,nousserons plus tranquilles(see 25.,30).
When she has gone, well be happier.
(b)Inthefollowingexampleinindirectspeech,theconditionaltenseisusedin
the transfer from direct speech51b):in the future tens
Il a ditviendraitquilce soir.=Il a dit: Je viendrai ce s

He said he would come tonight.=He said, Ill c

EXPOSITION

201

(c)Thepresenttense(see24.),3andtheperfect (see29),areoftenusedforan action which

will take place in the near future, e
Ne bougezjarrivepas,tout de suite.
Dont move, Ill be right there.
Ils partent Guadeloupe demain soir.
They are leaving for Guadeloupe tomorrow evenin
Un peudepatiencelesnfants,cenestplustrsloinmaintenant, encore
quelques nousminutessommes arrivset.
Havepatience,childreitsn,otveryfarnow.Justafewmoreminutes and
well be there.
Alternatively,verbphrasessuchasaller+infinitive,ortresurlepointde
+infinitive,devoir+infinitive,or may be used:
Attention, le train en provenance BordeauxParis et d va entreren gare.
AttentionThetrain.fromParisforBordeauxisabouttoarriveatthe station.
Je vous laissenouslessommescls,surle point de partir.
Here are the keys, were about to leave.
As-tu des nouvelles de Jacques? Non,il maisdoit jen mappeler.
AnynewsofJacques?No,butIllhavesometomorrow,hessupposed to call
me.
50.4 Dates
and(seetime2.c4)
(a) In order to situate an event in time, you have it occurs,en
withusingyearsenorauandmois withde months:
La Communauteuropenneducharbonetdelaciertcreen
1950 (see. 41)
The European Coal and Steel Community was estab
Normalement,jauraiterminmestudensjuin2005(or au mois
de juin 2005).
If everything goes well, Ill have finished my
50
orlewith specific dates:
Lesdroitsdedouaneindustrielsontttotalementliminsle1er
juillet 1968.

202

FUNCTIONS

Customstariforfsindustrywereabolishedcompletelyon1stJuly 1968.
Le Conseil Europen de Brmeles6t a7 eujuilletlieu 1978.
The European Council in Bremen was on the 6th a
Thedefinitearticleisalsousedwithdaysoftheweekwhenreferringtoregular events:
Les enfants nontlepasmercredidcoleaprs-midi.
Children dont have school on Wednesday afterno
Les journaux du dimanche sontrslusenGrande-Bretagne(se. 41)
Sunday papers are widely read in Britain.
Les boueurs touspassentlesvendredis.
There is a refuse collection every Friday.
Mon salaireestvirsurmon comptele premier lundi dechaque
mois (see. 41)
My salary is paid into my account on the first With specific days, there is no
article:
Mercredi,je pars en vacances!
On Wednesday Im going on holiday!
Il a sa photolejournaldansde mardi.
His photo is in Tuesdays paper.
Lundi soir?Non,jenepeuxpas,pluttunjeudisoir,jenaipas
coursle lendemain.
Mondayevening?No,IcantBetter.ona Thursdayevening,Ihavent any
lectures next day.
Incorrespondenctherare,variouswaysofindicatingprecisedateIn.letter headings,
you may find:
Edimbourg,le13 avril 2002(or 13.4.2002)
Similarly, in the text of the letter, you may find
Suitevotre lettre du 22 fvrier,je
Further to your letter of 22nd February, I
or
Ayant reu votre bon datde ducommande22.2.04,je

I have received your order of 22.2.04

EXPOSITION

203

(b)Iftheprecisedateisnotknown,youuseprepositionssuchavers+article,
autourde+article:
Sa famille a dversmigrerlafindes annes. 40
His/Her family must have emigrated at the end o
50
Je compte rentrer autourdevacancesdu10aot.
I intend to return from holiday about the 10th
Notethatdbut,fin,mi-vers,lemilieude,aumilieudecanbeusedwithor
without an article:
Tu comptes te mettrefin juillet?enNon,cgpluttversla mi-aot.
YouintendtotakesometimeoffatthendofJuly?No,moretowards the
middle of August.
(c) Approximate time of occurrencevers:is usually intr
Je vous attendsversmidi.
Ill expect you about noon.
Note that the 24-hour clock is widely used in off
p.mdevice.isnotavailableEquivalent.phraseswouldbedumatina.mde., laprsdumidi,soirp.m.. In less formal situations you
Tu passes me prendrequatreheures et demie?
Will you come for me at 4.30?
If you wanted to be a bit moretrente:formal, you could u
Votre taxi est rservcinqheures pourtrente.
Your taxi is reserved for 5.30.
Similarly,etquartandmoinslequartarelessofficialthanquinzeand
quarante-cinq:
Lve-toi, il estmoinseufle quartheures!
Get up, its a quarter to nine!
LetraineprovenancedeBordeauxentreragare huitheures
quarante-cinq.
The train from Bordeaux will arrive at the stat
Althoughheurescannot usuallyminutesbeomioftented,is except in ve instances:

204

FUNCTIONS

Laccident est arrive devanthuitheureschezvingt.moi

The accident happened outside my house at 8.20.
RTL, il est quatorze heures (et) trois minutes.
This is Radio Television Luxembourg, its three
(d)Youmightalsowantoindicatethdurationofanevent,forexample between two
datesde: with
Le magasin seradu 1 fermau31 aot.
The shop will be shut from the 1st to the 31st
Le parc de loisirsde juinest octobreouvert.
The fairground is open from June to October.
De 1954 1988, laidecommunautairepermislacrationde180
000 nouveaux emplois dans ce secteur.
From1954to1988,Communityfundingenabled180,000newjobsto be
created in this sector.
50
The same structure can be used with times:
Les banques sont gnralementde9h00 17h00ouvertes.
Banks are generally open from 9 to 5.
Alternatively,entreetmay be used, for example if an event a particular time
between two times:
Il a dit quil passeraitentre8h00meetprendre8h30.
He said hed pick me up between 8 and 8.30.
Indications of date(s) and time(s) can of course b
La piscine estde 8h00ouverte18h00 du lundi au vendredi, de
9h00 17h00 le samedi et de 10h00 17h00 le dimanche.
Theswimmingpoolisopenfrom8 to6 MondaytoFriday,9to5 on
Saturday and 10 to 5 on Sunday.
(e) You may of course want to focus ondepuis,theinitialds or partir de:
Je travaille dansdepuiscette1992.socit
Ive been working in this company since 1992.
Ds 1957, lessixmembresdcidrentdeconstruireun
communautconomique.

EXPOSITION

205

In1957,thesixmembercountriesdecidedtoestablishaneconomic
community.
Le muse est ouvert touspartir ldes9h30.jours
The museum is open every day from 9.30.
or on the final datejusqu:ortime with
Le magasin restejusquouvert20h00du lundi au vendredi.
The shop stays open till 8 p.m. Monday to Frida
Jai un contratjusqudetravailjuin.97
I have a contract of employment until June97. In the following
example,dicifnortea thedadline:useof
Dici lan 2009,il aura termin sa thse.
Hell have finished his thesis by the year 2009 and that a deadline may also be
expressed as a per
La troisimetapede lUEM(Unionconomiqueetmontaire)
dbuteraauplus ttle 1 er janvier1997 etau plus tardle 1 er janvier
1999.
The third stage of the EMU (Economic and Moneta
atthearlieston1stJanuary1997andatthe(very)lateston1stJanuary
1999.
50
50.5
Sequence
Asalreadymentioned(see 50.e),1past,preseandtfutureactionsreventsare
not considered in isolation but in relation to one tenses has to be used in order to
relate actions i sentencewithatleasttwoclauses,themainactiontakesplaceata
timewecan callthereferenctimeandtheotheractionoccursbefore,atthesametimeas,
or after the main one.
(a)Actionsoreventsakingplacebeforethemainaction,situatedinits reference
time:
Je pensequellea pasn suffisammentrvis.
I dont think she has done enough revision.
Je pensequellentaitpas prte pour cet examen.

I dont think she was ready for this exam.

206

FUNCTIONS

Ilscroirontque nous sommesnous moqus deux.

Theyll think that weve been making fun of the
Ilsaura que tu ne voulaisluipasen.
Hell know you dont bear him a grudge.
Je nesavaispas queavaistu t opr.
I didnt know you had had an operation.
Nousavons entendu direquevousaviezdjeu desdifficultsavec
cefournisseur.
We heard that youd already had problems with t
Ses paresontsdusquelleaitchou.
Her parents are disappointed that she has faile
Notredlgationfortapprciquunaccueilaussichaleureuix
soit(orft) rserv son arrive.
Ourdelegationwasdelighthatedheyweregivensucha warm welcome.
Intheprevioustwoexamples,notethatpastsubjunctihavetosbeusedafter certain verbs
and verb phrases. This is also the c
Nowadays,theimperfectandpluperfectsubjunctivesarerarelyused,evenin
written French39). (see
(b) Action(s) taking place at the same time as th
Jecroisquelleestprte.
I think shes ready.
Je luidiraique tuveuxneplusvenir.
Ill tell him/her you dont want to come any mo
En la voyant,sutimmdiatementil taitquelleenpleinedepression.
When he saw her he knew immediately that she wa
Nousommes enchantsque voussoyezparmi nous aujourdhui.
We are delighted you are with us today.
50 Elleaimaitquillafasse(orft)rire.
She loved it when he made her laugh.
(c) Action(s) taking place after the main action:
Une bonne partie dessaventlecteurspaspournequivoterontils.
Many of the electors dont know who to vote for
Je luidiraique tu rejoindrasnousaprs le cours.
Ill tell him/her that youll join us after the
Ellecompritquilrevinendraitplus.
She realized that he would never come back.
Nousavionsque la factureseraitenvoyele lendemain.

We knew that the invoice would be sent the next

EXPOSITION

207

Je neveux pas qtuepartessi tt.

I dont want you to leave so early.
Elledemanda quonprenne (or prt) lapeinede luienvoyerle
document.
She told them/us to make an effort to send her
(d)Theremaybemorethantwoclausesinsentenceandtheuseofdifferent tenses allows
you to establish a sequence of actio examples, the sequence of actions is
represented b
Comme ellea consciencieusementrvis(1),ellepense (2)quelle
dcrochera (3)son diplme.
Since she has revised thoroughly, she thinks sh
Les grvistesquijusque-avaientl manifest (1)calmement, dcidrent
(2)vers midiattaqueraientquils(3)les fourgons .de police
Thestrikersdemonstratedpeacefullyupuntilmidday,whenthey decided
to attack the police vans.
Etantdonnquevousnavezpasrpondu (1)ma rclamation,jeme
vois danslobligation(2)denaviserladirectionquiprendra (3)les
mesures ncessaires.

Sinceyouhavenotansweredmycomplaint,Iamcompelledtoinform
the management who will take the necessary action
Quandvousaurez termin cetravail(2),jesouhaite(1)quevous
veniez (3)dans mon bureau pourlquipque puissetouteprparer(4)
le programme de la semaine prochaine.
Whenyouhavefinishedthiswork,Iwouldlikeyoutocometomy
office so that the whole team can prepare the pro
(e)A strictsequenceoftensesinotalwaysobserved,forexample,whenthe
universal present 24 tense.,503.c):1is used (see
BeaucoupdeFranaisneavaientpasquelePrsidentest(insteadof
tait) lupour sept ans.
Many French people did not know that the Presid years.
51
orwhenthereisa successionofshortactionsoreventsandinorderto maintain the
dramatic effect of the actions or eve
Ds quiltoucha (instead eutof touch) la pierre,sassombrietlecl le
tonneretrentit.
As soon as he touched the stone, the sky darkene

208

FUNCTIONS

or when you focus on the result of the actions or

Nousattendonsquilait obtenu (insteadof obtienne) sonpermisde
conduire avant de partir en vacances.
We arewaitingforhimtogethisdrivinglicencebeforegoingon holiday.
Quand le raisin detaitlacoupra(insteadgeof avait t
coup),il sasseyaitau bout pour fumer une cigarette.
Whenthegrapeshadbeenpicked,hesatdownathendoftherowtohave a
cigarette.
51
Reporting
(a)Speechmay bereporteddirectlyinthewordsactuallyusedNote.the differences in
punctuation in French and English:
Il ma Ondit:sevoit ce soir?mtonnerait!,aai-je rpondu.
He saidtome,Arewe meetingthisevening?Ibedsurprised/I answered.
Note how punctuation is used in French: a colon bef
commastoincludeallreportedspeechanda dashtointroduceanewspeaker.
Insteadofcolon,averbsuchasdire,affirmer,dclarer+que+indicativemay
be used to introduce direct speech:
Etsi,pourunefois,JacquesChiracavaitraisonquandilaffirmeque
lopposition a un problme avec la jeunesse?
AndwhatifJacquesChiracwererightforoncewhenhesaysthatthe
opposition has a problem with the young?
Alternatively, the verb may follow the quotation:
Cestagrabletrain,ditEdouardBalladurdansletrainqui
lemmenait Montlimar(see15.)1.
Its nice travelling by train/said Edouard Ball to Montlimar.
(Note the English translation of the relative clau
Legouvernementdvalorisenosdiplmes:telleest lantienne entendue
dans les manifs.
Thegovernmentsdevaluingourdegreeswasthecryheardduringthe
demos.

EXPOSITION

209

(Notethellipticalpastparticipleentendue,insteadofrelativeclausequon
entendaint,the previous example.)
51
or the verb may even be in the middle of the quot
Onne rvepas,on ne prtendpasobtenirlabrogationdeslois
Pasqua,commente Charlie, mais on veut (seesensibiliser45.)4
Itsnota pipedream,werenotsayingwellgethePasqualegislation overturned, said
Charlie, but we want to make t
When speakingandusing a quotation, the (et)conventionjeciteattheis t beginning and
finsometimesdecitationthe end of the quotation:
JacquesChiracsansdouteraisonquandilaffirme,etje cite,que lopposition
a un problme avec la jeunesse.
JacquesChiracisprobablyrightwhenhe says,andI quote,the
opposition has a problem with the young.
(b)Sometimes,onlypartoftheoriginalspeechisdirectlyreportedinverted commas
belowwhile the rest is presented as indire
Bien sr,rtorquedemblelePremierMinistreceuxquiosentlui
demandersilexisteencoreuneplacesurlemarchde lapresse
conomique.
Ofcourse,isthePrimeMinistersimmediateretortthosewho
venturetoaskhimifthereisroomforanothereconomicjournalinthe market.
Inthepreviousexample,directquestion:Existeencore-t-iluneplacesurle marchde
lapresseconomique?isindirectlyreportedNote.thatsome
featuresofthedirectquestionhavegone(inversionandthequestionmark)and
thatsihastobeusedaftertheverb(demander).Forothertypesofindirect question,
interrogative adverbs que?andwhat?adjectives(objectare
becomescequewhilequi?what?(subject)becomescequi.Takethe following example:
Lasecrtairemadit:Vousvoulezvousinscrireendeuximeanne?
O avez-vous fait votre premire appelezann?-Cvous?mment v Quelle est
votre adresse? Que(direct)fontvos parents?
Thesecretaryidtome,Youwantogointothesecondyear?Where
didyoudoyourfirstyear?Whatisyourname?Whatisyouraddress? What do
your parents do?

210

FUNCTIONS

La secrtairemademandsi jevoulaisminscrireendeuxime
anne,o javaisfaitma premireanne,comment jemappelais,
quelletait mon adresse,cequefaisaient mes (indirect)parents.
Thesecretaryaskedme aboutmy requesttogointothesecondyear,
whereIdonemy firstyear,whatmy namewas,whatmy addresswas, and
what my parents did.
Inadditison,mechangeshavetobemadewithtenseswhentheintroductory
verbisinthepast(mademand).However,whentheintroductoryverbisin
the present or future, the tenses used are the sam
Mon predit quilvotera silescandidatssontsrieux(Je.voterai
si)
My father says hell vote if the candidates are
51
Mon predit quilvoteraitsilescandidataientssrieux(Je.
voteraissi)
My fathersayshewouldvoteifthecandidateswereerious(Id.vote if)
Both of these with an introductory verb in the pas
Mon preadit quil voteraitsiles candidats taient srieux.
(see33.)1
My father said he would vote if the candidates
Inthepreviousexamplethesequenceoftensesisinvariable,ndintheabsence
ofcontext,thereisalittleambiguityaboutwhatwasactuallysaid(Iwillvote
or
I
would vote).
Sometimes,theintroductoryverbisfollowedby que+subjunctive,in particular when
the corresponding direct speech is
Dis-luiquilfasseletout de suite! (Fais-le(see39tout.2).1 de suit
Tell him to do it at once! (Do it at once!)
Lagentexig queje luiremettemon permis de conduire. (Donnez-moi votre
permis de conduire, sil vou
The policeman told me to hand over my driving l driving licence, please!)
Alternatively, an infinitive may be de:used, sometime
Dis-lui delefairetout de suite.
Tell him to do it at once.

Ellema priplusieursde laccompagnerfois la gare.

EXPOSITION

211

She asked me several times to accompany her to

In the following exampldebecause,threofisestimertheno+infinitiveverb.
Daprslinterviquejaiwlue,ilestime avoir faittoutcequitait humainement
possible pour rpar(see4.,15r4ses.11).erreurs1.
AccordingtotheinterviewIread,hethinkshehasdoneverything humanly
possible to make up for his mistakes.
Reflexive verbsse sudclarer,has+adjectivesavouer provide another reporting
indirectly:
En conclusion,lePrsidentduConseilsestdclar satisfaitdes
progrs raliss durant la runion.
Inconclusion,thechairmanoftheboarddeclarhewasdsatisfwithed the
progress made at the meeting.
Ladpositionindiquelesuspectsestavou coupable aprsune
heure dinterrogatoire.
Theevidenceindicatesthatthesuspectconfessedafteranhourof
questioning.
Some changes need to be made with personal pronouns when using indirect speech:
51
Paula promisquil viendravecitsoncamionpourm aider
dmnager(Je.viendrtaider avec mon camion.)
Paul promised to come with his lorry to help me and help you with my lorry.)
Il a rappelquildevaitPaul venir avec son camion.
He reminded Paul that he was to come with his l
Thepreviousexampleisambiguousinthesensethat,intheabsenceofcontext,
youdonotknowwhetheril(devaitvenir)wastheoriginalspeakerornot,that
is, whether he Jeor Paulviendraisaid:avec mon(Illcamioncome. with lorry.)
Whentransferromingdirecttoindirectspeech,otherchangeshavetobe made
when you are referring to time and place:
Le directeuraannonc:Lerapportseraprtdemain/dans une
semaine.
The manager announced, The report will be ready

If this is part of a narrative, and the speech is

212

FUNCTIONS

Le directeuraannoncquelerapportseraitprtle lendemain/une
semaine plus tard.(see33.)1
Themanagerannouncedthatthereportwouldbereadythenextday/a
week later.
Adverbs of time vary, naturally, according to the and the information given:
Ila annonchier quelerapportseraitprtaujourdhui/dansune
semaine.
He announced yesterday that the report would be
Il a annonclautre jourque le rapport leseraitlendemain/uneprt
semaine plus tard.
He announced the other day that the report woul a week later.
Le 19 juin,lendemainducrime,vousavezdclardansvotre
dposition,etjecite:Jesuischezma surdepuis avant-hiersoir.
Pouvez-vousconfirmeraujourdhuiquelejourducrime,vousvous
trouviezbien8,rueduLacchezvotresur,etce,depuis la veilleau
soir?
On the19thofJune,thedayafterthecrime,youstatedinyour evidence, and I quote: I
have been at my sister
lastCanyouconfirmtodaythatonthedayofthecrimeyouwereinfact
at 8, rue du Lac at your sisters, and had been s
Similarly, changes are required with place:
Ellemavaitpromis:Jeteretrouveicidansdeuxheures,jenelai jamais
revue.
Shed promised me, Ill meet you back here in her again.
51
Two and a half hours after the direct speech actu
Jtavecisettefilleje,nesaispascequellefaitElle.mavait promis de me
retrolquatvere heures/il y a une demi-he
IwaswiththegirlIdont,knowwhatshesdoingShed.promised
me that she would meet me back there at four ocl
A week later:

EXPOSITION

213

Cejour-jail,rencontrcettefille,maisjenelaijamaisrevuealors
quellemavaitpromisdeme retrouvdeuxrheuresaprsl-bas/
devant la Mairie.
Thatday,Imetthegirl,butI neversawheragainalthoughshed promised to meet me
two hours later there/in fron
(c)Variouswaysofreportingespreciallyportingwhatwassaidareoften found in
minutes of meetings. Many transitive verb compare the tenses in French and
English:
En ouvrant la sance,souhaiteMme Dupuislabienvenueauxdlgus
prsents et nonce lordre du jour.
Openingthemeeting,Mme Dupuiswelcomedthedelegatesandsetout
the agenda.
M.Courreaurelve des anomaliesdans le bilan prsent.
M.Courreau noted anomalies in the balance sheet
Manyverbsarefollowedbyque,whichhastoberepeatedwiththreeormore
clauses:
M.C.rappelle quauler janvier 2004, nous avons23500une rse 000 euros.
M.C.recalledthaton1stJanuary2004,wehadreservesof23,500,000 euros.
M.F.souligneque nousavonsvotunbudgentdsquilibreetque
nous navons pas dautre solution que de rappeler
M.F. stressed that we had approved a deficit bu was note our difficulties.
Sometimes,cestor celahave to be used with indirect speech
Ilajoute que ce sontles ressources propres qui sont touch
He added that it was the shareholders equity t
Mme G. rpondlui que celanest pas prvu.
Mme. G. replied that that had not been expected
Passive forms are also frequently41,41.):used1 in minutes
Aprs discussion, la rdactionest reportedummorandumladefin la
sance.
Followingdiscussion,thedraftingofthememorandumwaspostponed till
the end of the meeting.
Lapropositionestsoutenue parM.C.rejete,par Mme B.,elle
estfinalementvote lunanimit.

214

FUNCTIONS

TheproposwalssupportedbyM.C.rejected,byMme B.,and
eventually passed unanimously.
52
Questions are reported using verbs and verb phras
M.E.demande Mme siG.elle ira au Rectorat dfendre les de la section
danglais.
M.E.askedMme G. whethershewouldgo to theuniversity administration to put the
case for the English de
M.N.veut savoirsily a uneventilationprcisedesdpensespour
chaque section.
M.N.wantedtoknowwhethertherewasa detailedbreakdownof
spending for each department.
Expressionsapposition,withthesecond,orsubsequentones,containing
responsearalsousedinminutesThese.verycompactsructuresareusefulfor combining
question(s) and answer(s), and they also
Invit commenterles 20 000 euros de frais 2001,divers enreg
M.T.prsenteune facture de la Socit Duchemin.
Askedtocommentonthe20,000eurosmiscellaneousexpenditurein
2001, M.T. presented an invoice from the Socit
En rponse une questiondeMme V.surlameilleurefaonde
ralisdesrconomies,M.P.prcise queseschargessontdj
compressesmaximumau. (see41)
Inanswertoa questionfromMme V.onthebestwayofmaking
savings,M.P.statedthathiscosts/expenseshadalreadybeenreducedas far
as possible.
Answersor explanatiocanalsobe providedusingcomme afterthe introductory
verb:
M.V.citecomme raisonprofondesmauvaisrsultatslachutedes
ventes de vhicules neufs
M.V.citedthefallinnewcarsalestheprinciprealsonforthepoor results
il avance comme deuxime raison la conjoncturemondiale
consquente la Guerre du Golfe.
he addedthatfurthreasonwastheworldeconomicsituation following the
Gulf War.

EXPOSITION

215

52
Asking questions
(a)A simpleandinformwaylofaskingquestionsconsistsofmaking statement and using
appropriate intonation when sp mark when writing:
Vous venez, on y va?
Are you coming, shall we go?
Tu me prtes ton vlo?
Youll lend me your bike?
Ten veux pas?
You dont want any?
52
(b)Alternatively,youmayintroduceaquestionwithest-que?ce.This
expression is also fairly informal:
Est-ceque tupourraismegarderlesenfantsvendredisoir?(see
50.)4
Can you look after the children for me on Friday
Est-ce quele magasin est ouvert(sle2.e c,4dimanche?50.)4
Is the shop open on Sunday(s)?
(c) Note that all of the questions in (a) and (b) is a more formal way of asking this
type of questi and the subject a pronoun subject is linked to th a hyphen, a noun or
propernot: noun subject is
Etes-vousprte rpondre la premire question, D
Are you ready to answer the first question, Dani
Lesgouvernementssauront-ilsrpondrecetappeldedtresse
lancpar la Somalie?
Willthegovernmentsbeabletorespondtotheappealforhelpfrom
Somalia?
Inversionusuallyoccursinwritingbutmayalsooccurwhenspeaking, particular in polite
conversation,16.):3 and in discussi
Puis-jefumer?
May I smoke?
Voulez-vousque je vous accompagne?
Would you like me to go with you?
(d)Whenaquestidoesnnotcallforayes/noanswer,itisfocusinoneg particular aspect
of exposition, for example, loca

ononeparticularofthesentencesuchasthecomplementInterrogative.

216

FUNCTIONS

adjectivesorpronouns(see16.)1maybeusedinthiscase,wellastheforms
presented above:estintonation,-ceque?,andinversion.
When you want to find out who or what is the subj usequi?who?questorcewhat?:qui?
Qui a fait a?
Who did that?
Quest-ce quilui permet dtre aussi arrogant?
What is it that allows him to be so arrogant?
Quiest-qui?cewho?andparticularlycestquiqui?who?aremore
colloquial forms:
Ah non!Cest qui quia touch mon ordinateur?
Oh no! Whos been at my computer?
Notethatyoucanbemorepreciseanddirectifyouuseparmi,dentreof,
among+ noun or pronounqui?: after
Qui parmi vousse porte volontaire pour cette mission?
Which of you will volunteer for this task?
52
and remember that in anquestindirect-cebecomqui?questioncequi:
Jeme demande ce quilui permet dtre aussi arrogant.
I wonder what it is that allows him to be so ar
Inordertoaskwhoorwhatisthedirectobjectoftheverb,usequi?,que?, quoi?:
Que vois-tupar la fentre?Quest-ce que tu vois?
What can you see out the window? What can you se
Qui vois-tuen ce moment?Quiest-ce que tu vois?
Who can you see at the moment? Who can you see? And there is the very
informal:
Tu voisquoi?/qui?
You can see what?/who?
Note thatquoiorque are often used with an infinitive:
Je ne saisquoiplus(orque) direniquoi (or que) faire sonsujet.
I dont know what to say any more or what to do
Interrogativepronounscanbeusedtoreferbackorforwardtoa noun(see

16.4):.2

EXPOSITION

217

Jai plusieurs varits delesquellespommesvoulezde-terre:vous?

(back)
Ive several varieties of potato: which do you w
Lequel choisirais-tu parmi tous(forward)cesmanteaux?
Which of all these coats would you choose?
And less formally:
Jen ai plusieurs sortes,lesquelles?vous voulez
Ive several kinds, which do you want?
Tu choisiraislequel,toi, de tous ces manteaux?
Which of all theseyou coatschoose?would
Tofindoutwhoorwhatistheindirectobject,youneedtousea preposition suchas
orde.Theprepositionalwaysprecedestheinterrogativeterm(see
16.):2
A qui/A quoifaites-vous allusion quand vous dites ce
Who/What are you referring to when you say that?
De quise moque-t-on?
Who are you making fun of?
and less formally:
A qui/A quoi est-ce vousque faites allusion quand vous dit
Who/What are you referring to when you say that?
and definitely informal:
Tu fais allquoisionexactement?
Youre talking about what exactly?
52
Whenyouwantoknowaboutlocation,time,cause,manner,quantiety,c.,
use interrogative pronouns and adjectives on their
O etquand aura lieu la prochaine(s16e.runion?4).4
Where and when is the next meeting?
Cela arrivetousles combien?
That happens how often?
Pourquoi cettesocita--ellelicencitantdepersonnel?(see16.4.
7)
Why has this company made so many staff redundan
Tu comptes commentyallersi ta voiture est en panne?
How do you intend to get there if your car has b
and following prepositions:

Avec quiest-ce quils partent?

218

FUNCTIONS

Who are they leaving/going with?

Tu vas montersurquoipour peindre le plafond?
What are you going to stand on to paint the ceil
Finally,interrogativeadjectiv(se16es.4).and3pronounsmaybeusedas
determiners with or without a preposition:
Quel formulaire est-quecejedoisremplirpoureffectuner
versement?
What form must I fill in in order to make a paym
Quelles villesvoulez-vous visiter pendant votre sjour
What cities do you want to visit during your sta
Cest le manteau de qui,l par terre?
Whose coat is it on the ground?
Dans laquelledecespicesvoulez-vousfaireinstalelerdouble
vitrage?
Which of these rooms do you want to have the dou
(e) Sometimes, the question does not call for an creating a particular effect or
conveying a partic
Ila fait quoi? Il ta ditJea? nen reviens(surprise)as!
He did what? He said that to you? Im amazed!
Comment voulez-vousque je men sorteavectouta?(complaint, call
for sympathy)
How on earth can I manage with all that (to do)?
Note that some questions,pouvoir,especiallywhichin withterms of for of the yes/no
type, are in fact aimed at eliciti
Pouvez-vous me donner lheure,sil vous plat?
Can you give me the time, please?
Est-ce que vous pourriez nous exposer la positiondevotre parti sur
cette question?
Can you give us your partys position on this is
53
Finally, there is the question tag which you can
areseekingsomeonesagreementwiyourhquestionnestpas?-ceThislittle
expressionisuniqueItcan.beusedformallyinformallyItnever.variesinits
form and it is equivalent to every single question
cantyou?,didntwe?,wontI?,shouldntthey?Sometimes,.itisusedsimply
toendasentenceandhasnorealinterrogativefunctiSonmetimes.itisusedto reinforce a
statement. Sometimes, it is merely the
Vous aimez la grammairenstfranaise,-cepas?

EXPOSITION

219

You like French grammar, dont you?

La question,nest-ce pas,reste ouverte.
The question, of course, remains open.
53
Negating(see47.47.)13
As inaskingquestions (see52d),youhavetodistinguishbetweennegation
appliedtothewhole sentenceorclausenegation,fullandnegationappliedto
only partone of the sentence or clausepartial negation
(a) The most obvious way to applynepasfull(see47negation.):8 i
Si les Duponesont pasl maintenant, necestviendrontquilspas.
If the Duponts are not here now, its because t
Ne is often omitted in informal47.):9 speech (see
Elle est pas venue, Jacqueline, je sais pas pourq
Jacqueline hasnt come. I dont know why.
When speaking, other shortcutspasmayis beused,takenforandexampon with an
adverb, in answer to a question:
Non,merci,pas toutdesuite(=Je.neveuxpasprendreunverre(de
vin) tout de suite.)
No, thanks, not right away.
Pasisreplacedbynini(see47.8).when1therearetwoelementsinthe
negation, for example, two nouns or two verbs:
Pauvre petite,nani preelleni mre.(Note the omission of the Poor little thing,
she has neither a father nor
Jecroisquenousnavonsni le droitdignorceconflriceluit,de
nepas condamner les responsables des massacres.
Ibelievewedonothavetherighttoignorethisconflicnort,heright
not to condemn those responsible for the massacre
(Notethedoublengation:nousnavonspas ledroitdene pas condamner
nousdevons condamner.This usage is for emphasis.)
Ilne parle ni ne rit (plus)depuis longtemps.
He has not said a word or laughed in a long tim
53

220

FUNCTIONS

NotethatthepreviousstructureisrarelyusedwhenspeakingformallyOn.
theotherhand,whenspeakinginformally,itispossibletoavoidneni
neneither nornor:
Voil Docteur,nemangeil plus,(et/ni)nedortplus.
Well, Doctor, he wont eat or sleep.
Pasis sometimes omitted, in a more formalcesser,contoser,xt, pouvoir,
savoir(see47.):9
Ilne saito aller.
He doesnt know where to go.
Insteadofne pas,youcanusethenegativeformofa nounoradjective(see
47.13):
Ce nest pas possible!=Cestimpossible
Its impossible!
or a preposition:
Elle sansestdomicile fixe.(see4.)4 Elle=napas de domicile(s4.e.)1
She is homeless.
(b)Thenegationmayapplytoonepartofthesentenceonly,suchasthesubject
(see47.):8
Personne nest venu.
Nobody came.
Rien au mondeneme fera changer davis.
Nothing in the world will make me change my min
Aucun de vousnest qualifi pour faire ce travail.
Not one of you is qualified to do this work.
Ilny aucune raison de snerver.
Theres no need to get excited.
or the negation may focus on the verb:
Tune viens jamaisme voir.
You never come to see me.
Ellenena rien voulu savoir.
She didnt want to know anything about it.
Nousne voulons plusvous voir.

We dont want to see you again.

EXPOSITION

221

Adverbsexpressingfullnegationreplacepasinthenegativestructuresne jamais,ne
rien, ne.plusThis is not the case when less po involved:
Tune vienspas souventme voir.
You dont come to see me very often.
Ellena pasvoulu en savoirdavantage.
She didnt want to know any more about it.
Nousne voulonspavous vconstammentir.
We dont want to see you all the time.
53
(c) Finally, note that a question or a command ma
Pourquoi nest-il encorepasarriv?
Why hasnt he/it arrived yet?
Noublie pasde faire tes devoirs!
Dont forget to do your homework!
anddontforgetthatwhenitisaquestionoftheyes/notype,theanswerissi/ non:
Ntes-vous pas convaincude son innocence? Moi, si.
Are you not convinced ofIamhis. innocence?
Be careful when there is a double negation:
Tune crois pasquilnefautpasrveiller les enfantstumaintenan as raison,
laissons-les dormir.main/Notenant!,on assez a
Dont you think we shouldnt wake the children lets leave them asleep./No,
weve waited long en

IV
Attitude

54
Greeting and leave-taking
54.1
Greeting
The verballeris often used after introductorysalut(informal)terms hisuc
orbonjourgood morning/afternoon:
Salut,les mecs,ava?
Hi there, you guys! OK?
Monsieur Duverger,bonjour,commentallez-vous?
M.Duverger, good morning. How are you?
Thereplymaybemodulatedwithintonationorusingverbsoradverbs,andit
is quite common to thank someone at the same time:
Ouais,apeut aller,et toi?
Yeah, OK, you?
Trs bien, merci,et vous-mme?
Very well, thank you. And yourself?
The term of greeting is often combined with a tit it:
Bonsoir, Messieurs Dames!Goodevening, ladies and gentle Chers amis, bonjour!
Friends/Colleagues, good mornin Bonjour Docteur! Good morning, Doctor!
Whenintroducedtoapersonforthefirsttime,youcanusetheaboveterms
(bonjour,bonsoir,salutand/or)adjectivesorpastparticiples,suchas heureux,
enchant+de+infinitive, or simply on their own:

ATTITUDE

223

Bonjour Mademoiselle,trsheureux de fairevotre connaissance.

Good morning, Miss Smith, very pleased to meet
Enchante!
Delighted!
Salut Danielle,jesuiscontentde terencontrer,onmabeaucoup
parlde toi.
Hello Danielle, Im pleased to meet you. Ive h
Thestandardopeningformulaincorrespondence,whenyoudonotknowthe
person you are writing to, is:
54
Madame/Monsieur,
Dear Madam/Sir,
You add the definite article and title in a very f
Monsieur le Direct(undeur,the title/name and address) Dear Sir,
Madame le Maire,(under the title/name and address) Dear Madam,
The usecherofindicates that you know the person quite add a possessive adjective
or wish to be informal:
Chers amis,
Chre Madame,
Mon cher Jean,

Dear
Mr and Mrs Smith,/My dear friend
Dear
Mrs Smith,
My dear
John,
54.2 Leavetaking

Notethatsomeofthetermsofgreeting:salut,bonsoirmay alsobeusedfor
leave-takingBonjour.is used as a termonly: of greeting
Allezsalut, demain!
OK! Bye! See you tomorrow.
Bonsoir,Messieurs Damesbonne finet de soire!
Goodnight, ladies and gentlemen. Enjoy the rest
Itisfairlycommontousephrasesintroducedbytheprepositiinonrderto refer to
a future meeting,demainabove:such as

Au revoirDocteur,la semaine prochaine!

224

FUNCTIONS

Goodbye, Doctor. Till next week!

Salut Martin,plustard!
Bye, Martin. See you later!
Au plaisir(de vous revoir)!
Till the next time!
It is not uncommon to express some form of best wi this often involvesbon,a
bousingne fin deabove:sire
Au revoir lesbonenfants,voyage!
Bye kids! Have a good journey!
Salut Anbonnee, chancepour tes examens!
Bye, Anne! Good luck for your exams!
Incorrespondence,informalleave-takingmaybeexpressedusingshortphrases
with adverbs or adjectives:
Bien amicalement.
With
(Grosses) bisets bientt.
Lots
Bien des choses toutefamillela. Best

best regards,
of love, see you soon,
wishes to all the fami

55
or verbs:
Je embrasset bien fort.

Lots of love,

In a more formal register, you would44.):2 use the imper

Croyez,Monsieur, lexpression de mes sentiments l
Yours faithfully,
Veuillezagrer, Madame le Maire, mes salutations di
Yoursfaithfully,(orYourssincerely,ifyouusethenameoftheperson you are
writing to.)
Recevez,je vous prie, nos meilleures amitis.
With best regards,
or a verb with vous:thepronoun
Jevous prie de croirelassurance de mes sentiments disti
Yours faithfully,
Jevous adressemon trs amical

ATTITUDE

225

.
Regards,
55
Expressing congratulations and appreciatio
55.1
Congratulations
Single terms may be used with appropriate intonati
Bravo! Well done!
Chapeau!

Well done!

Nounsmay beusedon theirown orreinforcedbytoutanda possessive adjective:

Compliments!
Toutes mes flicitations!(see11.1)

Well done!
Congratulations!

Inordertocomplimentsomeonewithvariousdegreesofemphasis,youcanuse
cest+adverb or adjective6.b3):
(see
Mais dis cestdonc,pas mal du toutce que tu as fait!
Hey! Its not bad at all what youve done!
Votre exposition,cestformidable,bravo!
Your exhibition, its wonderful, well done!
Moreformally,whenwritiandgforsocialcontexts,.gbirth,.marriage,new
job, you can use a phrase with, pouar,epositionandavecnoverb:such
A Paul et Virginie,avectoutes nos flicitations p(onur votre a card)
ForPaulandVirginie,withourwarmestcongratulatiyonsur wedding.
55
or a transitiveprsenter,verbsuch adresser,as souhaiter:
Jevousprsentelesflicitationsdujurypourvotreperformancet
examen.

Congratulationsfromtheboardofexaminersonyourperformaince this
exam.

226

FUNCTIONS

Nous vousadressons tous nos vuxde bonheur et de prosprit

We wish you every happiness and prosperity.
or a verb followed byde+nountheprepositionorinfinitive:
Je merjouisavec vousdela naissancede Catherine.
I congratulate you on the birth of your daughte
Nousteflicitonsdavoirobtenu tonpermisdeconduirepremier
coup.
Congratulations on passing your (driving) test
or tre+adjective+de+infinitive:
Jai t trs heureuse dapprendrelanaissance de Patrick.
I was very pleased to learn of the birth of you
Jean-Claudeetmoisommes
ravisdapprendrequetuastadmis Sciences Po.
Jean-ClaundIearedelightedtohearthatyouvebenacceptedby Sciences Po
(Institute of Political Science).
orcest avecque:
Cestavec unegrandejoieque nousavonsapprislemariagedvotre
fils avec Carole Maillou.
It is with great pleasure that we have learned o to Carole Maillou.

55.2
Appreciation
Thesimplestformofappreciationisofcoursemrci.Thiscanbeemphasized with an
adverb:
Merci
Merci

beaucoup.
encore.

Thank you very much.

Thanks again.

or a short phrase:
Merci pour tout.
Merci mille fois.

Thanks for everything.

Thanks a million.

Mercitakes the prdepositwheniont is followed by a verb:

Merci davoir pens moi.

ATTITUDE

227

Thank you for thinking about me.

Note thatmerciis sometimes used to refuse politely:
Encore un verre?Merci.
Another glass? Thanks,or butNo, nothankthanksyou..)(
56
Whenacceptinganinvitationorsuggestion,youcanuseshortexpressions such as

Avec plaisir!orVolontiers!
OK!or Daccord!
Excellente ide!
or

verb

With pleasure!

Right!
An excellent idea!

phrases:

Je veux bien!
Cest une bonne ide!

Yes, love to!

Thats a good idea!

Inamoreformalcontext,youmayfirstofallacknowledgetheinvitationwithverbs
or verb phrasesremerciersuh+nounasde or infinitivecestto trshank gentil
de+infinitiitsverykind(ofyou)to,faireplaisirtogive pleasure to:
Nous vousremercions de votre aimable invitation.
Thank you for your kind invitation.
Cest trs gentilvousdeminviter.
Its very kind of you to invite me.
Cesttrsaimable devotrepartde nous avoirinvitstouslesdeux.
(see42.)4
Its very kind of you to have invited both of u
Votre invitationnousfait grand plaisir.
We were delighted to receive your invitation.
andthenaccepttheinvitationwithverbsorverbphrasessuchasaccepteravec
plaisirde+infinitiveoacceptwithpleasurserjouir,de+infinitiveobe
delightedcestto,avec plaisirIam quepleased to:
Nousacceptons avec plaisirnousderendreau vin dhonneur.
We will be delighted to come to the reception.
Je merjouisdtre des vtres(see8.c1).
I am delighted to join you.

Cest avec le plus grand plaisirje quevous accompagnerai.

228

FUNCTIONS

I shall be delighted to come with you.

Naturally, both are often combined, using a relati
ClaudeLambertremercie M. etMme Duforesteldeleuraimable
invitationlaquelleil se rendraavecgrand plaisirle 18 dcembre21
heures.
ClaudeLambertisdelightedtoacceptthekindinvitationofM.and
Mme Duforestel on 18th December at 9 oclock.
Jevousremercie de votrecordialeinvitationquejaccepteavec
grand plaisir.
Thank you for your kind invitation which I am d
56
Expressing apologies and sympathy
56.1
Apologies
Thesimplestformispardonsorry/pardon,youbumpifintosomeone,for
exampleusedon itsownorinvariousverbphrasessuchasdemander pardon:
56
Je vousdemande pardon.

I beg your pardon.

Imperative forms are also used:

Pardonne-moi!
Excusez-nous!

Pardon
Excuse

me!
us!

and verb forms and verbregretterphrastos regsuchtret,asdsol mais to be

sorry but:
Je mexcuse.
Im sorry.
Nous ne pouvons pasnous venirleregettons.
We are sorry but we cannot come.
Daprs le message que nouselleestavonsdsolereu,maissonfils
est malade et elle na pas pu se librer.
Accordingtothemessagewvereceived,sheissorrybuthersonisill and
she is not able to get away.

ATTITUDE

229

You may apologize more profusely using polite form

Je vousprie demexcuser.
I ask you to forgive me.
Veuillezme pardonner.
Please accept my apologies./Please forgive me.
Nous sommesterriblement dsols.
We are dreadfully sorry.
Avec toutes nos excuses, veuillezagrer,Monsieur(Madame/
Mademoiselle), nos salutations distingues.
Please accept our sincere apologies. Yours fait
Whenexplainingwhatyouareapologizingfor,youcanusepour+noun,de+
infinitiveornoun,verb+que+subjunctive(see39.2),.or1therelativescequi/
que/dont:
Je mexcusepourle retardmais jai crev sur lautoroute!
Im sorry for the delay, but I had a puncture o
Jeregrettedarriversitardmaisily avaitdesbouchonssurle
priph!
Im sorry for arriving so late, but there were
Nousommes dsols quevousnayez pas t prvenu temps.
We are sorry you werent informed in time.
The following examples are taken from official or
La Directionvousprie daccepter toutes ses excuses pour cette erreur de
facturation.
The management hopes you will accept its apolog invoice.
Nousregrettons de ne pouvoir donner suitevotre appel(see47..)9
The number you have dialled has not been recogn try again.
56
Noussommes navrs de ce malentendu etregrettonsvivementles
complications quil a entranes.
We areverysorryaboutthismisunderstandweingsincerelygret the
difficulties it has caused.
Cettefacturevousa eneffetadresseparerreur,cedont nous vousprions de
bien vouloir nous excuser. (excuser
Theinvoicewasinfactsenttoyoubymistake,andwe hopeyouwill accept
our apologies.

230

FUNCTIONS

When suggesting an explanation, the expression of a verb in the imperfect or

pluperfect tenses:
Excusez-moi,je nevoulaispas vous dranger.
Im sorry, I didnt want to disturb you.
Excusez-moi,javais crubien faire.
Im sorry, I thought I was doing the right thin
Excusez-moi,jessayaissimplement de vous aider.
Excuse me, I was only trying to help.
bytheverbpouvoiranimpersonalphraseuchasilestimpossiblede +infinitive:
Jeregretteinfiniment, maispouvaisjepasnefaire autrement.
Im terribly sorry, but there was nothing else
Malheureusement,ilmest impossible vousderecevoiraujourdhui.
Unfortunately, I cannot see you today.
Theverbdevoiralsousedtogiveanexplanationorexpressregret,andwhen
it does express regret, the perfect or conditional
Excusez-moi,jaimaisdprendre des dispositionsabsencen. votre
Im sorry, I had to make arrangements in your a
Pardonne-moi,nauraisje pas dte parler comme a!
Forgive me, I shouldnt have spoken to you like
If you have to apologize, you may also want to giv using the future tense:
Je le jure,feraijeplus!nele
I swear, Ill never do it again.
Soyez assur quese reproduiracelapasne.
Rest assured it will never happen again.
Nousferonstout notre possible pour viter ces erre
Well do everything possible to avoid these err
56.2
Sympathy
Inordertoexpresympathywhenspeaking,youcanuseanexclamation,
involvingtheadjectivepauvre,sometimeswiththedefinitearticleor possessive
adjective:
56

ATTITUDE

231

Pauvre vieux!Je le voyais tous les jours en sortant du

Poor old chap! I used to see him every day when
La pauvre,elle nen a plus pour trs longtemps!
Poor thing! She hasnt long to go.
Mon pauvre chri!Tu nas vraiment pas de chance!
My poor darling, you certainly dont have much
Alternativelyoumayuse,anadjectivesuchasquelwithanoun,oranadverb such
commeas with a verb:
Quelle tristessedans les yeux de ces enfants!
What sadness in these childrens eyes!
Comme

je les plains!

How I pity them!

Inwriting,ellipticalformsareusedandoftenincludetout+nounorthe
prepositionavec+oun:
Toutes mes condolances.
All my sympathy,
Avec notre profonde sympathie.
With our deepest sympathy,
Alsoinwriting,anumberof verbsmay be usedwithnounsuchas
condolancesorsympathieand the cause of grief may be intr such
asloccasiondeore:
Nousvousadressonsnoplusincrescondolancesloccasionde
la disparition tragique de votre fils.
We send you our deepest sympathy on the tragic
Je vous fais toutes mesencescondolancesmomentsdifficiles.
I extend to you my deepest sympathy at this dif
Imperative forms, which are much more 54formal,.):2 can
Croisbien, chre Anne, lexpression de ma profond
Please accept, (my) dear Anne, my deepest sympa
Croyez que nous sommes de tout cur avec vous et s notre sincre
sympathie.
Our hearts go out to you and we send you our de
Alternatively, you may usecesttheque:emphatic form

232

FUNCTIONS

Cest avecuneimmensetristessequenousavonsapprisledcsde
Victor.
It is with immense sadness that we have learned
57
57
Expressing surprise and disgust
57.1
Surprise
Whenspeaking,surprisoftenconveyedbyintonatialonande,markedin writing
by punctuation:
Elle a pris lverre de bire etelle lui a vers
She took the glass of beer andpoured it over h
The correct written equivalent would be:
Elle a pris le verre de bire et elle le lui a ve
Interjectionssuchasoh!andah!may be used,toexpresurpriseand admiration:
Oh! quel beau bleu!
Oh, what a beautiful blue!
Ah! voil Claire! Je me demande ce qui lamne.
Oh, theres Claire! I wonder what brings her he
Ouah! Cest vraiment cool chez toi!
Wow! Its really cool/brilliant at your place!
Andtherearemanyshortexpressions,whichareusedtoexpresssurpriseor
disbelief:aalors!, ah bon?!, pas possible!, sans blag
a alors,Jean-Pascal, a fait une paille!
Well, Jean-Pascal, long time no see!
Tiens,il a neig!
Well now! Its been snowing!
Cest/ce nest+adjectivepas are also frequently6.a,36.b3): used (see
Ah bon,cest vrai?!

ATTITUDE

233

Really? Is that true?!

Non,cest incroyable!
No! Thats unbelievable!
Sans blague,cenest pas possible!
No kidding! Thats not possible!
Andverbssuchasplaisantoerjoke,someincludingen,arealsousedto express
surprise:
Tuplaisantes?!
Are you joking?
Jenen revienspas.
I cant get over it.
Quand elle lui ena estditrestbaba!a,il
When she told him that, he was flabbergasted!
An adjectivequelsuchmay asbe used to introduce a noun phra
57
Vous ici,quelle surprise!
You here! What a surprise!
or an adverbcommesuchintroducingas a clause:
Cest tonCommefils? a grandi!
Thats your son? Hasnt he grown!
In a more formal register, you can use expressions
A mon tonnement,il na rien rpondu.
To my surprise, he didnt answer.
A notre grande surprisles, sanctions ont t leves.
To our great surprise, the sanctions were lifte ortre+past participle expressing
surprise:
Nousavons ttrssurpris parce changement dattitude.
We were very surprised by this change of attitu
Jesuis sidre parsa raction.
Im astonished at his reaction.
Elleat trs tonneconstaterde quon avait augment so
She was amazed to find that her/his salary had

oravoir+noun expressing surprise:

234

FUNCTIONS

Nousavons eu la surprisede le voir arriver en pleine nuit.

We were surprised to see him/it arriving in the
orverbsexpressingurprisesuchassattendretoexpect,surprendreto
surprise:
Javoue quemyjeattendaisnepas.
I admit I didnt expect that.
Je dois dire que cetteasurprisedcision. m
I must say that decision surprised me.
57.2
Disgust
Again, interjections are available:
Pouah, a pue ici!
Berk!

Ugh! It stinks here!

Yuk!

orcest+adjective expressing6.b3):disgust (see

Cest horrible! Its horrible!
Cest dgueulasse!
Cest rvoltant!

Thats disgusting!
Its revolting!

orcest+noun

expressing disgust:

Cest
Cest

honte!
Its a disgrace!
vraiment un scandale!Thats a real scandal!

une

And thereistheadjectivequ+nounlexpressingdisgustusedasan
interjection:
58
Quelle
Quelle

horreur!
puanteur

ici!

Thats
What a

horrible!
stink here!

orce+noun+tre+adjective, sometimes reinforced5.2):.1 by an ad

Ce steak est absolument immangeable!
This steak is inedible!
Cet appartement est indescriptible!

This flat is indescribable!

ATTITUDE

235

orcest+adjective+de+verb:
Cest toutdemme curant davoir payerleshonorairdelas
famille royale avec nos impts!
Itsdisgustoinghavetopaythexpensesoftheroyalfamilywithall our
taxes!
or verb+adjective+que+subjunctive39.2(see):.1
Jetrouve scandaleux quelonpuisseainsi mettre les gens la p
I find it scandalous that one can throw people
Whenexplainingwhatyouaredisgustedabout,youcanusea passiveform+
preposition+explanation41): (see
Jesuis rvolte par le traitementquiest rserv auxdomicileSDF(sans fixe).
Im disgusted by the treatment given to homeles
Indigns de laccueilquon leur avait fait, ilsausont part revoir.
Annoyed by the reception they got, they left wi or you can offer the explanation
followed by a ver
Lattitude des hommes rvolteplitiques. me
The attitude of the politicians disgusts me.
Le prix des lgumesunscandale!st
The price of vegetables is a disgrace.
58
Expressing contrasting attitudes, emotions,
58.1
Likes and dislikes
Toexpresslikesanddislikes,youcanusea varietyofverbsandverbphrases such
aimerasto like,agacerlove,toannoy, a aimerverb+noun:sch as
Tuaimes la littrature anglaise?
You like English literature?
sometimes usedbien:with
Jaime bien les ufs la coque.

236

FUNCTIONS

I really like soft-boiled eggs.

58
Tulaimes bienJean-Pierre?Non,magace!type
Do you like that Jean-Pierre?No, that guy anno
noun+a verb plairesuchtoas pleasedplaireorto displease:
Cefilmma plu,et () toi?
I liked the film, did you?
Non, moinaijepastellementaim.
No, I didnt like it very much.
a verbexpressingliking/disliking+infinitive,orfrequently,++subjunctive (see39.2):.1
Jenaime pasfairela cuisine.
I dont like cooking.
Elleaime quonluifassedes cadeaux.
She loves getting presents.
Linstitutricenaimepasquonluidisedes gros mots.
The teacher doesnt like people using bad langu
and phrases introducedcestora(see6by.b,36.d3):
a ta pluLes Visiteurs?cestOui,trsbien!
Did you like The Visitors?Yes, its very good Impersonal verbs can also46):
be used (see
Il luitait pnibledavoir effectuer toujours les mmes
It was boring for him/her always doing the same
andthestructusredforsemphasis,cequi/cequecestorcestque/qu
what is that15.11):(see
Ce qui me dplatchezcetauteur,cest quil donnetoujours limpression de
prendre ses lecteurs pour des imb
What I dont like about this writer is that he of taking his readers for fools.
Ce que jaime quand je suiscestenlevacances,solcstil,quilny
a pasdheure,cestresteraulitjusqumidietleslonguessoires
passes dehors sur la terrasse.

ATTITUDE

237

What I love when Im on holiday is the sun, the

towatchtheclock,youcanstayinbedtillunchtimeandspendlong evenings out on the
terrace.
Otherintroductoryverbsmaybeused,suchasprouvetrouver,+noun+
infinitive,tre+adjectiveand de,orwithnoun+no definite article:
Jprouve du plaisir me promenseuler en fort.
I enjoy walking alone in the forest.
Iltrouve de la satisfaction couterdela musique.
He enjoys listening to music.
Les enfasontsfriands bonbonsde.
The children love sweets.
58
Ilest amateur dejazz.
Hes a jazz enthusiast.
58.2
Preference
Toexpresspreferencetherearenumberofverbsandverbphrasesavailable,
includingprfrery tox prefer x to y:
Jeprfrele vin aurougevin blanc.
I prefer red wine to white wine.
and the constructprfrer+infinitive+onplutt+infinitive:que
Nousprfronssortirtouslesdeuxpluttque rencontrdesrtasde
gens.
We prefertogooutjustthetwoofusratherthanmeetingcrowdsof
people.
Preferencecanofcoursebexpressedinanellipticalway,forexampleina
dialogue:
Tu aimes lcharpe pluttjaune?laverteNon,.
You like the yellow scarf? No, (I prefer) the g
Avoir+noun expressing pourprefereisance+alternative:
Jaimecertainsmorceauxmodernesmaisjai une prdilectionpour
la musique classique.

I like some modern pieces but I prefer classica

238

FUNCTIONS

Sianevousennuiepas,nousavons une prfrencepour lesamedi

plutt que le vendredi.
If it doesnt bother you, we prefer Saturday ra
Impersonalformsarealsoused:ilvautmieuxque+subjunctiveitwouldbe
betterto (see39.2),.il1parat/estprfrablede+infinitiveitsems/is preferable
to:
Ilme paratprfrablede garder lanciensystmlenouveau,estrop
compliqu.
Itseemstome tobepreferabletokeeptheoldsystem,thenewoneis too
complicated.
Ilvaudrait mieux que ce soit vendredisoirpuisquenousne
travaillons pas le lendemain.
It would be better for it to be Friday evening day after.
NotetheuseoftheconditionaltenseinthepreviousexampleThis.isquite
frequentforexpressingpreferencepolitely:verb(intheconditional)+que
+subjunctive39.2(see):.1
Jaimerais mieux que tu viennmes chercher la gare,de a mvi prendre un
taxi.
Idpreferitifyoucametogetme atthestation,thenIwonthaveto take a
taxi.
Sa mreprfrerait quil laaillevoir plus de deux fois par a
His mother would prefer it if he went to see he
59
orcela/ce+vrb (in the conditional)+mieux:
A neuf heures?Celamarrangerait mieux huit heures.
Nine oclock? It would suit me better at eight. or a noun phrase+verb (in the
conditional):
Dix-huit heuresconviendraitmemieux/davantage.
Six oclock would suit me better.
59
Love and hate
In order to reinforce expressions of liking and di

ATTITUDE

239

Jaimenormment la cuisine chinoise, et vous?

I love Chinese food, do you?
Ah non, moi
pas du tout!
Oh no, I dont like it
at all!
Il prouvebeaucoup de plaisir se moquer des autres.
He loves making fun of
other people.
La robe
quellene mea choiplatpasduietout.
I dont
like the dress
she has chosen at all.
Ce quejaimeplus que tout,cestavoirletempsdelireun bon
romanpolicier.
What I like more than anything is having the tim
or adjectives:
On dirait quilunplaisirtrouveintense crer des conflits.
You would think he gets immense pleasure from c
Jenprouveaucune satisfaction effectuer des tches rpti
I get no pleasure from doing repetitive tasks.
Naturally,therearespecificverbsexpressingloveandhatesuchasadorer,
dtester:
Jadore le chocolat blancdtestemaislenoirje.
I love white chocolate but I hate dark chocolat
Ellehassaitleautant quilladorait.
She hated him as much asle,heandiladoredareambiguous)her.(
These verbs may also be followed 45directly.):2 by infin
Iladore se promenersous la pluie.
He loves walking in the rain.
Jedteste voirsouffrir des enfants.
I hate seeing children suffer.
These and other verbs may quealso+subjunctivebefollowed39.2(see):.1by
Brigitte Bardotsupportepasneque lonfassedu mal aux animaux.
Brigitte Bardot cannot tolerate people hurting
60
Rienas the subject is an alternative for47.):8expressi
Pour moi,rien ne vautune soire entre amis au coin du feu

For me theres nothing better than an evening b

240

FUNCTIONS

Tu sais bien querienpournest lui,pireleque mensonge.

You know very well that for him nothing is wors
60
Enthusiasm and indifference
Someofthexpressionsusedforlike/lovemay,ofcoursbe,usedtoexpress
enthusiasmInadditi.othese,nspontaneousnthusiasmcanbeexpressed,in particular
when speaking, with short phrases such
Super! Super!
Excellente ide! An excellent idea! orcest+adjective or noun:

Cest gnialcomme ide!

Its a brilliant idea!
Cest une excellente suggestion!
Its an excellent suggestion!
Inmoreformalcontexts,youcanusereflexiveverbssuchassenthousiasmer pourto
be enthusiastic about:
Ilsestimmdiatemententhousiasm pource projet.
He was immediately enthusiastic about the proje
Au coursdesprochainsmois,jevaisme donner fond dansla
rdaction de ce manuscrit.
Over the next few months Im going to devote mys this manuscript.
or passive formstresuchenthousiasm+noun,trepar ravi+infinitive:de
Nous sommes enthousiasms par la perspectivedetravailler avec vous
We are
delighted at the prospect of working wit
Je
serais ravie de prendremes fonctions ds que possible.
I
would be
delighted to take up my post as soon
A number

of short phrases are also available for e

Bof!
Comme tu
veux!
a mest
gal!
Peu importe.

Not so
hot!
If you
like!
I dont care!
Doesnt matter!

ATTITUDE

241

and phrases introduceda,cela,(seebycest6.a,36.c3):d

a na pas vraiment dimportance.
It really isnt very important.
61
Cela ne change rien.
That doesnt make any difference.
Cestcomme tu veux.
As you wish.
and when you want to place emphasis on your own in really dont mind:
Je nai aucune prfrenceToi,tudcides.(see14..d2)
I dont Youmindcan. decide.
61
Hopes, fears and regrets
Therearemanywaysofexpressinghopes,fearsandregretsYou.canexpress
hopeusingverbsuchas souhaiter+infinitivetowish,compterbien
+infinitivecountondoingsomething,esprer+infinitivehopeor+que to hope
that:
Ilsouhaitenousrejoindreen Italie.
He wants to meet/join us in Italy.
Jecompte bienne pasavoir attendre la retraitelapour prof vie.
Im counting on not having to wait for retireme
Lesecrtairegnraldupartiespreque lesadhrentssaurontse
mobiliser pour les prochaines lections.
TheSecretaryGeneralofthepartyhopesthatmemberswillbeableto
mobilize themselves for the next election.
or verb+noun:
Nous souhaitonste beaucoup de bonheur et de succs.
We wish you every happiness and success. Emphatic
formscesuchque/ceas quicestarealsoque available:
Ce que jespreplusquetout,cestque nouspourronousrevoir
bientt.

242

FUNCTIONS

WhatIhopemorethananythingsthatwe canseeachotheragain soon.

VerbssuchasvouloirwithitsvariousconstructionsbeusedmayNote.the nuances in
the present tense, which is used to exp useofque+
subjunctivewhenthesubjecofthestwoclausesaredifferent(see
39.):5
Avant tout,jeveux que tu soisheureux dans la vie.
More than anything I want you to be happy (in y
Toi, voudraistula lune!
Youd ask for the moon.
Alternatively, you can use sian seulementxpression+imperfect:jesuch as
Si seulement je pouvaisun jour faire ce grand voyage
If only I could make this great journey one day
62
The same phrase may also be used to express regre
Si seulementjavais suivi tes conseils,aujourdhuijenenserai.
I wish I had followed your advice. I would not
The conditional perfect tense, of course, reinforc to express regret:
Jauraistellementvoulu me joindrevousMalheureusem.jenet,
peux pas.
I wish I was (were) in a position to join you.
Fearsinvariouscontextscanbeexpressedwithshortphrasesorinterjections,
suchasAh!Ah!,Oh non!Ohno!,Au secours!Help!,MonDieu!My God!. There are
also verbavoirphrases+peurde+nounorsuchinfinitive,as or
+que+subjunctive,craindre+neque+subjunctive to39.fear2):.1 (see
Maman,jai peur duloup dans ma chambre.
Mum, Im frightened of the wolf in my room.
Avecequisestpassici,nousavons trspeur de laissersortirnos
enfants.
After whats happened here, we are very frighten out.
Ellecraint queles intrus qui ont neforcreviennentsa. porte

She is afraid the intruders who broke open her/

ATTITUDE

243

Expressions pourvuschas+subjunctivequeespronsor+subjunctiveque may

express both hopes and fears:
Pourvu quilnaillepas le rpter tout le monde!
Lets hope he doesnt repeat it to everybody!
Esprons quele tempssemetteau beau dici samedi!
Lets hope the weather has turned better by Sat
62
Approval and disapproval
Youcanexpressapprovalordisapprofvalsomethingorsomeonewithverbs:
approuvertoapproveof,dsapprouvertodisapproveofNote.thatthe
Frenchverbsaredirectlytransitive,whereastheEnglishverbshaveanindirect object:
Jaidcidde me mettreen disponibilitpendantun an etmes
collguesmapprouvent.
Ive decided to take leave of absence for a yea agreement.
Vos professeudsapprouventsvotre comportement.
Your teachers disapprove of your behaviour. or the passive form
41can): be used (see
La dcisionatapprouvepar tous.
The decision has been approved by everyone.
62
Alternatively,tre+adjectiveorpast participlmaybe+ used:
Ledirecteurestfavorableau redploiementdesressourcesquevous
avez suggr.
Themanagerisinagreementwitheredeploymentofresourcesthat you
have suggested.
Ton pre etsommesmoientirementopposs ce mariage.
Your father and I are entirely opposed to this
Avoirfeaturesinnumberofverbphraseswhichmaybeused,suchasavoir
bienfaitde+infinitiveohavedonewellto,donetherightthingto,avoir raison+ deinfinitive
toavoirbe tortright,+infinitivede to be wrong
Vousavez bien faitmdenvoyerles documents avantvoirde.venir m

You were right to send me the documents before

244

FUNCTIONS

Ila raison dene passelaisser faire!

Hes right not to let himself be pushed around.
A mon avis,auraistutort ledequitterpour a.
In my opinion, you would be wrong to leave him/

NOTE
Expressingapprovalordisapprovaloftenaopportunitytogivean
opinion(mon
avisinthepreviousexample)andisrelatedoagreeingd
disagreeing 63.1c(see).

Youcanalsouseadverbialexpressintroducedonsbyprepositionssucha,
avec:
Vous vous tesjusteplatitreauprsnt de vos suprieurs.
You were right to complain to your superiors.
Ila vitavec raison de parlerde sesprcdentsaccidents
voiture.
He was right not to speak about his previous ca
and there is a variety of other ways of expressing
Tu parsenvacances?Trs bien,iltaitgrand temps que
tupensesun peu toi!
Youregoingon holiday?ExcellentItstime.youthoughtabout yourself a
bit.
Enfin quelquun de comptent qui sait de quoi il p
At last someone competent who knows what hes t
Jenaime pas la faon dontvous organisez ces runions.
I dont like the way in which you organize thes
Jene comprends pas commentil a pu faire une chose pareil
I dont understand how he could do such a thing
Cela me dplat quetu tranes dehors jusqu des heures
I dont like you hanging around outside till al

V
Argumentation

63
Agreeing and disagreeing
63.1
Agreeing
(a) There are many different ways of indicating th something. Here are some ways of
saying that you a
Bien
sr!
Cest sr!
Exactement!
Vous avez(ortu as) raison!

Oui,
cest a!
Absolument!
Tout
fait!
Cest vrai!

ThefollowingexampleswereusedinanexchangeintheFrenchNational
Assembly(5.4.94),buttheycouldequallyhaveoccurredininformal conversation:
M.M.BERSONCe sontbienlesdputs[]quiontrefustousles amendements
que nous avions dposs []
M. J-P.BRARDOui!
M.M.BERSON[]En un an,legouvernementacommisbeaucoup
derreurs.
M.J.DRAY
Cest vrai!
M.M.BERSONButitwasthedeputies(intheNationalAssembly)who rejected all the
amendments wed proposed
M. J-P.BRARDYes.
M.M.BERSONIn one year the government has made many M.J.DRAY Thats right.
Frequently, the forms are combined:

246

FUNCTIONS

Oui, daccord.
Voil, exactement.
Tas raison, (informal)cesta.
(b)Ifyouwantobea littlemoreformalwhenyouaretalking,onceagainyou have
choiceofexpressions,whichareequallyapproprinatewritingIn. response to a
statement or suggestion such as:
Ellecroitque lesaiguilledurscielaccepterontlesnouvelles conditions
demploi.
Shethinkstheairtrafficcontrollerswillacceptthenewconditionsof work.
63
you can say or write:
Jesuisentirementdaccordavecellesur cepoint/cequellevientde
dire.
I agree with her totally about that/with what s
and responding with a question to the same stateme
Les syndicaseront-sils,cette daccordfois,avec le gouvernement?
Will the unions agree with the government this
(c)Herearesomeotherwaysofagreeingwitha statementorsuggestion.
Remember:youneedtoknownotjusttheverbsandverbphrases,butalsothe
constructions that follow them.
Ellepartage notre avis qchsur
She shares our opinion on
Vousavez raison +infinitiveYoude
are
right to
Nousconvenons que+indicativeWe
agree that
Jesuis davis que+indicative I think
that
Elle soutient surqch
She supports him
on
Ila exprim son soutienqn
He has expressed
his support f
Nousavons acceptqch
We have
accepted
Ilsont donn leur accordqch
They agree that
(d)Notethefollowingexampleinwhichthespeakerexpressesanopinionwith
jesuisdavisque,butitbecomesagreementbecauseoftheadditionofcomme
vous.
Comme vous, je suis davis quilfautsignerlaChartesociale
europenne.

ARGUMENTATION

247

I agree we must sign the Social Charter.

(e)Sometimes,todistancethmselvesfromwhatsomeonesays,theFrenchuse
an impersonal phrase46). (see
Ilest juste dnoncer les injustices du monde moderne.
It is right to condemn the injustices of the mo
Il est vrai leque monde moderne est plein dinjustices.
It is true that todays world is full of injust
(f) Agreeing to do something:
Les syndiaccepterontasdintervenir cette fois.
The unions will agree to intervene this time.
63.2
Disagreeing
(a) Spontaneous and total disagreement with a stat agreement) through the use of
an exclamation such
(Mais) non!

Cest faux!

Absolument pas!

Certainement pas!

Variousnuancesareconveyedinwhatfollowsthexclamation,forexample there is
a clear protest in:
63
Mais non, je nai jamais dit a!
No! I never said that!
(b)Whenfulldisagreementwithproposalisexpressed,anumberofidiomatic
expressions can be used:
Statement:Il faut supprimer toutes les prestations s
We must end social security benefits.
Responses:Certainement pas!
Certainly not!
Cest hors de question!
Out of the question.
Vous plaisantez!
You must be joking!

248

FUNCTIONS

(c)Fordisagreementfollowedbya
verbsandverbphrasespreviously
negative:

statementofwhatisdisagreedwith,the
identifiedin
63.1cansimplybe made

Pourquointes-vous pas daccordavec moisurce point?

Why dont you agree with me about this?
Quant cenouveauprojetdeloil,estvidentqueloppositionne
partage pas lopiniondu gouvernement.
Asfarasthenewbillisconcerned,itisclearthattheoppositiondoes not
share the governments views.
Positive expressions can also be used, for example
Prenezlhabitudecontestersystmatiquememonanalysetetvous
dvelopperez votre esprit(see25.,3critique.44)2.
Get into the habit of automatically disagreeing will develop your critical
faculties.
(d)Inordertostateclearlywhatisbeingdisagreedwith,isoftennecessaryto refer back
to or repeat a statement or proposal:
JediffredeM.Lambertqui,lui,estimeque nousdevrionsajourner cette
runion(see15.).1
IdonotagreewithM.Lambertwhothinksthatwe shouldajournthe
meeting.
Lepublicnacceptepas lideselon laquelleilfautdeplusenplus
avoir recours des services(see15.)5 privs.
Thepublicdoesnotacceptthatwe willhavetomoveincreasingly towards
private sector services.
Le dernierorateurfuttout ce qui avaitt ditavantlui(see.
15.11,31.)
The last speaker rejected everything that had b
(e)You canalsoreferbacktotheperson/organizationthathasmadethe
statement or proposal67f): (see
Contrairement M.Pasqua, je ne crois pas quilsoitncessaireou
mme souhaitable demprisonner tous les jeunes d
Contrary to the view of M.Pasqua I do not believ desirable to put every young
offender in prison.
63
A la diffrence des autres pays europens,leRoyaumearejetUnila Charte sociale.

Unlike other countries in Europe the UK has rej

ARGUMENTATION

249

(f)Disagreemecanalsotbeexpressedusinganoun(asubjectoftheverb)or an
impersonal form+infinitive:
disagreement with a statement
Vosexplicationssont dpourvues de toutevraisemblanceetnepeuvent
pas tre retenues par le Conseil(see41) de discipline.
Yourexplanationsarequiteimprobableandcannotbeacceptedbythe
disciplinary board.
A mon avis,il est inadmissiblede sadresseren ces termes
un professeur (see46.)
In my opinion, it is unacceptable to talk in su
(In the previous example,monoteavistothereinforceuseof the expr of disagreement
as a personal opinion.)
disagreement with a proposal
Pour linstanilnest,pas envisageable de satisfairelesconsommateurs
en ouvrant les supermarchs( 46ee)le dimanche.
For the time being we simply cannot consider ke by opening supermarkets on
Sundays.
La dcision de fermer indfinimentleslocauxscolairesaprs
lapparitiondequelquescasde
mningiteparatinacceptable.(see
45.)6
Thedecisitoclosentheschoolsindefinitelyfollowingtheoutbreakof
meningitis seems unacceptable.
And note the following example taken from a debate in which members object to the
views of JM.Le Pen:
[] Cest pourquoi, Monsieur le Prsident,Messieurs, Mesdamje serai contre
cette propositioquencore,en soulignantunefoiselle tablieparun
consensournoisusquinesestexprimparaucun courrier. Nous navons
pasfairetpart(Exclamation:einvtsde
Ce nestpas vrai!)cestabsolumentvrai,jesuisleprsidentce
groupe, jai toutdecetteignorinitiative.
(Journal Officiel des Communauts Europennes:
Dbat du Parlement europenSance d Thats why, Mr Chairman, Ladies
and Gentlemen, I proposal, and I stress that once again a decision
anditwasnotputinwritingWewere.notaskedtoparticipateis(That not true!)it is
absolutely true, I am the chairm nothing about what was63.going)1 on. (see

250

FUNCTIONS

63
(g)Notethefollowingrangeofnegativeresponsesinformalfromspokento
formal written examples:

SituatioUne: marchandise dfectueuseVousvousdemandeztlivre. rparation aux

fraisLadesecrtairelaSocitvous. annonce au tlphone
quedvezvousparticiper aux frais.
Faulty goods have been delivered to you. You ask the company. The secretary
telephones to say you
Responses:Certainement pas! Vous plaisantez ou quoi?Passez-moi le directeur.
(spoken, informal)
Certainly not! Are you joking? Put me on to the m
Je ne suis pas daccord pour payeralors que je pasnen suis
responsable(spoken/written,. informal/formal)
I cannot agree to pay since I am not responsible
Ecoutez,jeregrette mais je ne peux pas acceptertantdonn que
(spoken, formal)42.1 (see
Look, I regret that I cannot agree because
La proposition de la direction selonassumerlaquunelle je partie desne
peutfraistre retenue(written, formal)47.9 (see
The managements suggestion that I should meet pa unacceptable

63.3
Agreeing to differ
Whenbothsidesofanargumenthavebeenexpressedanno compromise
reached,theparticipantsmightimplyagreetodifferbeforebreakingoff.
Statementsofagreementtodifferoftenusepersonalpronouns,sometimes
combinedwithidiomaticexpressionssuchasrestersursespositionsoravoir des
ides bien arrtes/desdivergents:points de vue
Chacun de restenoussur ses positions:vous avez votre opinion,la m
mienne(see.8.,14.)2
We areachsure/convincedweareright:youhaveyourviewsandI have
mine.
Soit,vous,vousprenezgauche,nous droiteetnousverronsbien
quelle quipe arrivera en premier(see14.)2 au sommet.
Right. You go on the left. Well go on the right gets to the top first.
Inthesecondexample,notehowtheseconousdisdifferentfromhefirstone
in that it includesvou+nouseveryone:representing the two teams.
64

ARGUMENTATION

251

64
Asserting and confirming
64.1
Asserting
(a) There are many direct ways for someone to asser
peoplewishtodeclare/state/assertsomething,theysimplyutterwhateveritis
theywantodeclare/state/Occasionally,serthowever,.thefunctisonmade
more explicit in the utterance itself, as in the f
En tantqueprsidentlassociation,jedclare laconfrence ouverte.
AsPresident/ChairmanoftheAssociation,Ideclarethconferenceopen.
Vousdevrezcertifiersur lhonneur lexactitudedesinformations
contenues dans ce document.
Youmustswearonyourhonourthattheinformationcontainedthe
document is accurate.
Les condamns qui ont enfinproclamaienttleurlibrsinnocence
depuis de nombreuses(26eeannes.1).1.
Themenwhohavefinallybeenreleasedhabeenproclaimingtheir
innocence for many years.
(b)Thepreviousexamplesinvolvethstructuverb+nouneandallofthemcontain a
statementofanofficialnatureThe.passiveformoftheverb,orthestructure noun+ past
participle can also be used in such a c
Lediscourssurlerledesfemmesdanslasocitsera-t-ilprononc
par le Ministre de la condition(see41) fminine?
Will the speech on the role of women in society for Womens Affairs?
Lesjournauxneparlentquedesdclarationsfaiteshier,lorsdela
confrence de pres(see42.)1Paris.
Thepapersarefullofthedeclaration/statementsmadeyesterdayatthe
press conference in Paris.
(c)Ina detailreportdofanexchange,suchasthefollowingexamplefroma
policerporst,atementsareintroducedbyacolonandtranscribedbetween inverted
commas:
14h35Lesuspectdclare:Jaipasslasoiredu2 novembreau
cinma.
14.35 The suspect stated: I spent the evening o the cinema.

252

FUNCTIONS

Remember that the rules governing51) haveindirecttobespeechtaken account in

other instances:
Le suspectdclare avoir passla soire au cinma.
The suspect stated he had spent the evening at
64
An example of minutes taken at a meeting:
Lecomptableaffirmque lasituationfinanciredelasocitait
satisfaisante.
Theaccountaconfirmedtthatthefinancsialtuationofthecompany was
satisfactory.
(d) In speech, it is not unusual to state your int
Laissez-moi parler,voudraisdirejequelque chose(see33.1).3
Allow me to speak, I want to say something.
Si vous le permettez et au nom dediraitousceci:mes coll
If you will allow me, and on behalf of all my co
64.2
Confirming
Usually, an arrangement, or a statement, is made a
(a) Confirmation of an arrangement:
A lasuitednotreconversatlphoniqueiondu3.10.2003,veuillez
confirmerma rservation par retour du courrier.
Furthertoourtelephoneconversationof3.10.2003,pleaseconfirmmy
reservation by return.
IIdevraittrearrivmaintenant,ilbien pris letrain8h00
commeprvu.
He should have arrdivedtakenowthe.He8 oclock train as
(b) Confirmation of a statement:
Depuisnotrebulletindelamatinleautorits,maritimesontattest
la prsence de 950 personnes bordlaccidentduferry.au m
Since our morning bulletin/announcement, the mar
confirmedthat950peoplewreonboardtheferryatthetimeofthe accident.
Mesdames et messieurs les jurs, notez bien que de son pouse, laccus
se trouvait en etffet s

ARGUMENTATION

253

quelesvoisinsconfirment galementsesdclarationsquantaux
dplacements de la journe.
Ladiesandgentlemenofthejury,pleasenotethataccordingtothe
evidenceofhiswife,theaccusedwasinfactathomethatnight,andthe
neighboursalsoconfirmhistatementconcerninghismovementsduring the
day.
(c)So,infact,assertionoftenprecedesconfirmation,andconfirmationcanbe
achievedthroughuseofverbssuchascorroborer,confirmer,vrifier,
attesterandthroughtheuseofadverbssuchasbien,effeffectivementt,.
Confirmationcanbeimpliedwhenspecificnegativeverbsareusedwith negative
adverbs,nepasdmentir,asin ne pas nier:
65
Interroglorsduneconfrencedepressetnuecematin,lathlte
franaisnapas dmenti lesallgationsfaitescontreluidansles journaux
sportifs.
Questionedatapressconferencethismorning,theFrenchathletedid
not deny the allegations made against him in the
(d)A statementcanalsobeconfirmedthroughrepetition,asinthefollowing exchange:
On peut vous joindre quel numro?JeAurpte:4472239 p
447 2239 poste 357.
We can contact you at what number? 447 2239 Ext 447 2239 Ext. 357.

65
Admitting and conceding
65.1
Admitting
Admissionsamildformofagreemeinthesensethatitisassumed,despite
initialreuctance,thatpersonhascomeroundtotheopiniofnshis/her
interlocutoruponreflectionForexample,.onemightsaycestvrai,certain,
exact,vident,incontestable,butheintonatwillonbedifferentfromhatof similar
expressions63.a1 andlisted63.b:1 whenin you are admitting s a note of doubt will
probably be added to the word
(a)Inmostcases,admissisonexplicitlyrecognizedthroughusingoneofthe
following (en)verbs:convenir, reconnatre, admettre

254

FUNCTIONS

Vous avez raison,jenconviens.

You are right, I (have to) admit/agree.
(b) So, a person may admit or agree to a statement The same verbs can be used to
admit mistakes or f
Ilestempsquelacommunautinternationalereconnaisseses erreurs
en matire de protection de lenvironnement.
Itishightime(that)theinternationalcommunityadmitteditserrors concerning
the protection of the environment.
La directrice de ltablissementadmettre,devantdevraleConseilde
parents dlves,quecetinterne a t accus tort.
The headmistress will have to admit to the Pare accusations made against the
boarder were wrong.
65.2
Conceding
(a) Within the framework of argumentation, admitti
thatis,agreeinpartgwiththeinterlocutorspointofviewinordertodisagree afterwards
65 inotherwordsgoingsomeofhis/herwaybeforetakingdifferentpathA.
concession,therefore,canbeidentifiedinrelatitowhatnfollows,andthe general structure
involved has three distinct stag
1 Theconcessionitself,whichcanbeintroducedbyaverbalformsuchasje
dois ladmettre, si vous voulez, je vousaccordeconcde que I have to admit,
if you like, Ill accept th
byanadverbsuchascertens,effeffectivement,soittha,true,syes
indeed,byanimpersonalformsuchasilestvrai/exact/certainqueitis
true that.
2 Thetransitionthroughacohesivedevicemarkingopposition (see73d):
mais,nempcheque,cependant,reconnaissezcela-ditle,ilnenreste
pasmoinsvraique,enrevanche,vousconcderezbienque,admettez
toutdemmequebut,nevertheless,yet,youmustadmitthat,havingsaid
that,itisnonethelesstruethat,ontheotherhand,youwilladmitthat,you have to
admit nevertheless that.
3
Thedisagreement,thatis,thexpressionofadifferentpointofview(see
63.c,263.d2)
whichis,ofcourse,opentoconcessionthepartofthe
interlocutor.

ARGUMENTATION

255

(b)Concessisonimportainatdebatingornegotiatingsituatiinon,rderto
havecivilizedexchangesandtosendtheballbackintotheinterlocutorscourt. Note the
three stages in the following examples:
Je reconnaisqu ily a beaucoupdecirculationcettehure-maisci,
tout de mme,cela fait une semaine que vous lesarrivez en matins,ane peut
plus durer.
Iadmitthatthereisheavytrafficatthistimeofday,but(nevertheless) you have been
late every morning this week. That/
Certes,ily a descasdutilisateursdedroguesduresquisontaussi
consommateursdedroguesdoucesCela. dit,reconnaissez-le,onna
jamais prouv que lusagedecannabisconduisaitautomatiquement
lusage dhrone.
Certainly,therearepeoplewhousebothsoftandhardrugsHaving.
saidthis,youmustadmitthatithasneverbeenprovedthattheuseof cannabis
automatically led to the use of heroin.
En effet,nousadmettons tous quela livraison correspondant a n235Ba
teffectueavectroisjoursderetardEn.revanche,les marchandises taient en
parfait tat auparmoment de consquentnous ne pouvons vous
verserquunepartiedu montant
exig en dommages et intrts.
We admit that the delivery of order No. 235B was However, the goods were in
perfect condition when We will/can therefore pay only part of the amount
66
66
Correcting and protesting
Thesefunctionsareusedwhenthespeakerwantstocorrectastatement previously
made by himself/herself or by previous
accuracyItis.alsousedinrelationtotextsordocumentswhichrequiretobe amended.
(a)Ifa speakerrealizesthatincorrectinformationhasbeenconveyed,then
apologies are often56.):in1 order (see
Attendez,excusez-moi, je reprends.Ce que je voulais dircest, quil y a 3
millions de chmeurs inscrits maisdaprs5millions d les estimations.
Waitmoment,Imsorry,IllstartagainWhat.Imeantwasthatthere
are 3 million registered unemployed but 5 million estimates. (and not the contrary
as previously st

256

FUNCTIONS

(b) There is a tendency, when we are correcting, t

definitirst,onandthenintroducethecorrectedoneThis.involvesgative
structures+mais.Thefollowingexampleisa kindofprotest,inacaseof misunderstanding:
Attention, vous mavezjemalnai comprise,pasditilqunefallaitpas
accordercongsdepaternitmaisque lonepouvaitpassele permettre
pour le moment.
Careful,youhavemisunderstoodme.Ididnotsaythatpaternityleave
should not be granted, but that it could not be a
Notehowtheconjunctionquehastoberepeatedaftermaistointroducethe second clause.
The next example involves clarifica
Jenesaispassijaittrsclair,quandjedisEurope,jentendsnon
pas laCE (Communauteuropenne)mais lagrandeEurope,y
compris toutes les nouvelles nations existant auj
I dont know if Ive made myself very clear. Wh meantheEC
(EuropeanCommunity)butawiderEuropeincludingallthe
new (emerging) countries/nations.
(c)Inmostcases,thespeakerwillannouncehis/herintentionrephraseorto
clarifystatementthathe/shasemadebyusingoneora
combinationofthe
following expressions:
Permettez-moi dapporter une prcision:
Allow me to add a point:
Ce que je voulais dire, cest ceci:
What I meant was this:
Je devrais peut-tre mexprimer autrement:
Perhaps I should express myself differently:
Je mexplique:
Let me explain:
En dautres termes,:
In other words,:
66
(d)Manycorrectivestatementsareintroducedbyjauraisd+infinitive(see
33.):1
En voquantlesproblmesdelafemme,jauraisd prciserqueje
voulais parler de la (sf43emme.)1 active.
When I raised the problems of women, I should h was referring to working
women.

ARGUMENTATION

257

(e)SimilarexpressionscanofcoursebusedwhencorrectingsomeoneelseIn.
thiscase,theremayfirstbeanexpressionofdisbeliefordisagreementsuchas
vraiment?really?,daprsmesrenseignementsasfarasIam aware,ce
nest pas thatslecas not the case, followedmais:by a nega
Non, vousfaiteserreur;en ralit,linflationnapasatteint3% mais
2% cette anne-l.
No, youre wrong. Inflation did not, in fact, r
(f) Sometimes, you may wish to correct other peopl they are totally wrong but
because you want to go f
havesaidYou.willbecorrectingverydirectlyifyouuseanimperativeform,
suchasprcisonstobespecific/letsbespecificordisonspluttqueor ratheorje,
+verbintheconditionalasinjiraismmeplusloin/jusqudire
queIwouldgofurther/asfartosay,andmuchlessdirect,ofcourse,ifyouuse
an impersonalon:form or
On pourraitmme allerplus loinet prciserque
celasappliqueaussi tous les autres pays du monde.
Onecouldgoevenfurtherandsaythatthis/thatalsotrueofallother
countries.
(g)Inpreviousexamples,theobjectofhecorrectionwasrefutedfirstandthen
correctedreplacedthroughusingstructuressuchasnonpasmais.Inthe following
example, the object is not refutednon but i seulementmais aussi:
Jajouteraisquecephnomneexistenon seulement
enFrancemais galementdans toute lEurope.
IwouldaddthatthisphenomenonexistsnotonlyinFrancebutalsoin the
rest of/throughout Europe.
(h)Therearemanyinstancesofdocumentsortextsbeingcorrectedwith addenda,
amendments or simply because successive v process. When dealing with written
documents such accuracy and attention to detail are essential. Th from debates on
Articles at the French National As
Parlamendement2,jeproposedrdigerlarticlelerdlafaon
suivante:
In Amendment No. 2, I propose that Article 1 sh
Vous nous proposez, laquantrdactionsuivantevous, larticle
You propose the following wording in Article 2:

258

FUNCTIONS

(i)AmendmentshavetobesubmittedinwritingbyMPsandusuallyinvolve infinitives:
67
M.Bteille, rapporteur,unamendement,prsent3,rdigcomme
suit:supprimerles sept premiers alinas2. de larticle
M.Bteille, the rapporteur, has tabled an amendm as follows: delete the first
seven paragraphs of
Aprs larticleinsrerlarticle3, suivant:
After Article 3, insert the following Article:
These are examples of correction where something i
initialdocumentWhen.thexistingtextismodified,thenboththeoriginaland
the new proposed texts have to be inserted in inve
il convient de lire: lInstitutnondAlsace-.Mosell
for Alsace, read the Alsace-Moselle Institu
Danslepremieralinade larticle2,substituerauxmots:les enfantscharge,
les mots: les enfants ns des di
Inthe1stparagraphofArticle2replacedependentchildrenwith children
of different relationships.
(j) The following expressions are also possible:
Remplacer X par Y.
For X substitute Y.
LireY la place/au lieuX.de
For X read Y.
67
Contradicting and criticizing
Contradictingsomeoneorcontradictingstatementisadoptingtheopposite view. In that
sense, it is like an extreme form of of confirming.
(a)Thesimplestandmostdirectexpressionofcontradictionisnonasareply toa
positivestatementandsitoa negativestatementreinforcedherebyau
contraire:
Tu nas pas le choix!si,aucontraireMais.(see47.7).2
You have no choice!But I do!
(b)Inargumentation,forexampleina debateordiscussion,youcancontradict by telling
your interlocutor directly that his/her

ARGUMENTATION

259

Vous vous trompezorVous. tes dans lerreur.

Youre wrong/mistaken.
Vos arguments sont inadmissibles.
Your arguments are unacceptable.
(c)Alternatively,youcanusejewithvariousverbalformswhichstathateyouare
contradictingsomethingYoucan.makeitclearlyandfirmlyyourownpersonal
conviction:
Je rejette catgoriquementces arguments fallacieux.
I categorically reject these unfounded/fallacio
67
Je mlve tout particulirement lacontredernireavancethorie.
I am particularly opposed to the last theory th
Intheprevioustwoexamples,notehowadverbscanplayanimportantrolein
contradiction.
(d)Youcanalsouseimpersonalformsbeginningwithilorce,torefertothe statement you
want to contradict, as12in.c,212the.d2):follow
Vous prtendez que la pauvret ora ilnendisparurien/est en Franc mais cest
tout fait. faux
You claim that poverty has been eradicated in F wrong.

Notehowthe opposition(see73d)isintroducedbycohesivedevicesornow
andmais,andalsohowrienandtoutfaitcontributetothcategoricalnature
oftheoppositioninthisfunctionThis.isalsotrueofaucunandtoutinthe following
examples:
Rien nestmoins sr!(see47.)8
Nothing could be further from the truth!
La ralittout auestre!(see11.c)1
That is quite untrue!
Ilny aucune raison de le(see47croire!.)8
There is absolutely no reason to believe it!
(e)Havingmadeitclearthatyoutotallydisagreewithyourinterlocutor,you
wouldthenprobablygoontoexplain/provethecontraryWhen.youstateyour intention to
do this, jeimperatvais+infinitiveformsareor useful:
Laissez-moi vousdmontrer le contraire(see44.).2
Let me demonstrate the opposite.

Jevais vousle prouver. (see25.3).2

260

FUNCTIONS

I shall prove it to you.

(f)Inordertoemphasizethopposition,youmightstartthesentencewitha
clauseintroducedbycontrairementcontraryto,ladiffrencedeunlike (see
63.e):2
Contrairement ce que vous insinuez, je(see15nai.11) pas trich
Contrary to what you are suggesting/implying, I
(g)Inexpositiowhendenial,isexpressed,theverbdmentirtodenyandits
related forms can be used:
La familleroyaleformellementdmenti larumeurselonlaquelale
reine tait sur le point(see15.)dabdiquer5.
Theroyalfamilyhasformallydeniedtherumourthatthequeenwas about
to abdicate.
Le tmoignage de lautomobilistesansdmenti. reste
The drivers evidence remains unchallenged.
68
68
Suggesting and persuading
Suggesting is used to recommend a particular cours
tosomeoneelseTherefore,.itisperhapssimilarto firstormildstageof
persuasionItis.usedtorecommendthatsomeonedoes,ordoesnot,do
somethingYou.mayalsowantoinfluenceotherpeople,sothattheycome
roundtoyouridea/belieforsothattheyfollowtherightcourseofactionand/or reject the
wrong one. Examplesis ofan contextattempt wheretoinfluth
peoplesothattheybelieve,thinkordosomethingarelegalpeas,evangelistic
activitiordebatesInsuch.instances,oneoftenattemptstopersuadethrough
thepresentationofvalidargumentsThis.isachievedinmanydifferentways
andwithmanydifferentgrammaticalformsome,ofwhichareillustratedin
68.4
68.1
Suggesting
(a)A numberofverbscanbeused:recommander,suggrer,conseiller,
proposerfollowedbyeitherqndefaireqchorqueqnfasse(subjunctive) qch:

ARGUMENTATION

261

Si lesconditionschangentdurantlanuit,lesforcesde police
recommanderont aux automobilistes dquipleurs vhiculespneusde neige(see.33.1).1
Iftheconditionschangeduringthenight,thepolicewillrecommend that
drivers put snow tyres on their cars.
Quand jai appel le cabinet ce a matin,suggrquevotre se je
prennerendez-vous directement(see39avec.2).1 vous.
WhenIcalledtheofficethismorning,yoursecretarysuggestedImake an
appointment to see you personally.
(b) The same verbs can be used with a little adjus
Vu laforceduvent,jete conseillede ne pas sortirtaplanchevoile
aujourdhui(see42..,471.)8
Because of the high wind, I suggest you dont g
Le conseilmunicipalrecommand que lepublicnaitplus accs
gratuitement aux muses(see39de.2)la.1 ville.
Themunicipalcouncilhassuggested/recommendthathepublicd should no longer
have free entry to museums and g
Inthisnegativesense,thefunctionsoftenusedtowarnsomeoneagainst
something,throughverbssuchas:dconseillerqndefaireqch,dconseiller qch
qn, qnmettreengarde contre qch, avertir qn de ne
Ilestfortementdconseillaux techniciensde se tenirdanslazonede
dchargement sans vtements(se 46de) protection.
Technicalstaffmustnotentertheunloadingareawithoutprotective clothing.
Avertissez-led ne pas oublierdefairesademandedevisavant
dentreprendre ce(see14voyage.b,347.).8
Remind/Warn him not to forget to apply for a vi journey.
68
(c) In speech, the fact that you intend to make a as a form of politeness, so as not
to create the im expressionspermettezsuchas-moi, puis-je:
Permettez-moi de vous suggrerun plan daction.
May I suggest a plan of action?
Puis-je faireune proposition?
May I make a proposal?
Jai une ide proposer:

I have a suggestion to make:

262

FUNCTIONS

(d)Theconditionaltense(alsoformofpoliteness)(see33.1).is3oftenused,
sometimes in combinapeution-tre:with
Peut-tre serait-il bonsoumettrede cette questiondonnau vote, quun
consensus ne semble pas pouvoir(see 42.,461) tre attein
Woulditnotbea goodideatoputhequestiothenvotesincethere
seems to be no possibility of reaching a consensu
Puisquilsneveulentriensavoirlamairie,tupourraispeut-tre
tadresser la prfecture?
Sincethe(local)councildoesntwantoknow,maybeyoucouldaskat the
Prfecture (Regional Council).
(e)Inthepreviousexample,itistheinterrogativeform(achievedthrough intonation) which
helps to perform the function of this use of the interrogative, including negative
Que dirais-tu de passerla maison ce soir vers 8h00?
Would you like to come round tonight about eigh
Ne conviendrait-pasil de rajoutercepointlordredujour?(see
46.)2
Would it not be a good idea to add this to the
(f)Suggestioalsocanbemadethroughtheuseofimpersonalverbphrases,in
particularilfaut/il+infinitivefaudraitorqu+subjunctive46.):2(see
Ledirectedupersonnenselquilfaudraitque lesouvrierssoient tenus
aucourantdelanouvellerglementationsurlesconditionsde travail.
Thepersonnelmanagerthinkstheworkforceshouldbekeptinformed of the
new regulations on working conditions.
68.2
Persuading someone to think the way you d
(a) This can be achievedpersuader/convaincreusingverbssuch+noun:asqn de
Il sagitconvaincrede les autorits de lintrtdece proj(s46eet.)2
It is a matter of persuading/convincing the aut of the project.
orusingthefollowincomplexg,sentencpersuader/convaincres:qnque+
indicative,faireadmettre/reconnatreqnque+indicative,fairechanger
davis/dide qn:

68

ARGUMENTATION

263

Lavocatdeladfensetenteradeconvaincrelesjursque lemeurtre
taitnon prmdit.
The defending counsel will try to convince the not premeditated.
Il est difficilefaireadmettrde aux adolescentsleursq parentsont
autrefconnuis les mmes difficults(see45.)3.
Itisdifficulttoconvinceyoungpeoplethattheirparentshadthesame
problems.
Leursargumentsonttsi convaincantsquilsmont
faitchanger davis. (see45.)3
Theirargumentsweresoconvincing/persuasivethattheymademe
change my mind/convinced me.
(b)Otherverbconstructionswhicharesimilarintermsofmeaningarealso
availablforexample,dmontrer/prouverparA+B qn que.Fairecroire
qch isqn in a slightly different league as it impl somehow being tricked into
believing something:
Le gouvernementnous faitcroirequily a moinsdechmeursen
manipulant les statistiques(see45.)3.
By manipulating the figures, the government wou there are fewer unemployed.
(c) You may want toarestatepersuaded,thatyouusing passive expr avoirandtre:
Ce tmoignagemavait convaincue: iltaitinnocent,jen avais
dsormaislaconviction.(see12.b6)
The/Thisevidencepersuadmed:hewasinnocent,Iwas(totally) convinced of
it from that moment/point.
Javouequejesuis dsormaispersuade que lespratiqudeces
fournisseur sont honntes.
IadmitthatIam nowconvincedthatthissuppliersbusinessdealings are in
order.
These expressions, andjenothersmettraissuch maas mainId auswearfeu
toitorjendonneraismattecouperIdputmy headontheblockcan also be used to
express71.)1.certainty (see
(d)Theverbcroireen/tobelievbeconvinced,canbeusedtoexpress
persuasion:
Depuisquilvaaucatchismcet,nfantcroiten Dieucommeilcroit
au Pre Nol.

264

FUNCTIONS

Sincehewastaughistcatechism,thechildbelievesinGodlikehe
believes in Santa Claus.
Vu les rsultats obtenus, decroirontplus auxenvertuspl de ge
delhomopathie(see42.)1
Becauseofitspositiveresults,moreandmorepeoplewillbelievein
homeopathy.
68
68.3
Persuading someone to do/not to do somethi
(a)To persuadesomeonetodosomething,youcanagainuseverbssuchas
persuader/convaincre qn de faire qch, amener/dcider q
La tche du conseiller dorientpersuadertioncet consisteralvede
poursuivreses tudes.
Thejobofthecareersadviserwillbetopersuadethispupiltocontinue his/her
studies.
Jai eu un malledciderfou veniravec nous(14ee..a)4
Ive had terrible trouble persuading him to com
(b)However,ifyouwantogetsomeonetorenounceaparticularcourseof
action,youcanuseoneofthefollowing:dissuaderqnde faireqch, dconseiller qn
persuader/convaincrefaireqch, qn de ne pas dtourner qn de qch:
Les dlgussyndicauxarriveront-dissuaderls les grvistes
doccuperles locaux?(see52)
Willtheunionrepresentativesmanagetopersuadethestrikersnoto
occupy the buildings?
Lemdecinarussile persuaderde ne pas se faireoprerpourle
moment(see.14.,47.)8
Thedoctormanagedtopersuadehimnotohaveanoperationforthe time
being.
Ditescequevousvoulez,vousnarriverezpasme dtournerde
cetteentreprise. (see15.,1144.)2
Say what you want, youll never put me off (thi
68.4
Other ways of persuading and dissuading
Thesearenumerousandvariedbuttheresemstobeanoveralltendencyto insist on or
emphasize the arguments put forward t

ARGUMENTATION

265

(a)byintroducingtheargumentwithverbssuchassavoirtoknow,voirto
see,ignorerto be ignocroireanttof,believe, think:
Vousvoyez bienque celaseuletsolution possible.
You can see its the only possible solution.
Vousnignorezquand mme pas quetoutesles autres solutions
envisages ont t appliques sans succs.
Youknowverywellthateveryothersolutionhasbeentriedwithout success.
Notehowlaseuleandtouteslesautreswellastheadverbsbienandquand
mme contribute to reinforcing the appeal to common examples.
(b) by using (rhetorical) questions, which can be
Crois-tuvraimentquencrivaunetlettredinsultestuserasprisau
srieux?
Do youreallybelievethatbywritingarudeletteryouwillbetaken seriously?
68
or negative:
Ne pensez-vouspas que sileshommestaientmoinstupides,ily
aurait moins de guerres?
Dontyouthinkthatifmenwerenotsostupid,therewouldbefewer wars?
La vraiejustice,neconsisterait-ellepas pluttprsumerdeleur
innocence (et non pas de leur culpabilit)?
Should(true)justicenotconsistofpresumingsomeoneinnocentraher than
guilty?
Again,otehowvraimentandvraiereinforcethestatemendt,howinthe second example
the initiallavraiepositionjusticecreatesofmaximum impac
(c) by using specific structures to demonstrate t X is either the right one
(persuasion) or the wron

to persuade someone to dotoX dissuade someone from doing

en faisant X, tu obtiensen faisant X,
tu risques de
or si tu fais X,
tu obtiensorsi tu fais X, tu risques de

en ne faisant pas deX, tu risquennesfaisant

pas X, tu obtiens
or si tu ne fais
pasdeX, tuorrisquessitune faisobtienspasX, tu

266

FUNCTIONS

En refusantdeteprsenteraupostedepolice,tuattireslesoupons sur
toi.
Ifyourefusetogotothepolicestation,youwill(just)makethem suspicious
of you.
Si vous commandez 1 000bouteillesdavantage,nous vous
accorderonsune remise de 15%.
If you order 1,000 bottles or more, we will giv
Thisprocess,whichestablishesrelatiofnscause/effect,threat/reward,
disadvantage/
benefits, is central to negotiating. express an essential link between the two
argument
Tu devraiste prsenter au postesinon
tuderisquespolice,dattirlesr soupons sur toi.
Youshouldgotothepolicestation,otherwiseyouruntheriskof
making/may make them suspect you.
Nous vous accorderons uneremisede15%, conditionque
vous commandiez 1000 bouteilles ou plus.
We willgiveyoua 15%discountprovidedyouorder1,000bottlesor more.
Other useful paired structures which establish a l cenest pas parce queque, ce
nest pas enque, tu pourras, tu as tout intrt aet tu obtiendras:
69
Ce nestpas en restantcheztoibroyerdunoirque tutesortirasde
cette dpression.
Itwontbebystayingathomebroodingthatyoullgetoutofthat depression.
A ce prix,vousavez tout intrten
acheteretdevousx,doublezla dure dutilisation.
Atthatpriceyouwoulddowelltobuytwoofthem,andyoulldouble the time
you can use them.
(d) by using the imperative in very directand usu
44.):2
Oh si! Allez,viensavec nous,tune le regretteras! pas
Oh yes, come on, come with us. You wont regret
Soyez raisonnable,laissez-moivous aider,vousne vous en tirerez
pas autrement.
Be reasonable and let me help you. You wont ma

ARGUMENTATION

267

Otherimperativescommonlyusedincludesache/sachque,zcoute-moi,
croyez-.mNoitethatthefirstpersonpluralimperativeisalsoused,usuallyas
anexclamation:voyons!allons!soyonssrieux!(see44.2).and1itsEnglish
equivalent would come from a range of expressions go!, Be serious!.
(e) by using expressions in apposition; ajewide ra
tassure,includingtheimperativesgivenabove,canbeusedandsometimes combined
to bring about a particular course of act
Encoreunefois,jete le rpte,tunaspaslechoix,cestlaseule
solution!
I tell you once again, you have no choice, its
Croyez-moi, je vous en prie,cest la seule solution, vous ve
Believe me, please, its the only way, youll s
(f)byusingtheconditiotensealofferingadviceandmeasureofpersuasion
reinforcedbyanexpressionofpersonalopinion,whichyoucanusewhenyou
know that your interlocutor respects your opinion:
Je croisque vous devriezvraimentrflchiravantdevouslancerdans
cette affaire qui prsente de(see15nombreux.,391.)5 risques.
Ithinkyoureallyshouldgivethemattersomethoughtbeforegtting involved in this/the
business because its very r
A mon avis,tu feraisbien dintenterunprocspourdommageset
intrts avant quil ne(see39soit.2).2trop tard.
Inmy opinion,youdberighttostartproceedingsforcompensation before its
too late.
69
Expressing volition
Whenusingthisfunctiyounmaydefinitelywant(todo)something(see 69.),1
state your intention69.)2oror wiaskh what(see someone else inte (see
69.)3.Whenyouwantsomeoneelsetodo something,thenitusually becomes a request
69
(see 69.),4whichinturngeneratesparticularrespon(se 69e.)5.Volition
alsodealswiththedeliberateorspontaneousnatureofanaction(see 69.)6and finally, you
may, of course, state69.)what7. you do not

268

FUNCTIONS

69.1
Verbs expressing volition
Verbsarefrequentlyusedtoexpressvolition:e.gvouloir,.dsirer,aimer,
souhaiter,dcider.They may be followed by:
(a) a noun (direct object of a transitive verb):
Jeveux ton bonheuret rien dautre.
All I want is your happiness.
Les peuples dudsirentmondela paix.
People all over the world want peace.
(b)one,ortwo,infinitives(withorwithoutapreposition)(see45.,245.,5 45.5):.1
Ledirecteurdeltablissementannoncquilvoulaitvoiraugmenter
les effectifs dici lan prochain.

Theheadofthecompanyhasannouncedthathewantstoseestaffing levels
increased by next year.
Pasdinterrupendanttionun quartdheure,silvousplat;je
souhaite treseul avec ma cliente.
No interruptionsforfifteenmiutespleaseIwant.obealonewithmy
client.
Ma filleadcid dtudierlitalien luniversit.
My daughter has decided to study/read Italian a
(c)que+subjunctive39.2(see):.1
Nousvoulons quecette ssoitrerussie.
We want this evening to be a success.
Ilsavaienttoujoursdsir queleur fassefilscarrire dmarinensla.
They had always wanted their son to make his ca
(d)Intheconditionaltensethesameverbs,orverbphrases,canbeusedto
express a wish33.1):.(see3
Jaimerais changerdemploi avant la fin de lanne.
Id like to change my job before the end of the
Lecomitdorganisationsouhaiteraittreinform desrsultatsde
cette tude.
The organizing committee would like to be inform study.

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269

NotethatanyverbintheconditionalfollowedbybienindicateswiWhen.
spoken,theintonationwouldoftenbeinterrogative,asIdliketodothis (what do
you think?):
69
Puisquil nous reste unjiraispeubiendevoircettetemps,exposition.
Sincewevegota littleimeleft,Idliketohave lookatthe exhibition.
Jetlphonerais bienaux renseignements pour avoir le nu
Id be happy to phone directory enquiries to ge
(e) Some nouns or noun phrases can also be usedas
La volont du peupleest que rgne la paix.
The people want peace.
Lespouvoirsontprisla rsolutiondentreprendreunecampagned
protection de lenvironnement.

The government has decided to embark on a campai of the environment.

Si seulement je pouvaisprendre des vacances,jaienviemerde
etde soleil.
If only I could take a holiday: I want some sea
Note how the previous example combines expressions
(si seulement jeandpouvais)onemuch(jaimildenvierwhichde)is given a a reason for
the first one.
(f)Someverbphrasessuchasjetiensceque+subjunctIinsist,veor
adverbssuchasbien,rsolument,absolumentcanbeused,orcombinedto
express strong will:
Je tiensabsolument ce quilssachentquenousommesbienarrivs.
(see39.2).1
Im absolutely determined that they (should) kn
Cette fois,estbienilrsolu la renvoyer.
This time he is determined to dismiss her.
69.2
Wishing and intending
Whenthewishtodosomethiexpressedngasanintention,anumberofverbs and
verb phrases are available.
(a)Verbsandverbphrasessuchasprvoir,envisageproposer,avoir
lintention,formerleprojetallfollowedbyde+infinitive,andsonger

+infinitive45.5):(see.1

270

FUNCTIONS

Jai prvu de parttir alors soyez prts 6h00.

I intend to leave early so be ready at six.
La directenvisageon de licencierune partie du personnel.
The management intends to make some staff redun
(b)Someverbssuchascompter/penser,aller,andsometimdevoir,srequire no
preposition before 45the.):2 infinitive (see
Ellepensaitarriveravantmidimaiscestimpossibleenraisondela
grve des trains(see6.b3).
Her intention was to arrive before noon, but tha the rail strike.
69
En guise de conclusion,vaisvousfaire jepart demes impressions sur
lesdiffrentessancesdetravailtenuespendantlesminaire(see.
42.)1
Toconclude,Ishallgiveyoumy impressionsofthevariousworkshops held
during the seminar.
Ildevaitmaccompagner mais de toute vidence, il a chan
He was to come with me but clearly he has chang
(c) Nouns or noun phrases, in various positions in danslintention,
le/sonfollowedbutde+infinitiveestby45.):6(see
Je suppose quil madnsconvoquelintentionmedefliciter.
I assume he has sent for me to congratulate me.
Son but estde redresserlasituationfinanciredelasocitavantla
fin de lexercice.

Hisaimistostraightenouthecompanysfinancsialtuationbeforethe end
of the fiscal year.
69.3
Asking what someone intends
In order to ask what someone intends or wants, you
(see52).Theformsusedependonhowspecifictheoptionsprovidedbythe question are.
(a) In the case of totallyque?questopen-cehoique?can, bequoi?used
(see16.16):.3
Que dsirez-vous?
What do you want?
Quest-ce queje peux faire pour vous?

What can I do for you?

ARGUMENTATION

271

Vous avez lintentionquoiaprsdefairelecinma?

What are you going to do after the cinema?
(b) When the options are yes or no, the focus
Comptez-vous venir la rception ce soir?
Do you intend to come to the reception this even
Vous prendrez bienun verre?
Will you have something to drink?
(c)Whentheoptionsfallwithinaspecificandrestrictedrange,interrogative adjectives
+nouns or interrogative pronouns are us
Quel fromage dsirez-vous?(see16.4).2
Which cheese would you like?
Parmi toutes ceslaquellecharpes,teplairait?(see16.4).1
Which of all of these scarves would you like?

(d) When there are specific options, the interrog are frequently combined withou
orsoittructuressoit: such as
69
Lesquellesvoulez-vous, lesoulesGoldenReinett(se16e?.4).1
Which would you prefer, the Golden Delicious or
Quelle table prfrez-vVouspouvez?vousinstallersoiten
terrasoitse, lintrieur(see16.4).2.
Which table would you prefer? You can sit on th

(e) All the examples above are direct questions wh inversion of

the51c,
52verb)Questions.(see can also be indirect structures vary depending on how
specific the opti
Jaimerais bien savoir cetuqe comptes faire (seedans51b) la vie!
Id like to know what kind of career you intend
Le plombiervoudraitsavoirsi nousvoulonsquilcommenceles
travaux demain(see39.2).1
Theplumberwantedtoknowifwe wanthimtostart(he)work tomorrow.
Les partispolitiquessedemandent quelles sont les mesures
souhaitespar lopinion en matire(see16de.4,.scurit.42)1.
Thepoliticalpartiesarewonderingwhatsecuritymeasuresthepublic
wants.
Aide-moi!Jene saispas laquelledes deux jedevraischoisir!(see
16.4).1
Help me! I dont know which of the two to choos

272

FUNCTIONS

69.4
Asking someone for something
(a)Whenyourequestsomethingfromsomeoneelse,youcan,ofcourse,usesome
oftheverbsandverbphrases identifiedin 69.1withtheappropriatepersonal
pronoun.
Je veux que vous soyez prts partir8h00etjaimeraisque
vous passiezme prendre tout de (seesuite39.2).aprs1.
Iwantyoutobereadytoleaveateight,andIdlikeyoutocomeand pick me
up right away.
(b)Inthepreviousexample,notehowtheuseoftheconditionaltensesoftens the request.
This tense is often used to ask someo sometimes in interrogative forms for
even33.1):.more3 ind
Est-ce que tu pourraismerejoindreau Bar de la Placesance?aprs la
Could you meet me in the Bar de la Place after
a vous ennuieraitde me prtervotrevoituredemainmatin?La
mienne est en panne.
Couldyoupossiblylendme yourcartomorrowmorning?Minehas
broken down.
Note the use of si in an alternative form of the p
a marrangeraitbeaucoupsivous me prtiezvotrevoituredemain
matin(see.33.1).1
It would help me a lot if you could lend me you
69
(c)Theconditionalisusedfora moreformalrequestcommercialin
correspondence in the following example:
Auriez-vous lamabilitde me faire savoir quels sont vos
tarifset conditionspour cet article?
Please let me have your prices and terms for th
(d)Naturally,formorecategoricalrequest,youcanusetheimperative(se
44.):2
Prends mon porte-monnaieramn-moietdeux baguettesplat)(sil. te
Take my purse and get me two baguettes (please)

ARGUMENTATION

273

(e)Theimperativeveuillez+infinitiveortheexpressionjevouspriede
+infinitivecanbeusedtointroducerequests,forexampletomakeenquiriesor place
orders in commercial correspondence:
Veuillezmenvoyer lesdeuxderniersnumrosdevotrepublication.
(see44.)1
Please mesendthe last (latest) two issues of your p
Je vous prie mede faire parvenirla commande avant le 30 mars.
Please send me the order before 30th March.
(f)As demonstratedinthepreviousexample,setexpressionsusedin correspondence are
often followed by one, or sever particular attention has to be given to pronouns a
14.):3
Nous vous serions reconnaissantsde bien vouloir nous confirmer
lheure darrive de votre dlgation laropor
We wouldbegratefulifyouwillconfirmthetimeofarrivalofyour delegation
at the airport.
Je vous seraisobligede me rpondre parretourducourrier(see.
4.)4
I would appreciate it if you will reply by retu
Othersimilarphasesincludjevous:auraisgr,veuillezavoirlobligeance, both
followedde(bienby vouloir). faire
(g)Formorepressingorinsistrequests,nttheappropriateverbs(+infinitive or
subjunctive) and (sometimes) adverbs can be use
Jecompte sur vous pour venirdimanche.
I am counting on you to come on Sunday.
Tu dois insisterauprsdelagendarmeriepourque tespapierste
soientrendus immdiatement(see39..2).2
You must insist that the police return your pap
Vos profesouhaitentseurs instamment que vous vous
prsentiezcet examen(see.39.2).1
Your teachers insist that you sit the exam.
69
69.5
Expressing (un)willingness to act upon req
Thesimplexpressionstofthisis,ofcourse,touseouiornonbutinmany cases, in particular
when negative, the response i

274

FUNCTIONS

(a)Shortpositiveanswersinclude:Oui,daccord!Yes,ofcourse,Pasde
problme!Noproblem!,Cestcommesictaitfait!Takeitasdone!(see 63).
(b)Negativeanswersoftenicludesomesortofjustificationsuchas:Jene peuxpas I
simply Cescantimpossible,Its impossible63): (se
Malheureusemcestnt,impossible,nos stocks sont puiss.
Unfortunately, its out of the question, we hav
(c) A fuller response to a request can be25.):given2 us
Pas de problme,je donneraite un coup de mainpour ta terrasse.
No problem, Ill give you a hand with the terra
Sachezquenous ne livreronspas lesordinatequersvousavez commands
(car notre dernire facture na(seepas enc 68.d4)
We areunabletodeliverthecomputersyouordered(becauseourlast
invoice has not yet been paid).
orverbs,inparticularvouloir,pouvoir+infinitiveoracceptde,rrefuserde+
infinitive:
Oui,lesbnvolesdenotreorganisationveulent bien assurer lanimation
dans votre club(seedu45.)troisime2 ge.
Yes,thehelpersinourorganizationrehappy/willingtoorganizeth
entertainment in your old folks club.
La directionarefus daccorderaux vendeurs laugmentation q
demandaient(see15..,452.5).1
Themanagementhasrefusedthepayrisetheshopassistantswere
seeking.
orotherverbphrasesofthetypetre+adjectiveorpastparticiple++infinitive (see45.):6
Le tribunalest(tout)prt vousaccorderla remise de peinevous dont avez
fait a demande(see15.)8.
The court is ready/prepared to agree to your re
Non,(vultatdanslequelvousavezmislappartement,)nousne
sommes pas disposs
renouvelervotrecontratdelocation(see15..,5 42.)1
No, (because of the state the flat has been left renew your lease.

ARGUMENTATION

275

(d)Therearealsomoreindirectwaysofacceptingorrefusingtoactupona
request, with impersonal forms:
Aucunproblmepoursamedi,ilnous estpossiblede livrermmeles
week-ends (see.46)
No problem for Saturday, we can deliver even at
Jsuisdsole,moietJean,on (ne)pourra pas venir tesquarante
ans.(informal)11.)8(see
Sorry, me and John, we cant come to your forti
In the previous example, note on,theusedcolloquialinfact abusinste nous.

69.6
Deliberate or non-deliberate actions
A number of terms and expressions convey the idea purpose,ornotWhen.itisa
controversialissue,thestatemenoftseninclude cest/cenest pas(que
+infinitive):de
(a) with a noun:
Non, je nai pasctaitvouluunaccident!a,(see6.b3)
No, I didnt want that to happen, it was an acc
Ctaitbien son intentionquedetobliger
partir(see6..b3) He intended to force you to leave.
Notethatwithnounssuchasvolontorintention,themoreformaltelcanalso be
used:
Je vois que vous tes surpristelletaitdeconstatervolontsa.(see que
11.a10)
I see youre surprised that that was what he wa
(b) with an adjective:
Si je vous ai offens,ce croyezntaitpasbintentionnelque.Ctait
mme tout involontairefait.(see6.b3)
Ifhaveoffendedyou,believemeIdidnotmeantoIt.wascompletely
unintentional.
(c)A numberofverbphrasesarealsoavailable,sometimesreinforcedby adverbs
or idioms:

Je tassurene lontquilspa fait exprs.

276

FUNCTIONS

I assure you they did not do it deliberately.

Au contraire,jediraisquilsont agi volontairementeten toute
connaissance de cause.
On thecontrary,Iwouldsaythattheyacteddeliberately(oritwas deliberate) and they
knew exactly what they were
(d) The notion of volition is, of course, central
providesnumerousexamplesofuseoftherelevantterms,andinparticularof structures
involavec,ing +nounthesanspairsuchintention,as prmditat
Mesdamesetmessieurslejurs,jevousrappellequilsagitdun
crime prmdit,sans intentionmaisde tuer(see.42.,461.)2
Ladiesandgentlemenofthejury,Iremindyouthathiswasa premeditated crime, but
(that) there was no inten
69
69.7
Saying what you do not want
Finally,volitionisalsoconcernedwithexpressingwhatpersondoesnotwant.
Mostofthexamplesgiveninprevioussectionscould,ofcourse,bemade
negative,69.and5deals with what a person does not want t
(a)However,takinganearlierexample,notethedifferenbecausee,ofthe shift of
the negative in the sentence, between:
Ma fillenapas dcidtudier litalien (see47luniversit.)8.
My daughter has not made up her mind to study I
and
Ma fille adedcidnepastudierlitalien luniversit(see47.)8.
My daughter has decided not to study Italian at
Inthefirstcase,shehasnotyetmadeuphermindwhereasinthelatter,sheis
definitelynotgoingtostudyItalianSothe.differenceliesinthedegreeof
determinationboutwhatwill/mightactuallyoccurandthelocationofthe negative. Note the
difference in the following pai
Jene souhaite pasquil vienne(se39.2,47.1.)8
I do not want him to come.
Je souhaiten viennequilpas.
I hope he will not come.

ARGUMENTATION

277

(b) When the expression of volition in the first c morecontrolandmakes

moredeliberatestanceonwhathe/shewantsor intends:
Leministrealintentionde nepasdmissionn(hedefinitelyr.intends not
to)47(see.)8
The minister intends not to resign.
Le ministrenapas lintentiondmissionnerde(at.this stage) The
minister does not intend to resign.
Such pairs could be identified for most expression some exceptions where only one
structure is desira
Jeprfreraisque vousneoyez pastrop en retard(seece39.soir2).1.
I would rather you were not too late tonight.
(c)Whenbothclauseshavethesamesubject,theverbinthenegativeclauseis
followed by an infinitive:
Nousnenvisageons pas daugmenterle capital social pour le mo
We do not intend to increase share capital for
Whentherearetwoclauseswithtwodifferentsubjects,thenegativeverbis
usually followedque+subjunctive:by
Les chmeursnesouhaitent pas quonleurfassela charit.
The unemployed do not want handouts.
(d)However,sometimestherearealternastiveructures,inparticularwithverbs
such vouloir,as savoir:
70
Je ne veux pas que tu choues aubaccalauratJeneveux./ pas
te voir chouer au baccalaurat(see39..2,39.1.)5
I dont want you to fail your bac (school-leavi
Ses parentsnont pas enviequellese perde danscettegrandeville./
Ses parents nont pas envie de la savoirdansperduecettegrande ville.
Her parents dont want her to get lost in that
(e) Adjectives or adverbs can be used to vary the
Les grvistesnontpas la moindre intentiondannulerleur
manifestation(see10.c,1245.)6

278

FUNCTIONS

Thestrikershavenointention/haventtheleastintentionofcallingoff their
demonstration.
Croyez-moi,jenavaisabsolument paslintentidevousnblesser.
(see45.)6
Believe me, I had absolutely no intention of hu
70
Expressing permission and obligation
It is appropriate to look at expressing permission functionsentailgiving(see
70.)1ordenyingrights(see 70.)2andimposing(see 70.)3orexemptingfromduties(see
70.)4.Youwillseehow,sometimes,these sub-functions overlap.

70.1
Permission
(a)Permissionorrightscanbegrantedusingverbphrasessuchasaccorder,
donner+la permission, lautorisation,qn: le droit de
On a accord le droitde voteaux
Franaisesaprsladeuximeguerre mondiale.
French women were given the vote after the Seco
Mes parentsmont donn lautorisation de sortirjusqu minuit.
My parents have given me permission to be out u
(b)Verbsexpressingpermissioncanalsobeused:.gpermettre.qndefaire
qch,autoriserqnfaireqch,permettre/autoriserqueqnfasse(subjunctive) qch:
Le proviseuraautoris queles courssoient annulspourpermettreaux
lves dassisterune pice de(seethtre39.2).1.

The headmaster has given permission for classes pupils to go to see a play.
(c)Whennegative,alloftheabovestructuareusedtodenypermissionor right:
Le chef denautoriserayon pas les vendeurs sassetneoirpermetpas
quils prennentplus de cinq minutes(see39de.2)pause.1.

The department supervisor will not allow the sh or take more than five minutes
break.
70

ARGUMENTATION

279

(d)Theverbpouvoiralsoplaysanimportantrole,forexample,whenasking for
permission:
Puis-je fumer?Oui,vous pouvez,mais dans le coin fumeurs.
May I smoke?Yes, you may, but in the smoking a
An alternative would be:
Vous permettez que(seeje39.fume?2).1
May I smoke?
(e)Therearenumerousphrasescombiningavoirortrewithanountoexpress nuances of
entitlement or permission to droitsomethi (++noun,+deverb) as the noun:
Si je minscris dans cette filireaurai-je droitdeunetroisime bourse?
(see33.1).1
If I register for this postgraduate course, wil
En France,lesfemmesattendantdesjumeauxsont en droitde
prendredes congs maternit supplmentaires(see43.)1.
InFrancewomenexpectingtwinsarentitledtoaditionalmaternity leave.
Tunas pas le droit de me !juger
You have no right to criticize me!
Droitisalsocentraltomanynounphrases,particularinthelegalyfield:.g.
droitdegrve,righttostrike,droitdepassage,rightofway,droitde poursuite,right
ofdroitaction,derecours,right ofdroitsappeal,dauteurs
royalties.
(f)Impersonalverbsoroncanalsobeusedtograntordenypermissionina more
indirect way:
Il est permis de consunlterdictionnaire pendant (see46)lexamen.
Dictionaries are allowed in exams.
Est-ce quon a le droit de despoer questions?(see11.)8
Are we allowed to ask questions?
70.2
Prohibition
(a) Verbs expressing prohibitioninterdire, dfendinclure qn de
empcherqndefaireqch,andinterdire,dfendre,empcherqueqnfasse
(subjunctive)qch.

(b) These are sometimes reinforced by adverbs:

280

FUNCTIONS

Jevous interdis formellement de me parlersur ce ton!

I categorically forbid you to speak to me in th
La rgledelordredfendaitabsolument que lesmoines se
parlent pendant lesrepas(see.39.2,40.1.2).3
The rule of the Order totally forbade the monks
Verbs expressing prohibition have corresponding im infinitives, and sometimes used
with pronouns:
70
Ilestinterditde sortirdelenceintedubtimentavantquelasonnerie nait
retenti(see39.2.,46.2.)2
It is forbidden to leave the grounds before the
Commeilmest dfendu de vous parler,jevousenvoiecmoten
secret (see.42)
SinceIam forbiddentospeaktoyou,Iam sendingyouthisnotein secret.
(c)Thepassiveformtre+pastparticipleisusuallyusedinthenegative,on notices,
for example:
Les chiensnesont pas admisdans le magasin(see41.)2.
Dogs are not allowed in the shop.
Les chquesnesont pas accepts.(see41.)2
Cheques are not accepted.
(d)Prohibitivenoticescanbeevenmoredirectandsimplyfeaturenoun (without an
article)+infinitive or adjective:
Dfense de stationner
Interdiction dafficher
Pelouse interdite
Alcool prohib

No parking
No posters
Keep off the grass
No alcohol

or both forms can be combined:

Proprit prive, dfense dentrer.
Private property, keep out.
Otherwaysofprohibitinganactioncludeneg
NOTE

ativeformsofthe expressions
70given.,701.3in

ARGUMENTATION

281

70.3
Obligation
(a)A numberofverbsandverbphrasesareavailabletoexpressobligation,for
exampleobliger,forcer,contraindreqn faireqch,mettreqn dans
lobligation/endemeurefaireqchandsomeverbsofvolition+subjuncti (see39.2).1which
are used when a duty is imposed on so
Les accidentstoujoursplusnombreuxdus lexcsdalcool
contraignentles autorits multiplierlesmesuresderpression(see.
45.5).1
Thegrowingumberofaccidentscausedby drinkisforcingthe government to
introduce additional restrictive me
La factureayanttexpdieilya sixmois,nous vous mettons
en demeure de nous rglerdans les huit jours.
Theinvoicewassentsixmonthsagosowe requestthatyousetthele bill
within a week.
La loiexige que vous consultiezun conseiller juridique indp (see39.2).1
The law demands that you consult an independent
70
(b)Etre+pastparticinplthestructu,tretenu/forc/contraint/oblde
faireqch,canbeusedtoshowthatpersonhas,ordoesnothave,todo something41(see.):2
Le contratsipulequenousne sommespasresponsablesetpar
consquentnous ne sommes pas tenus de vous ddommager.
Thecontractstatesthatwe arenotresponsibleandarenottherefore obliged
to pay (you) compensation.
Rapportepuisquil-leyaun trou:lavendeusesera obligede te
lchanger. (see14.b,314.)4
Takeitbackbecausetheresaholeinit:theassistantwillhaveto change it
for you.
Inthefirstofhesetwoexamples,notehowtheobligationabsenceorofit
stemsfroma contract:lecontratstipulequ.Thisisoftenthecasebecause
anycode,dogma,legaltext,etccreates.numberof obligationsand
consequentlyisoftenreferredtowithexpressionsinappositionsuchasselonle
rglement,daprslestatuts,conformmentlarticle10,(voustestenu
de):

282

FUNCTIONS

Daprslestatutsdenotrerseaurgional,lesnouveauxmembres
sont tenus de soumettre leurdemandedadhsionlorganisation nationale
dans les deux ans qui suivent(see4.,154.)1leur insc
Inaccordancewiththeregulationsofourregionaletwork,new
members have to apply for membership of the natio the two years following their
registration.
(c) The verbdevoiror+infinitivenounorde+infinitive is central to and features in
severalsexpressionsdevoirde, suchilestas de mon sefaire un devoir de:
Pourobtenirvotrecartede sjour,vousdevrez remplir cesdeux
formulaires avec soin.
To obtainyouresidencepermityoumustcompletethesetwoforms
carefully.
Un bon chef dquipesedoitparfoisdtreautoritaire.
It is the duty of a good team leader to be autho at times.
Devoir+noun is used when something is owed to somebod
Tu te souvienstume doisque de largent? (see4)
You remember you owe me some money?
Beaucoupdegenspensentquelesenfantsdoiventle respect
leurs parents. (see21,22.3).1
Many people think that children owe their paren
(d)Avoir+infinitive also conveys obligation, with or
Dites votre patronjailui parlerque.(see44.)1
Tell your boss that I have something to say to
70
Les tudiants de premireontplusieursannefeuilles dinscription
remplir(see.11.,453.)6
First-year students have to fill in several reg
(e) Impersonal verbs can alsoil befautwithused,a noun:inparticul
Pourvousinscrilrme,faut un extraitdactede naissanceet deux
photos. (see46.)2
To complete your registration I need a copy of two photographs.

ARGUMENTATION

283

oralternativelyfollowedbyaninfinitive(samesubjectinbothclauses)orque+
subjunctive:
Pour poser sa candidaturilfautenvoyerun, CV.(see46.)2
You have to send a CV when you submit an applic
Il fautabsolumentquetu sois rentrepour 10h00 car nous partir
aussitt(see39..2,46.1.)2
You must be back at ten because were leaving o
Otherimpersonalverbsincludeilestindispensable/ncessaire/obligde+ infinitive
(same subjectquein+subothjunctiveclause46.)2(.s)eeor
(f)Whenusedinthenegativtheabove,expressidonotnsusuallyconvey
the absence of obligation butno toratherdosomething:theobligatio
Vous ne devez pas touchercette porte, elle vient(see24dtre.)3 pei
YoumustnotouchthisdoorIt.hasjustbeenpainted(not.Youdonot have
to touch)
Ilne faut pas ouvrirles paquets avant(see46.Nol)2.
You must not open the parcels before Christmas.
and compare
Tu nas pas remplirce formulaire (mais(see45celui.5).1-l).
You dont have to fill in this form (but that o
withne pas avoir+infinitive:qch
Tu nas pas de formulaire remplir.
You dont have a form to fill in.
(g)Theverbpouvoircanalsoconveyobligation,inparticularwhencombined
withneque:
Il a tellement insist que finonalement,puquesinclinerses. parent
He insisted (on it) so much that finally his pa
A mon avis,tune peux pas faire autrement que dacetteper offre.
In my opinion, you cant do anything but accept
(h)Therearevariouswaysoforderingsomeonetodosomething(obligation)or not to
do something (prohibition)44.244.2.2): (see
70
by using an imperative for a very direct order or

284

FUNCTIONS

Prsentezarmes!

Present arms!

Tenez votre droite.

Keep to the right.
Attachezvos ceintures.
Fasten your seatbelts.
Nentrez pas! Dont go in!
Nerefais jamais a! Never do that again!
Va -ten!/Vas-y!(see 14.b,344) Clear off!/Get on with it!
by using the future tense:
Puisquevoustesiinsolentvous,irez voirladirectriceetlui
remettrezcette note de ma part.
Sinceyouaresoinsolent,youwillgototheheadmistressandgiveher this
note from me.
Tu ne tueras point.
Thou shalt not kill.
theorderinstructionanbegivenmorepolitelywithveuillezorapassive form:
Veuillez attachervos ceinturesteindrevoset cigarettes.
Please fasten your seat belts and put out your
Lespassagerssontprisde ne pas fumer
pendanttouteladuredu vol. (see41)
Passengers are asked not to smoke during the fl
instructions on notices or recipes, for example, (see45.1):.1
Sonner avant dentrer.
Ring before entering.
Assaisonneretservirimmdiatement.
Add seasoning and serve immediately.
or nouns+adjectives or past participles:
Port du casqueobligatoire(dans la zone de dchargement).
Hard hats must be worn (in the unloading area).
Tenue de soireexige.
Dress formal.

ARGUMENTATION

285

70.4
Exemption
(a)A numberofverbsandverbphrasesareavailabletodnotehatsomeone does
not have to do dispensersomthing,+infinitive:de.g.
Cetentretienvousdispensede venir laruniondinformationoles
mmes renseignements seront(seecommuniqus15.)9.
Thisconversationmeansthatyoudo notneedtocometothe information session
which will deal with the same
(b) Passive forms are used frequently:
70
Il a t exempt de servicemilitairepourdesraisonsmdicales(see.
41.1).1
He has been exempted from military service for
(c)Inthesamecontextandtoindicatethattheobligationhasbeenfulfilled,a Frenchman
would indicate in his CV:
Dgag desobligations militaires(see42.)1.
Military service completed.
(d)Otherverbsincludedcharger,pargnexonrer,soustrand,ireof
course,negativeformssuchasnepastretenu/forc/oblig/contrai
lobligation+defaireqch,includingmanyvariationswithverbssuchasse sentir, se
croire:
Surtout,nevous sentez pas oblig deafirepour moi!
Above all, dont feel obliged to do that for me
Ellen se croyaitpas tenue de rpondre
seslettrespuisquilnelui rendait jamais ses appels tlphoniques.
She did not feel obliged to reply to his letter her telephone calls.
(e)Sans+infinitivesavoirsuchordevoirasmay also be used:
LesbanquespeuventdsormaisoprerdanstouslespaysdelUnion
Europennesans avoir tablirdefilialeslextrieurdeleurpays
dorigine(s45e..5).1
BankscanowoperateinallthecountriesoftheEU withouthavingto establish
branches outside their country of origi

286

FUNCTIONS

(f) Impersonal verbs, either positive 46,46ornegative,.):2

Il est inutile dcrire;nous vous enverrons automatiquementdossier l
dinscription.
You do nothavetowrite;we shallautomaticallysendyouthe registration
form.
Il ne sera pas obligatoire dassisterlarunion dinauguration adhrer
lassociation.
It is not essential to attend the inaugural meet the association.
(g)Impersonalformsintroducedbynestpas(see6.)3providealternatives, with or
without a complement:
Une pice didentit?ceneseraNon,pas ncessaire.
An identity card?No, it wont be necessary.
Tu avais dit que tucelenestferaispasune obligationmais. (see51b)
You said you would do it but its not compulsor
Ce nesttout de mmetoipasde prendrecette dcision.
Its not up to you anyway to take the decision.
Exceptionnellemennestpas, la peine de composter carles
machines sont en panne.
Theresnopointpunchingyourtickettodaythemachineshave broken
down.
71
(h)Andnepasavoirbesoinde+infinitivecanbeusedwithanypersonal pronouns,
includingon:
On na pas besoin de couperllectricit si on neweeksabsente-end.
(see11.,338.1).1
Thereisnoneedtoswitchoffthelectrifcitywereonlyawayfora
weekend.
Lesmdecinsnont mme pas eu besoinde me prvenir,jaicouru
lhpital car je savais quil tait au plus mal.
Thedoctorsdidnoteveneedtocallme;I rushedtothehospital because I
knew he was dying.
Notethatsomeoftheseimpersonalformstendtobeshortenedinspoken
exchanges:
Pas besoin de venirme chercher, je prendrai un taxi.
No need to pick me up; Ill take a taxi.

ARGUMENTATION

287

Inutile de mexpdierle document, mon secrtaire passera cet aprs-midi.

No pointsendingmethedocument,mysecretarywillcomeandgetit this
afternoon.
Reminder:ordertoavoidambiguitanyof,theabove(see 70.a4-70.)4hare
preferabletonepasdevoir+infinitive,nepasavoir+infinitive,ilnefautpas
que+subjunctivetoexpressexemption,unlessthecontextmakesitabsolutely clear
thatnot aitcaseis of obligation not70to.f)3.do something
71
Expressing doubt and certainty
Doubtandcertainty(see 71.)1areatoppositeendsofa continuumwhere
possibilityandprobability(see 71.)2aswellasconditionandhypothe(sisee
71.)3 are also to be found. Many different grammatic all the nuances of meaning
involved, some of which
withoccasionalemphasisonpecificcontextssuchasexpressionofreservation in debate
or in an economic forecast.
71.1
Doubt and certainty
Thesemaybeexpressedsimplythroughthemeaningofindividualverbornoun
phrases.
(a)Verbsuchasdouterque+subjunctive,nepasdouterque+indicative,
douterde+noune, pas douter+noun:de
Jedoute que lecolisaittlivrcarilnatpostquhiermatin(see.
39.2,47.1.10)
I doubtthattheparcelwillhavebeendeliveredbecauseitwasonly posted
yesterday morning.
Aprs avoir entendu ce netmoignage,douterasplunes tuseconde
de son innocence.
Havingheardthisevidenceyouwillnolongerhaveanydoubtsabout
his/her innocence.
71
Themeaningoftheverbsusedmayallowyoutoconveyspecificnuancesof doubt and
certainty;savoirforforexampleexpressing certainty or knowledge,sedemanderto
wonder:
Jesais(avec certitude) quil ne me laissera pas tom

I know he will not let me down.

288

FUNCTIONS

Nousne savons pasencore ce que nous rserve(see15.)11lavenir.

We do not know what the future holds for us.
Je te parie que nose concurrentsdemandentbienceque nous allons
faire,etsurtoutsinous allonslancerlenouveauproduitavantlt.

(see25.3).2
Iam sureourcompetitorsarewonderingwhatwe aregoingtodoand especially
whether we are going to launch the new
(b) Nouns: in the following examples with a noun su + verb+quant :
Le doute persistequant au nombrexactde personnesbordde
lappareil au moment de laccident.
Doubtremainsastothexactnumberofpeopleaboardtheplaneatthe time
of the accident.
Le doute nestplus permis quant la responsabilitduconducteur
dautobus dans cet accident.
Thereisnodoubtthatthedriverofthebuswasresponsibleforthe
accident.
Nouns also occur in dephrasestoute suchvidence,as en toute cer aucundoute,
sans le moindreused asdouteadverbs or in apposit
De toutevidence,cetteloiquiestapprouvepartouslespartissera
promulgue dans les mois(see41.)2 venir.
Obviously,thelegislatwhichonisapprovedbyallthepoliticalparties will be
promulgated in the next few months.
Le projetdetunneltenantcomptedesconsidraticologiquesns
serasans aucun douteprfr tout(see41autre.,432.).1
Thetunnelprojectwhichtakecologicalsconsideratiintaccountns will
without any doubt be the one selected.
Thesameformscanbeusedtoexpresscertainty(ifpositive)ordoubt(if negative),
for example,treveorbavoir:phases with
Es-tu sr quela porte de lappartement est ferme cl
Are you sure that the door of the flat is locke
Oui,jai la certitude de lavoir fermeavantdeclf partir.
Yes, I am certain I locked it before we left.
Non,je nen suis pas certain.
(see12.b6) No, Im not sure.
71
Je ne suis pas persuad Patrickquelait ferme avantclefde me
les rendre(see.39.2,39.1.)5

ARGUMENTATION

289

Im not convinced Patrick locked it before givi

NOTE Expressionsofcertainty+quearefollowedbytheindicativewhereas expressions

ofquedoubtarefollowed+ by the39subjunctive.2).1 (see

(c) There are many impersonal forms available to e

an adjective:
La police retrouvera-t-elle les marchandises vol
Will the police find the stolen goods?
certainty
Cest vident(see6.b3).
(without a complement)Yes, they will.
certainty
Il est certain quelle fera de son
(with a complement)mieux(see.6.b3)
doubt Theyll certainly do their best.
(without a complement)Ceserait tonnant(see6.b3).
doubt It would be surprising (if they did
(with a complement)Ilest douteux quelle puisse tout retrouver(see39..2).1
It is doubtful that shell get ever verb and noun phrases,
in particular for expressi
Daprslesjournauxde cematin,ilne faitaucun doute que la matresse du
espionnaitministrelpoque pour leRussescompte. des (see4.,439.)4
According to this mornings papers, there is no mistress was spying at the time
for the Russians.
Les journaux ne nous apprennentctaitlvidencerien,mme!
(see 6.b3)
The papers havent told us anything, it was com
Daccord, on la souponnait,cestmaisunecertitudedsormais.(see
6.b3)
Right, we suspected it, but now we know.
En tout cas, avecilva toutsansdirea,sesque mmoires qui sont s le point
de separatrevendronttrs bien(see41.. ,503.)3
Anyway, with all this fuss, there is no doubt t just about to come out will sell very
well.

(d)Certaintyordoubtcanbeexpressedwithtermssuchasrien+e,personne
+ne,toutused as subjects:

290

FUNCTIONS

Personne ne peut nierlexistence de ces(seedocuments47.)8.

Nobody can deny the existence of these document
71
Rien ne prouve queces documenexistents. (see47.)8
There is nothing to prove that these documents
Tout me porte croire quilla ditvrit(see11..)1
Everything leads me to believe that he is telli
(e) The conditional tense can be used to express u
example,verycommonlyusedinpressarticleswhena particularpieceof information has
not been33.1):.verified5 (see
Selonlesrumeurs,lebanquierincrimindanscetteaffairedefraude
auraitdjquittle pays(.42ee.)1
Rumour has it that the banker involved in the f the country.
Daprsdessourcesprochesdu ministre,ilseraitsur le point de
prsentersa dmission(see 4.,.450.b3)
Accordingtosourcesclosetotheministher,isabouttotenderhis
resignation.
(f)Youmaywishtoexpressreservationordoubtsaboutanotherpersons
statementindebatingsituatiInordern.todoso,youcanuseadverbssuchas
vraiment?,forcment!,pas pas ncessairement!:
Selonlesstatistiques,lconomiedelaFrancesten bon tat.
Vraiment?
According to statistics, the French economy is
or adjectivesceptique,suchas perplexe:
Vousditesquilnya que8% dechmagedanscettergion;javoue que
je sceptiquesuis. (see47.)10
You say/claim that there is only 8% unemployment say I find that hard to
believe.
Vous me voyezperplexe;je ne suis pas convaincue que ce
You can see Im confused; Im not convinced tha
or verbs doutersuchasde:
Vousprtendezquenotreservicenapasrponduvoslettresmais,
franchement,jendoute. (see12.b6)
Youclaim/state/saythatourdepartmenthasnotrepliedtoyourletters

but, frankly, I doubt that/have my doubts about t

ARGUMENTATION

291

and questions expressing reservation or doubt:

Etes-vous sr queces chiffressoient(orsont) exacts?(see39.2).1
Are you sure these figures are accurate?
Croyez-vousvraimentquecesoitle cas?(see39.2).1
Do you really believe thats true/this to be th
(g)Ina debatingsituation,intentionexpressreservationisoftenitroduced using polite
openingspermettezsuch-+infinitivemoiasde (same subject clauses)je
orvoudrais+infinitiveorque+subjunctive:
71
Permettez-moidmettrecertainesrservesquant lavaliditdecet
argument (see.71.b1)
Allowme toexpresscertainreservatiabonsutthevalidityoftheir argument.
Je voudraisfairepartau premieroateurdema perplexit lgard
destatistiques quil a(se15me.ntionnes,42.)4.
I would like to say to the first speaker that I statistics he gave/referred to.
or the conditional tense of verbs expressing reser
80% de participation aux prochainesCelamtonnerait!lections?
80% turnout at the next elections? Id be surpr
Jen seraisbientonne! (see12.b6)
Id be very surprised!/That would really surpri
Je nen mettrais pasma main au feu,si jtais(see33vous!.1).1
I wouldnt count on it, if I were you!
orimpersonalphrasesreferringbacktowhatisindoubtusingceque,cequi, cela:
Ce que vous venez davancerestproblmatique et discutable.(see15.11)
Whatyouhavejustsaid/Thepointyouhavejustputforwardis

problematic and debatable.

Vousnousaveztracunecourbeparfaitemaiscela ne refltepas
forcment la ralit.
Youhavesketched/drawnperfectcurve/pictureforus,butitdoesnot
necessarily reflect reality.
orimpersonalphrasesreferringforward towhatisindoubtusingilsemble
+adjective+que+subjunctive,ilya +vlierbu dexpressing reservatio

292

FUNCTIONS

Ilsemble trstonnantquunesifaibleproportiondelchantitllon
rpondu cette que(s39tionee.2,46.1.)3
Itisverysurprisingthatsucha lowproportionofthepeopleinthe sample
survey replied to the question.
Il y a lieu de sinterrogersur lamargederreurtolredansles
relevsde donnes que vous (see mentionnez15.,42.,461).
There is reason to doubt the margin of error in
71.2
Possibility and probability
These notions can be seen as representing two inte from doubt to certainty71.)1.
(see
(a) Some expressions can be used to expressil both y a deschances/une
.chanceNote the different constructions impersonal phrases34): (see
71
Il y a des chances pour que ledirecteurdesventesparte envoyage
dtude la semaine(possibrochaility)ne.
It is possible that the sales director will lea
Il y a de fortes chances quil prennelavion (probability)lundi.
Its likely that he will fly (out)/take the pla
Il y a peu de chances de pouvoir lecontacteravantsondpart.
(improbability)
Theres not much chance of being able to contac
Il ny a aucune chance de terminerlerapportempspourlelui
confier(impossibility).
Theres no possibility/chance of finishing the him.
(b)Peut-treis very commonly used to express possibili
either on its own as a response:
Comptes-tu garder cette vieillePeut-tre (bien),armoire?onverra.
Areyougoingtokeepthis/thatoldcupboard/wardrobe?maybe,Yes, well
see.
Alternativesincludeasepeut,asepourrait(bothinformal,spoken)(see
6.d3),(cest) possible, (ce nest)(see6.b3).pas impossible
or within a sentence and in various positions:

ARGUMENTATION

293

Peut-tre est-elledj partie(not. the inversion) Perhaps she

has already gone/left.
Peut-tre quelle voudrabien venir(informal,. spoken) Perhaps
shed like to come.
Elleest peut-tredj partie(noinversion).
Perhaps she has already gone/left.
(c) Thepouvoirverbis central to a number of expressions It can be followed by an
infinitive:
Un accidentpeutarriver tout moment.
An accident could happen at any time.
Attention!trainUnpeutencacher un autre(see12..b6) Warning!
Another train may be following.
orusedinanimpersonalexpressuchionasilsepeutque+subjunctive(see
39.2):.1
Ilse peut queles ruessoienttrsencombres cette heure-ci.
The streets may be full of traffic just now.
Il peut arriver que jeensoisretard mais cest vraiment(see trs 6.b3)
I may be late from time to time but its most u
andpouvoirandtheothexpressionscanbeusedintheconditionaltense(see
33.1):.5
71
Vite,allumeleposte,lespremierscoureurspourraientdjavoir
franchi la ligne (seedarrive45).
Quick/Hurry up, put on the TV, the first runners the finishing line already.
Vu les protestations,ilsepourrait leque
gouvernementfassemarche arrire(see.42.)1
In view of the protests the government may do a
Dans cette enqute, nous avons toujoursor recherc il pourrait sagirde la
mme personne!
During this investigation we have always been l but it might be (just) one
person!
(d)Finally,adjectivessuchaspossible,impossiblventuel,occurinvarious contexts
and can be used to express possibility an

 in impersonal expressions:

294

FUNCTIONS

Il nestpas impossiblequilsaillentenFrancependantlesvacances.
(see 39.2,46.1) Itsnotimpossible/ItsthattheyllgotoFranceduringthe
holidays.
Il mest impossiblede vous rencontreraujourdhui(same.subjectin
both clauses,de+infinitive)souse

I cant meet you today.

in verb phrases,rendreforexamplepossibletomake possible:
Ce changementdattitudelapartdugouvernementisralienrend
possibleuneamliorationdesrelationsdiplomatiquesentrelesdeux
pays.
ThischangeofattitudebytheIsraeligovernmentwillmakepossiblean improvement in
diplomatic relations between the t
or with nouns:
Malheureusement, vous devezaggravationenvisagventuellerunede
la maladie de votre pre au cours des mois veni
Regrettably,youwillhavetoconsiderthatyourfathersillnessmay
possibly get worse in the coming months.
(e) The corresponding nouns, or adverbs, are also
Lesvnementssurvenusdanslex-Yougoslavieprouventquela
possibilitdune guerreneput jamais totalementre
exclue(see41.,2. 42.)1
EventsintheformerYugoslaviademonstratethatthepossibilityof(a) war
can never be totally excluded.
Pourlencadrementdutableau,jeferaiventuellementappelun
spcialiste.
Ill probably get an expert to frame the pictur
(f)Sometimes,thelinebetweenpossibilityandprobabilityeasilycrossed,for example
simply by using an adverbbien:ofreinforcement
71
Regarde le ciel!bienIlquesembletemps va (seechanger46.)3.
Look at the sky! It looks like the weathers go
Ilsepourraitbien,ilestbienpossiblequ+subjunctivearetwopossible
alternativesonasdiraitwell asbienfor quemore informal language:

ARGUMENTATION

295

a alors!Ondirait bien quelquun a essay de forcer la p

Blow me! Youd think someone had tried to break
(g)Otheradverbialformsuch,assansdoute,certainemayent,beusedto express
probabilicertainty)not(. Note the inversion in the
Sans doute a-t-ellet obligede quittercettepicemomentanment
pour aller rpondre au(see25telephone.3).2.
She must have left the room for a moment to ans
Comme tunaspasencorergltafacture,ilsvontcertainement
vouloir te faire payer(see25des.3,45.2intrts.)3.
Sinceyouhaventpaidthebillyet,theyllprobablywantyoutopay
interest.
(h)And,ofcoursterms,whosemeaningsuggestsprobabilorimprobability
maybeused,invariouspositionsasentence,asimpersonalexpressions(see
46):
Ilesttrsvraisemblablequunnouveausecrtairegnralsera
nomm dici quelques (see 41,50jours.e)4.
Itisverylikelythatnewgeneralsecretarywillbeappointedfew days.
Il est peu probable que ledirecteurlicencsoitremplac avant
janvier (see.41)
Itisunlikelythatthemanagerwhohasbeenmaderedundantwillbe
replaced before January.
(i)Notethatnegativeformsoftheseimpersonalverbshavetobefollowedbya
verbinthesubjunctiveandalsothatthereisa tendencytousepeuor gure
vraisemblable/probableratherthaninvraisemblable/improbable.However, the
latter may be found in some cases:
Cest plusquimprobable,cest carrment impossible!
Its more than unlikely/improbable, its frankl
Terms whose meaning suggests probability or improb adverbs:
Les ngociationsontvraisemblablement chouen raisonde
lintransigeance des parti(s48ees.)4en prsence.
The negotiationshaveprobablybrokendown becauseof the intransigence of the
(two) sides/parties (involve

as adjectives:

296

FUNCTIONS

Latensioncroissantequisefaitjourlaisseaugurerunchecprobable
des ngociations(see43.,451..)4

The increasing tension makes a breakdown in neg

as nouns:
71
Selontoute probabilit,le tunnel ne sera pas ouvertdate au pub prvue.
It is quite likely that the tunnel will not be scheduled.
(j)Verbsplayanimportantpartinexpressingprobability,inparticulartheverb
devoir:
Tiens,ilnya plusdchaffaudage,lesouvriersontd le dmonter
pendant le week(se46-e.nd!)2
Look!ThescaffoldingsgoneThe.workmenmusthavetakenitdown/
dismantled it during the weekend.
Notrereprsentantdevraitpasservousvoiravecleschantillonsen
dbut de semaine prochaine(see50.b4).
Ourrepresentativeshouldcallonyouwithsamplesatthebeginningof next
week.
(k)Someverbsareusedspecificallytoexpresstheprobabilityofnegative
occurrencforexample,risquerde+infinitiveorcraindre(fort)que/avoir
peur+ne+ quesubjunctive:

(bien)

Lesdpensesoccasionnesparlecongrsriquentfortde
dstabiliser
lescomptesde
lorganisationpourlexerciencourse(see.42.,1 47.1).3
Theexpensesincurredbytheconferencemay/mightwellupsetthe organizations
budget for the present financial y
Je crains quil ne soittrop tard pour le cinma ilcar cest y ade fortes
chances pour quecesoit dj compl(s39eet.2).1
ImafraidthatitmaybetoolateforthecinemabecauseitsSaturday and its quite
likely that its already full.
Inthepreviousdoubleexample,notetheinsertionofneinthefirstpartofthe
sentence followingjecrains(seeque47.12).
(l)Ina previousexample(see 71.i),2theuseoflaisser+augurexpressing
probability was highlighted:

ARGUMENTATION

297

Latensioncroissantequisefaitjourlaisseaugurer
unchecprobable des ngociations.
Similar combinations arepermetavailable+infinitivedeeswi+infinitivehor
(see45.5):.1

La baisse des tauxpermetdintrtdenvisagerune reprise du march (de

l)immobilier.
The drop in interest rates suggests a recovery
A la suite des pluies torrentielles de la nuit d sont prvoirdans certaines
rgions.
After last nights torrential rain, flooding is
(m)Otherverbsintheconditionaltensemaybeusedtoexpressprobability(see
33.1):.5
Je parierais quil ne viendrapas.
I bet he wont come.
71
Cela mtonneraitque leproblmedlIrlandeduNordpuissetre
entirementrsoludici la fin (seede 39lanne.2,41,.50.e)4
ItwouldsurprisemeiftheNorthernIrelandproblemcanbefully resolved by
the end of the year.
The conditional tense is often used for forecastin (economic
forecast)Capital(Augustfrom 1994):

Aprsavoirreculde0,9%en1993,lePIB(ProduitIntrieurBrut)
devrait progressercette anne de 1,8%, selon lOCDEde (Org Coopration et
de Dveloppement.(see45Economiques).1.3
Having dropped 0.9% in 1993, the GDP (gross dome rise this year by 1.8%,
according to the OECD (Or Cooperation and Development).
Lesexportationsseraientlemoteurauxiliairedecttereprise.
Ellesprogresseraientde4,3%.Maisnossuccsltrangerseraient
insuffisantsRsultat:.notrexcdentcommercialdiminuerait
sensiblement en 1995.
Therecoverywillbeexport-ledExports.shouldriseby4.3%.But
ourresultsabroadwillnotbesufficientOur.balanceofpayments surplus will
consequently suffer a considerable d

298

FUNCTIONS

71.3
Condition and hypothesis
Althoughdifferentinmeaning,thesetwonotionsarecloseintermsofthe
structusedrBroadly,.whentherealizationofonefact(usuallyinthemain
clause)dependsontherealizationofanother(hypothesisorconditioninthe dependent
clause), then we have a hypothetical sen
(a)Siis commonly used in a complex sentence33.1):.1 of thi
Si le tmoinparle, laccusseracondamn. (see41)
If the witness talks, the accused will be found
Dis-letout de sisuite,tuveuxne pas y aller.
Say now, if you dont want to go.
Thehypothesiscanbesetinthepresent,inthepast,or,asinthefollowing example, in the
future. Particular attention has t
33.1):.1
Si legrand-prevenait disparatre,lespetits-enfantshriteraient
dune grosse fortune.
Iftheirgandfatherweretodie,thegrandchildrenwouldinheritavast
fortune.
Quand+appropriate tense (future or future 30):perfect)
Tu pourras quandsortuirauras terminton travail.
Youcangoout/leavewhenyouhavefinishedyourwork(note.the English
tense)
(b)Inalltheaboveexampleswithsi,notethatthecondition/hypothesismay become a
reality. In the following cases, however, be realized33.1):(see.1
71
Si javais jouma combinaison ceje seraisjourriche-l, aujourdhui.
If I had used my combination of numbers that da
Si je navais pas freintemps,jelaurais renverse!
If I hadnt braked in time, I would have knocke
(c) The following example illustrates an abstract p ofthetypesupposonsque/si
alors/dcecansareoftenused(withthe indicative):

Si x+2est gal alors6,x=4.

ARGUMENTATION

299

If x+2 equals 6, then x=4.

and note the hypothesis in the following example:
Supposons quil a prisle train dedans8h00,cecasil arrivera Nantes 12h30.
If he caught the 8 oclock train, he will arriv
(d) Other ways of expressing condition include: using clauses with the
conditional tenses
Au cas o vous ne seriezpas satisfaitde ceproduit,veuilleznous
le renvoyerdans son emballage dorigine.
If the item does not meet with your approval, p original packing.
Cetordinateurestmunidunemmoireauxiliairedanslhypoihse
o lammoiredisponibleseraitinsuffisantepour uneapplication
spcifique (see41.)
Thiscomputerhasexpandablecapacityshouldthememoryprove
inadequate for specific applications.
Sometimes, the condition is implied rather than ex colloquial, language:
Tulaurais vueleur crier aprs comme aune(Si vraietu deme lavais vue, tu
laurais commeprise moi pour une demeure.)
If youd seen her shouting at them like thata
Jauraislargent,jetelerendraistoutdesuite,crois-maiso,je
suisfauche!
Ifhadthemoney,Idgiveitbacktoyourightaway,believeme,but Im
broke!
using clauses with the subjunctive
Ce logiciel est trs simplecondition queutilisevousobservbien,ez
les premires consignes de(see39manipulation.2).2.

Thisoftwarepackageisveryeasytouse,providedyoufollowthe
instructions at the beginning.
La dlgation arrivera lhtel damoins quequelques
lautobusnaitprisduretard(no.theinsertionofne(see47.12))(see
39.2).2
The delegation will arrive at the hotel in a fe late.

300

FUNCTIONS

71
Dieu te pardonnera,pourvuque tu ailleste confes(se39er.2).2
God will forgive you, if you go to confession.
and less directly:
Que je vous trouve(subjunctive)encoretrainerdanslequartier,et
jappelle les(39eeflics!.)1
If I find you hanging about in the area any mor
using clauses with the indicative
Tu devrasenvisagerdiffrentespossibilitspourltprochain,selon
que tu auras obtenu ounontonpermisdeconduireenjuin(see.11.,2 30)

Youllhavetothinkaboutthedifferentpossibilitiesfornextsummer, depending on
whether or not you get your driving
Le tarifestdiffrent,suivantque vous faitesvotrerservationau
comptoir ou par tlphone.
Therateisdifferentaccordingtowhetheryoumakeyoureservation reception
or over the telephone.
using relative clauses or gerunds
Toutepersonnequi entreraitsansbadgedidentificationserait
immdiatement repre par(see4.la,415 camera.,41).
Anyone enteringorwho may/might( enter) without identif be picked up
immediately by the camera.
En signantcetteptitilauraitonprouvquilestvraimentoppos
aunuclaire(see33..1,43.5.)1
By signing/Ifhesignedthepetitionhewouldhaveprovedhereallyis
against nuclear power.
using phrases conditionsuchasor demoinsfollowedde by an infin (see39.)5
Vouspouveztousvenirprendreunverrechezmoi conditionde ne
pas fairetrop de bruit car les enfants(see47.)8 dorment.
Youcanallcomeandhave drinkmy houseprovidedyoudont
make too much noise because the children are asle
Ce problmescientifiqueestsicomplexequ moins de sunir,les quipes de
recherche ne pourront jamais(seeen dcouv 12.)6

ARGUMENTATION

301

This scientific problem is so complicated that the research teams will never (be
able to) find t
using a complement of conditionencas introducedde,sans,etc. avec,by
En cas de panne, lesvhiculessimmobilisentsurlabandedarrt durgence et
lquipe de mcaniciens intervient a
Ifthereisa breakdownthecarsstopinthemergencylaneandthe
mechanics get to work immediately.
Sans chanes,vous navez aucun espoir de franchir le
Without wheel-chains youve no hope of getting
71
using forms where the condition is implied, for in apposition
Demande-lui,tu verras, il te donnera exactement la m
Ask him and youll see, hell give you exactly
Une fois dbarrasss de leur dette,lespaysdu tiers-monde pourraientenfin
organiser leur propre dveloppement.
Iftheywerefreeoftheirdebthird,worldcountriescouldatlast organize their
own development planning.
(e) Finally, it is interesting tosupposerloktomorese clhoselw
differentformsconveydifferentnuancesofmeaningSupposer.que(or
equivalentexpressions)+indicativesusedtomakortocheckanassumption. This is an
alternative way of expressing71.):2 probabili
Il est maintenantjesuppose10h00,quele facteurestpass.
Its 10 oclock. I suppose the postman has been
Je suppose queturestesdner?
I suppose/assume youre staying to eat/for dinn
Jacqueline jePprsumenet,? Louis Legrand, enchant.
Jacqueline Pernet, I presume? Louis Legrand, d
However,withsupposonsque,ensupposantque, supposerque,youcan indicate a
hypothesis and you use the subjunctive:
Supposons que deslectionsaient lieuen juin,quellessontvos
prdictions?(see 39.2,71.2.c)3
Supposethelectionstakeplace/areheldinJune,whatisyourforecast on the
result?

302

FUNCTIONS

Withsupposer(orcoire)+adjective, you can indicate an assu

Il est parti avec une autre alorssupposquelfidle. lavait
He hasleftwithsomebodyelseandshehadalwaysthoughthewas
faithful (to her).
and withsupposer+noun, you can express a condition:
Tout crimesuppose un coupable.
If theres a crime theres a guilty person.
(f)Tosummarize,thefollowingexamplefromCapital(August1994)contains several forms
contained in this section under cond possibility:
La haussedestauxlongsi, elle persiste,viendra alourdir le
financementdesdficitspublicsSices. derniersse creusent(cestfort

probable lapproche des chances lecentralestorales), les

pourrontdifficilement continuer a rduireles taux cecoquirts,risque
de freinerla reprise.
Iftheriseinlong-terminteratesestpersisitwills,causedifficultiesin
thepublicsectorborrowingrequirementIfpublic.spendingincreases
(whichishighlikelyasthenextelectionapproaches),thecentrbalnks
willfinditdifficulttoreduceshort-terminterestrates,andthiswillslow down the
recovery.
71
72
Expressing logical relations

Cause(see 72., 172.and2consequence(see 72., 372.)4areinseparablenotions

and both are often present, explicitly or implicit Particular emphasis can be
given to either. In th although distinct in 72meaning,.)5canbeaimfairly(see close
to con
terms of means of expression.
72.1 Cause
explicit
The emphasisexplicitlymaybeon cause through:
(a) The meaning of individual words, either nouns:

ARGUMENTATION

303

La raison deson chec est simple: elle na rien fait c

The reason for her failure/she failed is simple year.
Cettecirculaireministrieprsentellelacause de tousnos
problmes.
This government (ministerial) circular is at th
or verbs expressing cause:
Le nouvelengouementpourloprasexpliquepar lanotoritde Pavarotti
pendant la coupe du monde de football.
The/This new craze for opera is because of Pava the World Cup (football)
series.
or passive forms:
Ledsquilibredelabalancommercialeestcaus par (or estd)
un excs dimportations(see41).
The deficit in the balance of trade is a result
or adjectives:
Daprslesexperts,larecrudescencertainesmaladiesserait
imputable la pollution atmosphrique(see4.,433.1).5.
Accordingtothexperts,therenewedoutbreakofsomediseasesdue to
air pollution.
(b) Prepositional phrases used48.):4 with a noun (see
Les agriculteurs secauseplaignentdumauvais temps.
Farmers are complaining about/because of the ba
Les rendements agricolesaugmentgrceontaux bonnes
conditions mtorologiques.
The harvestshaveimprovedas a resultof favourableweather conditions.
Note thatcauseanddegrce respectively,, introduce a negat
causeorreasonE.raisondeisusuallyneutralandcouldthereforebeusedas
an alternative to either.
72
When the cause is the absence ofautesomething,de: you c
Faute dautres moyens de transport,nous allons tre obligsdu de stop.

304

FUNCTIONS

Because there is no other kind of transport, we hike.

Whenthecauseisconnectoedtimeorduration,usesousleffdeort force de:
La temprature devraitsousleffetbaisserdelaspirine.
His/Her temperature shouldorbecausegodownof)withthe( aspiri
A force de persvrance,ilfinirabienpardcrochersondiplme.
(see45.)5
If he perseveres, he will get his diploma. Single
prepositionsde,par,such,mayaspouralso be used, with nou
Il est maladechagrin.
He is sick with grief.
Cet homme a quitt son travailparamouretduvoyagesafamille.
The man left his job and his family because of
or with infinitives:
Tu te ruines lafumersantautant!
Youll ruin your health if you smoke so much/wi
Cet employ a t licenciavoirprovoquunepourbagarre dans les
vestiaires.
Theemployeewassackedforcausingdisturbanceinthcloakroom/ changing
room.
(c) Conjunctions:
For a straightforward explarcenation,que:you can use
Nest-il pas en situationparcequepersonnedchneclencourage?
Is he notunderachievingbecausenobodyis givinghim any
encouragement?
In order to state categoricallycar:(rather than expla
Le professeur ne viendracar ilpaset cemalade.matin
The teacher wont be here this morning because
NOTE A clause introducedcarisnever
byusedfirstin the complex sentence.

ARGUMENTATION

305

PuisqueemphaticaswellascausalInthe.followingexample,thecauseis
shown to be the decisive factor for the resignation person you are speaking to.
Puisque vous ne voulez pas maugmenter,je dmissionne.
Since you will not increase my pay/salary, I am
Note that when there is morequeintroducesthanone cause,theother ca
72
Lesfemmesviventpluslongtempsqueleshommesparce
quellese
proccupentdavantagedeleursantetquellesont
moinsujettes
certains accidents.
Womenlivelongerthanmenbecausetheyaremoreconcernedabout
their health and (because) they are less prone to
To express a logical connection betweencomme:two facts,
Comme il refusait de manger,sa mre a fait venir(see45le.,3 mdecin 45.5).1
Because he was refusing to eat, his mother call
and to reinforce a statementdautantexpressing (seeque49.c):cause,9 use
Tu pourrais prendredautantfroid,quetu nas presque surriendos!le
Youll catch cold, because youve hardly any cl
When you want to cast some doubt on sousagivenprtextecause, que+
indicativede+infinitive:or
Bon nombre dtudiants ntaient souspasprtexteencours ce que les
rousontenneiges. (see22.,223.3).1
A lotofstudentswerenotinclassthismorning,supposedlybecauseof the
snow on the roads.
When speaking and/orsiforcestmphasiorcestque,quemay be used:
Sils ne sont pasencorecestl,quils ont ratlautobus.
If theyre not here/there yet, its because the
Cest cause de lui que tu pleures?
Are you crying because of him?
Jesprece quenest pas parce que nous arrivons que vous! partez
I hope its not because were arriving that you

306

FUNCTIONS

Whenthecauseisdenied,nonqueorcenestpasquemaybeusedwiththe subjunctive.
This is a particularly useful device
Je ne suis pas daccnonrdqueavosec vous,chiffressoientinexacts, mais
parce que votre interprtation me parat fau
I dont agree with you, not because your figure but because your interpretation
of them seems wro
(d) Adverbs ensucheffetorastant:
Useen effetto emphasize your point:
On peutdirequelesjeunesreprsententunecatgorievulnrablesur
lemarchdutravailEneffet,.commelindiquecetableau,leursemplois
sont souvent prcaires.
Onecan/couldsayyoungpeoplearevulnerablegroupinthelabour market. Indeed, as
this table indicates, they oft
72
andtantto put emphasis on the cause:
Il fait le vide tantautourilest deagressif.lui
He alienates everyone, hes so abrasive!
72.2
Causeimplicit
Cause may be conveyedimplicitlyin various ways:
(a) in apposition:
En voyanttout ce sang, la passante(see 42sest.,43) vanouie.
When she saw all the blood the passer-by fainte
Dcourags par desmthodespoliciresviolentlesjeunes, adhrents du
parti ne pouvaient(see42plus.)1 se mobiliser
Repelledbytheviolentmehodsofthepolice,youngpartysupporters withdrew
their support.
Crev comme tu les,tu ne pourras jamais rouler(see42.)1 de nuit.
Youre so exhausted youll never be able to dri
Furieux devant un teldploiementde CRS (Compagnie
RpublicainedeScurit),lesmanifestaontcommencsjeterdes
pierres leurdans direction.
OutragedbythesheernumbersofCRS(riotpolice)thedemonstrators began to
stone them.

ARGUMENTATION

307

(b) in separate clauses:

Lavoituretanttombe en panne lentreduvillage,nousavonsd
faire le reste du chemin(see43.)1 pied.

Becausethecarbrokedownaswewerenteringthevillagewehadto go
the rest of the way on foot.
Lesvoitures,quimenacent la vieurbaine,doiventtreliminesdu
centre de (seeParis15.)1.
Cars,whicharethreatening(thequalityoflifein)thecity,mustbe banned
from the centre of Paris.
Jerefusedadopterunepropositionquina aucun sens.(see15.,1
47.)8
I refuse to adopt a meaningless proposal.
(c)Sometimes,inparticularwhenspeaking,thecausalrelationmightbesimply suggested
by context, intonation or, when writing,
Il ne va pas venir aujourdhui, il est malade.
He is not coming today, he is ill.
and in a newspaper report:
Tempte en Bretagne: cinq pcheurs ports disparu
Storm in Brittany: five fishermen reported lost
Ifyouconsiderthefirstofhetwoexamples,themansabsence(thecontext) wouldbe
thecauseofthisexplanationByadding.approprinatonatione
(indicatingpleasure,sadness,regret,indifferencetothesecond)clauseilst
malade,andanappropriateGallicshrug,youcanconveythecause,andwhat you think
about it.
72
72.3
Consequenceexplicit
When the emphasisexplicitlyonis consequence:
(a)Ifyouwantoindicateneutrwalythelogicalresultofa factoran action, use
clausesi introducbienordequesortedby que:
Cestuncerclevicieux:lesjeunessansdomicilenontpardfinition pas
dadressesibien quon ne leur confiedemploipas.
Its vicious circle: if young people are homele they cant get a job.
(consequence)

308

FUNCTIONS

Lescolisonttpostscematinde sortequilsarriverontenFrance
avant Nol(see39..2).2
TheparcelswerepostedthismorningsotheywillarriveinFrance before
Christmas. (result)
(b)Inordertostresstheimportanceoftheconsequence,youmayuseaupoint que
(see39.2):.2
La maladieladfigure,aupoint quelle en est devenue
mconnaissable.
The disease disfigured her to such an extent th
or structurestantsuchde,asi, tant, withtellement nouns21):que(see
Tant dannes ont passdepuislaccident que je ne men
rappellaeplus date exacte.
ItssolongsincetheaccidentthatIcantrememberthexactdateany
more.
or with adjectives 10or.):10adverbs (see
Ceconflitessicomplexe etduredepuissilongtemps quilsemble
que personne ne trouvera de solution.
The conflict is so complex and has gone on for no-one will find a solution to it.
or with verbs:
Votrefilsatellementprogressdepuislandernierquilse
retrouveen tte de classe.
Your son has made so much progress since last y of the class.
In a sense, such double structures put emphasis on
Le gouvernementesttellementcorrompu
(cause)quilninspireplus confiance qui(consequence).
Thegovernmentissocorruptthatitnolongerinspiresconfidencein anyone.
72
Notethatyouhavetousethesubjunctivewhenthesentenceisnegativeor
interrogative:

ARGUMENTATION

309

Il nest tout de mme pas si tard que vousdjdeviezpartir!

But its not so late that you have to leave (al
Leur filsa-t-vraimenttant detravailquil ne puisse mme pasleur
rendre visite Nol?
Has their son really so much work that he cant
(c)Prepositionssuchapourand mayalsobeusedtoexpressconsequence. Pourmay be
combined with tropadverbsorassezinsuchconstructionsas s as
trop/assez+adjective+pour+infinitive
trop/assez+adjective+pour que+subjunctive
or with impersonal verbs such as
ilsuffitde+infinitive(ornoun)+pour+infinitive(orpourque+ subjunctive)
il faut+subjunctive+quepour+infinitiveorpour (que+subjunctive)
Mes collguessontassez jaloux pour avoir essay de me faire
licencier.
My colleagues are jealous enough to have tried
Certainspensentquecetcrivafficheintrop dexcentricitpour
quon le prenneau srieux(see39..2).2
Somepeoplethinkthatthis/thewriteristooeccentrictobetaken seriously.
Ilsuffitdun boncafpour se redonnerdu tonus.
A good coffee is enough to get your energy back
Il fauttoujoursgraisserle moulepour que le gteau nattache. pas
Always grease the tin so that the cake does not
A andau pointaredealso followed by an infinitive:
Je vais vous annoncer vousunecoupernouvellesouffle!
Im going to announce some news which will take
Les chmeurs de longue dure peauventpoint detrene dpri plus fairele
moindre effort pour trouver(see47.)8 du travail.
Thelong-termunemployedcanbesodepressedthattheywillnotmake
any effort to find work.
(d)ConjunctionsoradverbsmayalsobeusedtoexpressconsequenceSome.
alwaysintroducetheclausecontainingtheconsequencfore,xamplecest
pourquoi,aussi,do,whileotherscanmove withinthesentencforexample,
donc, par consqueennsquence,t, ainsi, ds lors:

310

FUNCTIONS

Les ouvriers ont saccagcestpourquoilusine;ilsont t (selicencis. 41.1).1

The workers vandalized the factory; thats why
72
Notre VRP (Voyageur Reprsentant Placier) parcou
forteschaleursestivalesAussi.avons-nomunissonvhiculede fonction dun
systme de climatisation.
Ourrepresentativecoversanarea/regionwhichcanbecomeveryhotin
summer. So, we have installed air-conditioning in
Vousmavezrembours,jeretiredonc ma plainteorVous.mavez
remboursetdoncje retire ma plainte.
You have repaid me so Im withdrawing my compla
La dlgationjaponaiseeuunempchementdedernireminute. En
consquence,nousprionstousleserviconcernsesdannulesr
rservationsetautresarrangementsinitialementprvuspourla
journe de demain(see2.)3.
TheJapanesedelegationweredelayedatthelastminuteTherefore,.we
areaskingallthedepartmentsconcernedtocancelbookings/reservations and other
arrangements originally made for tomorr
Mesdamesetmessieurslejurs,vousavezdsormaisentendutous
les tmoins ayant expos leur (see50version.)1Vousdisposezdesfaits.
ainside toutes les informationsdlibrationsncessares. vos
Ladiesandgentlemenofthejuryou,havenowheardallthewitnesses
(givetheirversionofthevents)You.thereforehavealltheinformation necessary
to help you reach a verdict.
Les forces de police ont tolr, voireDs particip lors,on
nepeutstonnerquedestroupeauxentiersdlphaientnts
t dcims dans cette(se39.2,rgion41..1).1.
The police have turned a blind eye to, and have
ivorytradeSo,.itisnosurprisethatntireherdsofelephantshavebeen destroyed in the
area.
Notethevariousnuances:cestpourquoi,aussi(withinversionoftheverb), donc,ds
lorsstress the undeniable logicen consquenceoftheisconsequ often used in a
formal admininsistrativecanallowcontext,youto andsum and draw a conclusion from
an argument.
(e) Like cause, consequence may be conveyed simpl individual nouns:
Les effetsde la rcessionsefontparticulirsentirmentdanscertains
secteurs(40ee..,452.)3
The effects of the recession are being felt par
Tu ne te rends pasconsquenccomptes destes actes!

You arent aware of the consequence of your act

ARGUMENTATION

311

or verbs:
Les cruesontentrandnormes problmes aux(seeEtats4.)2-Unis.
The flooding has caused enormous problems in th
72
Lutilisationcroissantedesmatiresplastiquessetraduitpar une
dgradation de lenvironnement(see41).
Increasinguseof plasticshaledto/resultedindamagetothe
environment.
72.4
Consequenceimplicit
(a)Justasinthecaseofcause,sometimesthereisnoexplicitcohesivedevice between two
independent clausesimplied. byConsequencecontext, intonais or
punctuation72.):2(see
Vous tes rentrs tout lheure avec desla chaussu moquette est couverte
de taches!
Youcameina fewmomentsagowithyourshoescoveredinmud,and the
carpet is covered in marks.
NotetheuseofthepronouneinthefollowingexampleItrefers.backtothe cause in the
clause containing the consequence:
Cetexerciceestbeaucouptropcompliqu,jenperdsmonlatin(see.
12.c)6
This exercise is much too difficult, I cant ma
(b)Insomecases,inparticularwhenspeaking,etisusedbutthecontext indicates that there
is in fact a cause/consequenc
Jai senti que quelquunetje me suissuivaitmise courir.
I sensed someone was following me and I began t
(c) Relative clauses may also be used:
Le camion heurtlavoiturequi a faitdeux tonneaux avantde
simmobili(se15re.,391.)5
The lorry hit the car which somersaulted twice

312

FUNCTIONS

72.5
Aim
(a) The same conjunctions72.a)3may be(seeused to express both
andaimFor.instance,thefollowingexamplethereisnotenoughcontextto indicate
whether the result was intended (aim) or
Il sest malde conduitsortequeses voisinsneviennent plusle voir.
He behaved badly to stop his neighboursorHe coming t
behavedbadlysohisneighboursdontcometoseehimanymore. (consequence)
Ifaimisintended,viennentissubjunctiveIfitisconsequence.thatismeant,
viennentisinfactthepreseindicative(see39.2).In2thefollowingexample, the
distinction is clearer:
Jentretiens made sortevoitquellere encoresoit en bon dixtat dans ans.
(aim)
Ilookaftermycarsothatitwillstillbeingoodconditionintenyears time.
72
Jentretiensmavoituredesorte quelleest encore bontat (malgr
son(consequence)ge).
I look after my car so that it is still in good
Similarly,pourquecanintroduceanaim(pourqueisalways
followedbythe
subjunctivesothdistinctionbetweenaimandconsequenceisoftenclearonly
because of context):
Cettecoleimposeluniformepourque leslvessoienttousurun
pied dgalit.
The school insists on uniforms so that the pupi
and compare:
Tu es maintenantgrand assezpourqueje fassetecertainesconfidences
sur ma vie.
You are adult/old enough now for me to tell you
Ifindoubtaboutdifferencebetweenaimandconsequence,tryaddingthe
emphaticcest.queIfitworks,itisaim,ifnot,itisconsequenceLetustest.this with
the previous examples:

ARGUMENTATION

313

Cest pour que leslvessoienttousurun piedgalitquecette

coleimposeluniforme(This.makesense,itworks:o=aim)Itsto
make all the pupils equal that the school insists
Cestpour que jetefassecertainesconfidencessurma vieque tues
maintenant assez(Thisgrandoes. not make sense, it does
so the original statement expressed is not an a
Sometimes, in particular pourafterqueisan abbreviatedimprative,que: to
Tourne un quepeu,jevoiela coupe de ce mainteau.
Turn round a bit so that I can see the cut of t
Otherconjunctwillonsallowyoutoexpressthenotiofnanobjectiveto reached,
for exafinmple que, de +subjunctivefaonque39.(see2):.2
Jaiconvoqutoutlepersonncematinlafin que lecalendrierde
lannevnir puissetre tabli.
Ivecalledthestafftogetherthismorningsothattheplanning/ schedule for the
year can be organized.
Ilfaudraitraccourcirlevoiledefaon quilne tombe pas plusbas
quela taille de votre robe.
Youd/Id have to shorten the veil so that it d of your dress.
orwhatyouaimtoavoid, forexampled peurque,de crainteque+ne
+subjunctive39.2(see):.2
Cettefemmea cachlexistdencesonenfantdepeur que leservices
sociauxnelui retirentla garde.
Thewomanconcealherchildsexistencetoavoidthesocialservices taking
him/her away from her.
72
Le PDG (Prsident-DirecteurGnral)veutformerlui-mmeson
jeunecollaborateurdecraintequil ne soit pas lahauteurdes
nouvelles responsabilits qui lui incombent.
Thechairman/managingdirectorwantstotrainhisyoungassistant
himselftoensurehisuptohisnewresponsibiliti(incaseheis.notup
to them)
Be careful to distinguish nebetweenfollowingdethepeurexpletive(inquethe first
example 47above).12and(seethe negationpas(in the second one
(b)Prepositionsmayalsobeusedwhenyouareaimingatsomething,with
nouns:

314

FUNCTIONS

Cette promotion, tulalagloirvouepourxpourlagent?

Do you want this promotion for the prestige or
De nombreuxmnagesfontdesconomiesenvue dune
escapade estivale(see4..)2
Many families save up for a summer jaunt.
or infinitives:
Afin dviter lavenircesproblmesdecash-flow,nousdevrons
exigerdenosclientsquilsrglentleursfacturapidementes(see.
39.2,39.1.)5
To avoidcash-flowproblemsinfuturwe,mustrequestthatour customers
settle their invoices quickly.
Elle prend des coursdanslintentiondusoirde passerun
concoursle mois prochain.
She is taking evening classes in order to sit a
or when you areavoidingaimingsomeathing:
Ilsestlev5h00dumatinde peur dtreenretardsonentretien.
(see39.)5
He got up at five in the morning because he was for his interview.
Par craintedes incendies,lespropritairesdsireuxdelouerdes
chambresdtudiantsdoiventinstallerdesdtecteursdefume(see.
39.)5
Becauseofincreasedfirerisk,householderswishingtorentroomsto
students must install smoke detectors.
(c)A relativeclausewillallowyoutobemorespecificabouttheaimIn.the following
example note the use of the subjunctive of the office in39question.):3 (see
Pourtablirnotresigedanscetteville,nousommes larecherche dun
bureauquisoitassez proche du centre.
To set up our headquarters in this city, we are the centre.
(d)Finally,youmayexpressaimthroughmeaningofnounsandnoun phrases:
73
Les starlettes dambulaientdans surlebut/la seuleCroisettefinde
faire remarquerpar les cinastes(see39.)5.

ARGUMENTATION

315

StarletswanderedalongtheCroisette(inorder)tobe noticedby
directors.
or verbs and verb phrases:
Cest un artiste provocateurcherchefaie quiragirson public.
Hes a provocative performer in that he tries t
or a combination of verbs and nouns:
Grce dhabilesmanuvresdanslentreprise,ilapuatteindreles
objectifsquilvisait. (see15.,482.)4
By clever/skilledmanuvrinthegcompanyhemanagedtoachieve his
aims.
73
Expressing opposition
Naturally, opposition is related63.),2 toconcessiondisagreement65.),2(see ( prote(s
tee66),lackofvolition(see 69.)5and prohibition(see 70.)2.However,
itisappropriatetobringtogetherinthissectionmeofthemanyformswhich
allowyoutoexpresstheabsenceoflogicalre ations(see72)andtoassociate
independentfacsetagainstoneanotherAlthough.therearexplicitwaysof associating
opposing ideasespecially through the as
bienquealthough,sialthough,quiquewhoeveropposingor contrasting ideas are
very often linked by apposit
(a) Prepositionsmalgr,suchavec,asmaysansbe used with nouns:
Le btimentatpartiellementdtruitpar lincendiemalgr
linterventionrapide des pompiers.
The buildingwas partiallydestroyedbyfiredespitheswift intervention of
the firemen.
En dpit du succs obtenupar la Communaut,toutesles
ralisationsespresaumomentde
sa
fondationnontpast
concrtis(s41ese.,42.)1
In spite of the success of the Community, not al when it was created have been
achieved.
In some cases, foravecexampleorsans,oppositionwith is less explic
Avec son air innocent,elle est capable desdiaboliquesctes. plus
Despiteherinnocentappearancsheis,capableofthemostdiabolical actions.

316

FUNCTIONS

Whenrealistydifferentfromwhatmighthavebeenexpected,youcanuseau
lieude orloinde iftheemphasison whatdidnot takeplaceThese.
prepositional phrases are followed by infinitives:
73
Contre toute attentle, chauffeur sest engagau lieudansde une ru
prendrelartre principale.
Contrary to all expectations, the driver went d of taking the main road.
Loin dapaiserle dbat, les propos de lvque ont pr gnral.
Insteadofcalmingthediscussion,thebishopswordsprovokedgeneral
uproar.
Notethereinforcementofoppositioninthefirstexamplebytheuseofcontre
touteattente (see73c).
(b)Ifyouwishtosaythatpartofsomethisngexcludedfromthewhole,use
sauf,except,part,sicenest,hormis, andsinonfollowianegative clause:
Tous les cours, sauf sontun, assurs le matin.
All the classes except one take place in the mo
Tous lescours sontassurslematin,exceptlanglaisquia lieule
mme jour 18h00.
Alltheclassestakeplaceinthemorning,exceptEnglishwhichisat6 p.m.
on the same day.
Aucun livrenelesintresse, sinonles bandes dessines.
They are not interested in any books except com
(c)Clausesmaybeintroducedbyorcontadverbs,inoradverbialphrasessuch
asaucontraire,parcontreusuallyreferringbacktoa previousstatement/
sentence:
La FrancesembletretrsfavorablelUnionEconomiqueet
Montaire; le Royaumecontraire,-Uni,ne cache rticencepassa.
FrancesemstobeverymuchinfavourofEconomicandMonetary Union; the UK, on
the other hand, is clearly relu
Une dpressiontrsactivearrivesurle nord.Par contre,
lanticyclonedesAorescontinueraprotgerle bassin
mditerranen(see45..5).1
A deepdepressionisapproachingnorthearneasBut.theanticyclone over the Azores
will ensure calm weather over the

ARGUMENTATION

317

NOTE Contrefeaturesinmanysetphrase.s,nager.contrecouranto
swimagainstthecurrentre,contrenaturetobeunnatural,withouta definite
article4.)4. (see

The following are examples where opposition is sug intheuseofenvain,finalement

(emphasizedbycestqueinthesecond example):
Lesmdecinsonttenten vain (or ont vainement tent)
deleranimer. (see45.5).1
The doctors have tried without success to reviv
73
Berlusconiavaitannoncquilviendraitttehaute;cestfinalement

profilqubasil sest prsent devant(see31,40les.)2 juges.

Berlusconihadannouncedthathewouldcomewithisheadheldhigh;
in the end he kept a low profile in front of the
Note how the seuladjectiveimplis a contrast in the following
LensembledelaCEI(CommunautdesEtatsIndpendants)sera
souslapluieSeules. MoscouetStPtersbourgaurontleplaisirde
quelques claircies.
RainwillaffectmostoftheCIS(theformerUSSR)Moscow.andSt
Petersburg will have some sunny spells.
(d) Cohesive devicesmais, suchnanmoins,as quand mme, pourta
pasmoins,areveryusefulforexpressingoppositionTheyalso.referbacktoa
previoussentenceorclause,ortoanexpressioninapposition(see 65.)2.Note
that two of the devices occur in the first example
IlneigerasurlensembdelEcossemaislesoleilferananmoins son
apparition sur la partie est du pays.
TherewillbesnowthroughoutScotlandbutwithsomesunnyspellsin the
east (of the country).
Appelsmanifestlesr,Milanaissontpourtant venusmoins
nombreux que les journalistes.
The Milanese had been called on to demonstrate fewer demonstrators than
journalists.
Accullafaillite,nen est pas moins dcid acqurirune
deuxime entreprise.
Despite his bankruptcy, he was determined to ac

318

FUNCTIONS

(e)Clausesmaybeintroducedbyconjunctionssuchaalorsqueortandisque
to express opposition and simultaneity, with the i
Alors que desmillionsdemploisseperdaientencoredanslapremire
moitidesannes80,desmillionsdemploisnouveauxont depuislors
t crs. (see 26.,41)
Millionsfjobswerestillbeinglostinthearly1980s;ubsequently
millions of new jobs have been created.
Lailedroitedu partisocialistesoutintlapropositandisionque
lextrme gauchednonce avecla vigueur.
The right wing of the socialist party is backing being condemned strongly by the
far left.
and by conjunctionsbien sque,ch asquoique, although,malgrque with
subjunctive39.2(see):.2
Bien quil soitde nature essentiellement conomique,de le mesuresprenden
comptelaprotectiondelenvironnementdu consommateur.
Althoughitisessentiallyaneconomicplan,themeasurestakeinto account
environmental and consumer protection.
73
Si is frequentlyusedto expressopposition(herereinforcedby
immanquablement)orconcessionItdoes.notintroduaconditeinonthe following
example and, therefore, is not restricte for expressing conditions:
Si lesproblmesdeBernardTapienetouchentpasdirectementles
socialistes,ilsvontimmanquablement affaiblirllectordegauchet.
(see25.3).2
Although Bernard Tapies problems do not affect they will inevitably weaken the
socialist vote.
Andthereareconjunctionssuchaquandbienmme,mmesievenifwith the
conditional in the main clause:
Quand bien mme il moffrirait lpouseraislune,pasje. ne
Even if he offered me the moon, I wouldnt marr
Mme si lesforcesde lONU(OrganisationdesNationsUnies)
intervenaientrapidement,touslescivilsnepoutraientpastresauvs
du massacre.
EveniftheUN forcesweretointervenequickly,notallthecivilianscould be
rescued from the massacre.

ARGUMENTATION

319

(f)Sometimemphasisplacedon particuelementsarinthesentence
expressingoppositiforn,example,onthenounNote.thewiderangeof
concessiveconstructionssuchaquelque(adjective)whatever,quelque
(adjective)+noun+quewhatever,quelqueque,aussique,toutque,si
quehowever(adverb)+subjunctivewhichimplyopposition(see39.2),.and2

focus on an element in the sentencein the followi

Quels que soient les exercices donns,cetlve refuse de les fair
Whatever exercises are set, this pupil refuses
Quelques avertissementsque lon communique (subjunctive),ilya
toujoursdesgensquiskienthors-pisteetsexposentauxrisques
davalanche(s11.e.a11)
Whatever warnings are given, there are always p and expose themselves to the
risk of avalanche.
andinthefollowingexamplesonpastparticiplesandadjectives,andinthelast one
on an adverb:
Quelque dtermines quelles soicesnt, deux tudiantesnobtiendront
pasdtreinscritesdanslemme groupede travauxdirigs(ee. 11.b11)
Howeverdeterminedtheyare,thesetwostudentswontsucceedin
getting into the same tutorial group.
Notethatinthiscasequelqueisanadverb,andisthereforeinvariable,whereas
inthepreviousexamplequelques(avertissements)anadjectiveAn. alternative way of
saying the same thing would be:
Aussi dterminesquellessoient,cesdeuxtudiantesnobtiendront
pas dtre inscrites dans le mme groupe de trava
Similarly, note in the followitoutcangbexadverb(toutmplechrtiens)how or
adjective(toutes pieus(see11.),s)1 with the indicative:
73
Tout chrtiensquilssont,ilsnefontpreuvedaucunecompassionet
toutes pieuses quelles paraissent,lagnrosit leur est inconnu
However Christian they may be, they show no comp pious they seem, they do
not know the meaning of
Finally,anexamplewithsidespitethfactthat,however,focusingan adverb:

320

FUNCTIONS

Si mal quillise,leConseildeclassedcidelautoriserpasser dans

la classe suprieure.
Despithefactthatheisnota goodreader,thestaffmeetinghas
decided to allow him to proceed to the next year.
(g)Concessiverelativepronounsquiquewhoever,oquewherever,quoi
que whatever, with the subjunctive,39.2):.2 can be used (
Qui que ce soit,je ne suis pas l!
Whoever it is, Im not here!
O que vous vous cachiez,vous ne mchapperez pas.
Wherever you hide, you wont get away from me.
Ils ne seront pasquoi daccord,quetudises.
They wont agree, whatever you say.
And sometimes oppositimplicitionrelativeis clauses (with the
Imaginez-vousquecetexte,qui comporte plusieurserreurs,a t
slectionn pour lpreuve(s15e.de,41.franais!)1
Canyouimagine,thistext,whichasseveralerrorsinit,hasbeen chosen
for the French exam!
(h)Of course,thereareotherimplicitwaysofexpressingoppositiforn; example, by using
apposition or simply in the mean
Tu peux diretoutce que tu voudras,jenechangerpasidavis(see.
15.11).1
You can say anything you want, I wont change m
On a beau placerdespoubellessurlesparkings,lesgenscontinuent
jeter leurs ordures(seenimporte11.c,1345.)5 o.
Eventhougherearelitterbinsincarparks,peoplewillcontinueto throw
their rubbish any old place.
orthroughtheuseofdifferentparofstheverbsuchastheimperativeorthe conditional tense
especially when72.,72speaking.):4 (see al
Crie si a te dfoule, je ne te donnerai pas ce liv
Make as much noise as you like, I wont give yo
On medonneraittout lor du monde que a ne changera dcision!
Even if they gave me all the money in the world mind.

ARGUMENTATION

321

(i)Finally,itiswellworthnotingtheuseofantitheswhichs,isoftenusedfor stylistic reasons in

literature, and exploited ful
youtoexpresseverythinganditsoppositeExamples.oftheseshortsharp symmetrical
formulae or slogans abound in advertis
74
Minimir,miniprixmais il maximumfait le.(washing powder) Minimir
(=Persil, Daz), miniprice maxijob!
Un petit clicvaut miequunx grand choc! (safety belt)
A little click is better than a big bang!/Clunk
74
Structuring
Whether you want to give a presentation, make a sp
essay/reportinterveneameeting,whatyousayorwritewillhavemore impact if it is
structured. Broadly, you will need
andconclusionInthissecti.youn,willfindanumberofusefulformsunderthree
headings:Beginning (introduction)(see 74.);1Continuing(middlesection)(see
74.);2 Ending (conclusion)74.3. (see
74.1
Beginning
(a) The very beginning
Before getting to the topic itself, it is advisabl
whenyoutakethefloor(infrontofyourclassmatesorinanyformalspoken context),
sometimes cestemphasisedque: by
Cestun grand plaisirque devousprsenteraujourdhuimonexpos
sur lenseignement suprieur en Belgique.
It is a great pleasure for me to give a paper t Belgium.
Cestpourmoiun grand honneur que depouvoirmadresserun
public dminents experts.
Itisagreathonourforme tobeabletoaddressanaudienceofeminent
experts.
Alternatively, je/nousyou+verbcanusephraseorverb+infinitive:

322

FUNCTIONS

Je suistrsheureux de pouvoirprononcerlallocutionde
bienvenuedans un
cadreaussimagnifique(same.subjectinbothclausessousede +infinitive)

I am verypleasedtobeabletogivethewelcomingaddressinuch
magnificent surroundings.
Nous apprcionsdavoirt invites prsenterlesrsultatsdenos
recherches dautres(41eetudiants.)2.

We arepleasedtohavebeeninvitedopresentouresearchfindingsto
fellow students.
Attheverybeginning,tisquiteusualtoreferback toanevent/afactNoun. phrases
may be used in this case:
En rponse votrelettredu2 janvier,nousommesheureuxdevous
soumettre une offre pour les articles suivants:
In reply to your letter of 2 January, we are pl for the following articles:
74
A loccasionde ce21mecongrsdelOrganisation,jesouhaitela bienvenue
aux membres prsents parmifoisnous. pour la
On theoccasionofthis21stconferenceoftheOrganisation,Iextenda
(warm) welcome to those members who are with us f
(b) Introducing the topic
In writing a letter, a report or an essay, the top a noun followed by a colon:
Objet:demande doffre(incommercial correspondence) Re: request for
quotation
Motif:organisation des qu(ipesna derport)nuit
Re: night shift schedule/roster
Sujet:pour ou contre (inles anOGMessay) Topic:
for or against GMOs
Thetopicmayalsobecontainedthetitleorintroductorysentence,after phrases
suchausujetas de, propos de, sur, concernant,
Rapportducontrematreausujetde laccidentsurvenule13mars
Evry sur le chanti2.(see42r.)1n
Foremansreportontheaccidentatconstructionsite2atEvryon13
March.

ARGUMENTATION

323

PropositiondersolutiondesdputsErnstdelaGraeteautres,
aunomdugroupedesVertsauParlementeuropen,surlacohsion
conomique et sociale.
Motionfora resolutabledionbyMEPsErnstdelaGraeteandothers,
onbehalfotheGreenGroupintheEuropeanParliament,onsocialand
economic cohesion.
Mmoire de Matriserelatif lapolitiquedestransportsurbains
Genve.
Final year dissertation on urban transport poli
In verb phrases, you should use33the.1):.3conditional te
Je voudraisparler de la contraception.
I should like to speak about contraception.
Jaimeraisaborder le thme de lducation pr-scola
I should like to tackle the subject of pre-scho
or in a relative clause following the topic:
Telle est la laquellequestionjevoudrpondreais(see.15.)6
That is the question I should like to answer.
Voilce dont je voudraisvous entretenir(see15.)8.
That is what I would like to talk to you about.
For a more direct or powerful introduction, use th
74
Jetiens voquer le problme suivant:
I wish to raise the following matter:
Dans mon expos,traiterailaje question de lautonomiergions. des
In my presentation, I shall deal with the quest
A noun+relative clause may precede the topic:
La question qui nous intresseconcerneldveloppementdes
autoroutes de linformation(see15.)1.
Thequestionwhichintereustsithedevelopmentofinformation
superhighways.
Le thme qui me proccupe a traitau rledesfemmesdansles
socits actu(s15elles.)1.
My concern today is the role of women in contem
Le problme que nous allonsanalyserportesurlerecyclagedes
dchets nuclaires(see15.)2.

324

FUNCTIONS

Theproblemwearegoingtoanalyseconcernstherecycliofnuclearg waste.
(c) Announcing an outline
The future tense is often used to introduce the ou
Je traiteraila questionen troispoints:premirement,
deuximement(see47.)1
I shall deal with the question in three parts:
In the following example, note the useavanofthequefutur +
ne+subjunctioravantede+infinitive(see39.)5topresenttheoutlineofa dissertation:
Cest pourquoi un premierrappellerachapitgrandeslesdetapesla
dcentralisationFranceavant que ledeuximenetraiteplusen
dtail des dispositions du nouveaudcentralisationprojetdeloi.
ailleurnous,faudrainsister
au
chapitresurles
IIIincidences
lanouvelgislationlepourlescollectivitsterritorialesdelavilled
Toursavant daborder enfinau chapitreIVlescraintesetespoirs
quellesusciteauniveaudelacommune,du dpartementdela rgion.

Par
d

Thusthefirstchapterwillreviewthemainstagesofdecentralisation France, and the

second will look in more detail a
billondecentralisationThen,wewill.focusinthethirdchapteronthe
implicationsofthenewlegislationforegionalandlocaluthoritiesn
ToursFinally,.thefourthchaptwerwilldealwiththehopesandfears
which it is giving risecommune,toat thedpartement,levelandof the the region.
In thefollowingspokeninterventheions,speechisintroducedbyje
voudrais,andfollowedbysomeofthenumerouscohesivedevicesavailable
forpresentinganoutline:dunepartdautrepart,durantlapremire partie, dans
un deuxime temps:
74
Madame la Prsidentmes, chrescollgues,jevoudrais
essentiellementdansmon interventiaborderndeuxaspectsdu
programmelgislatifetjeleferaibrivementDune. partlnergieet
dautrepart larechercheetsesimplicationsenmatiredpolitique
industrielle.
MadamPresident,colleagues,Ishouldliketoconcentrateinmy presentation on two
aspects of the legislative p

ARGUMENTATION

325

brieflyFirst.ofall,energy,andsecond,researchanditsimplicationsin terms of
industrial policy.
Je voudraissivouslepermettez,divisercetexposendeuxtemps
sparsunepauseDurant. la premire partie,jaborderaila
questiondelamondialisaetdeionsesdfinitionsDansun. deuxime
temps, jvoquerlesargumentsiemployparlesdfenseursetles
dtracteurs de la mondialisation.
I should like to divide my talk into two parts the first part, I shall deal with the
issue of g InthesecondIwillreviewtheargumentsputforwardbythosewho
support or those who oppose globalisation.
Whenbreakingdownanoutlinetoitsvariouscomponents,corresponding,for
exampletothevarioussectiornschaptersofanessayora dissertation,the following
forms may occur:
Noun (relating to the section or chapter)+verb an
La seconde partie porte, elle, surpolitiquesles (sde14emploi.d2).
The second part deals with employment policies.
Le chapitre 7 visesituer la place de la politiqueles de l enjeux de la
dernire dcennie.
Chapter 7 aims to situate employment policy amo the last decade.
Oncethetopiannounced,ssubsequsentencesarefrequentlyintroducedby cestwhich
is often followed by a relative clause:
Cestle thme des deux derniers chapitres.
This is the topic of the final two chapters.
Cestdetoutceladont ilestquestiondanslapremirepartiedce
document.
That is the subject matter of the first part of
Cestlobjetdesdeuxpremirespartiesdecettedissertationquede
rpondre ces questions.
Thepurposeofthefirsttwosectiofnsthisessayistoanswerthese
questions.
Adverb+il fautoril convient+infinitivede may also be used:
Ensuite,ilfautrappelerlesprincipauxobstaclesaudveloppemedanst
ces rgionsil. convientEfin,de sinterrogersur les moyensdployer
pour y faire face.
Thenwe shalltouchonthemainobstaclestodevelopmentinthose regions. Finally,
we should examine the means to

326

FUNCTIONS

74
Finally,itisworthnotingtheuseofpunctuation(especiallytheuseof brackets) when
giving the outline of a longer text
Les chapitres correspondent chacun un mode de t
ordonnsselonlestauxdefrquentationLesrseaux.detramway (chapitre 2) et
dautobus (chapitre 3) Enconnaissen revanche, les secteurs du chemin
lautomobiledefer(chapitre (chapitre 5) se portent plutt
bicesn.volutionsLesconsque
sontanalysesentermesdimpactsurlenvironnement(chapitre6)et
sur la sant des usagers (chapitre 7).
Eachchapterdealswithanindividualmodeoftransportandtheseare
arrangedintermsoftheirfequencyofuseTram.(chapter2)andbus
(chapter3)networksareinrelativedecline,whereasrail(chapter4)and
car (chapter 5) transport are doing quite well.
theimpactofthesetrendsbothonthenvironment(chapter6)andonthe
state of health of those using these forms of tra
74.2
Continuing
(a) Adverbs are often used to indicate a transitio
orideatoanotherAdverbs.ofopposition (see73c73d),forexample,may introduce the
second part of a for-and-against typ
Pourtoutescesraisons,larductiontempsdetravailapparat
commelasolutionduchmageCependant,. ilimporteaussiden
voquer les inconvnients.
Foralloftheserasons,reductioninworkinghoursseemstobethe solution to the
problem of unemployment. However, to consider the disadvantages (of such a
policy).
Adverbsandadverbialphrasesmay introducethvariouspointswhich contribute
to argumentation within the text:
Ilfautfournirauxfemmesquitravaillentdessructuresadquates
pourlagardeleursenfants,dabord parcequellesontcommetout
citoyenledroitde travailler,ensecond lieu parcequilya une
demandeimportantedemainduvrequalifieDailleurs.dans
certainsdesecteursconcerns,lesfemmesnouvellementqualifies
sontplusnombreusesqueleurshomologuesmaculins;etdun autre
ct, parceque leursperformancesautravailsontmeilleures
lorsquellesjouissentdunescuritdespritparrapportleurs enfants.

ARGUMENTATION

327

We mustprovideworkingwomenwithadequastructures(assistance)
incaringfortheirchildren;firstbecause,likeeverymemberofsociety,
they have a right to work, and second because the for a qualified labour force.
Moreover, in certai there is a greater number of recently qualified w
performanceisbetterwhentheyhavepeaceofmindwithregardtotheir childrens
welfare.
(b) Impersonal verbs followed by expressions indic continue are useful means of
structuring 46what): you
74
Il y autreun problme rsoudre avant de lesclore dbats:
There is another problem to be resolved before
Il fautmaintenantaborder le premier pointde lordre du jour:
We must now turn to the first item on the agend
Il convient dvoquer un deuxime aspect de ceprogrammequi
pourrait nous tre utile.
Itisappropriatethispointtoraiseanotheraspectoftheprogramme which
might be useful to us.
(c)Pour+infinitive may also be used, for example, to
Pour rpondre votre question, je ferai deux remarques
In answer to your question, I shall make two co
or to return to a point, perhaps after a digressio
Pour en revenir au problmequi nous proccupe, je voudrais la solution
suivante:
Toreturntotheproblemunderdiscussion,Ishoulikedtoproposethe
following solution:
(d)Finally,firstpersonpluralimperativareoftensusedtochangethesubject
(see44.)2
Si vous le voulezpassons bien,aupoint suivant car le temps pas
If you have no objection, let us turn to the fo is pressing.
Vousavezvoquvosqualifications;venons-enmaintenantvotre
exprience professionnelle.
You havediscussedyourqualifications;canweturnow toyour
professional experience.

328

FUNCTIONS

or to return to the point:

Excusez-moidecetteinterruptionmaintrevenonsnant,nos
moutons.
I apologizeforinterruptingcouldnow,wereturntothematterin hand.
Cetteremarquesurlesimmigrsestintressmaisnteneperdonspas
de vue notre sujetqui est la population active dans son e
Thatcommentonimmigrantsisinteresting,butletsnotlosesightof our topic
the working population as a whole.
74.3
Ending
(a)Whenconcludingaspeechora writtext,nitisoftennecessaryindeed advisablesum
toup themainpointscoveredIn.ordertoannounceyour intention to do so, you may
ask direct questions:
Quelle vue densemble peut-on maintenant dgager de la structurede
lUnion Europenne et de son ordre juridique?
Whatthenisthegeneralconclusionconcerningthestructureofthe
European Union and its legal system(s)?
74
Inconclusions,directquestionsarealsousedtoopenupthedebateand
suggest further points to be explored:
Le revenu minimum dinsertionQuellevatreson. efficacit?
Income support? How effective will it be?
Danslescinquanteansquiviennent,lapressionlmigrationdu
Sudvatrextrmementforte:est-ceune menace ou une chance
saisir?Les deux la fois probablement.
Duringthenextfiftyyears,emigrationpressufrometheSouthwillbe immense: does
this pose a threat or is it an oppo
(b)Itisnotuncommontofindanounfollowedbya colonIn.thefollowing
examplcertitudes,:is used to indicate a summing up of the conclusion:
Deuxcertitudespourlapopulationfranaiseausicleprochain:elle
sera plus ge et sa part dans la rduitepopulation. mond
Twofactsaboutpopulation(trends)inFranceinthenextcentury:the
numberofelderlypeoplewillbegreater,andintermsofnumbersitwillform

a smaller proportion of the world population.

ARGUMENTATION

329

(c) The conditional tense is often used in the con

Pluttquedelemploi,ilfaudrait,onlavutoutaulongdecelivre, parler
des emplois.
Aswehaveseenthroughoutthebookitwouldbebettertotalkofjobs rather
than employment.
andsometimestheconditionalisusedincombinatwionthstructuresreferring
backtoprecedingarumentation,forexample,danscesconditions,pources motifs:
Dans ces ces conditions,ilconviendrait/ilyauraitlieudentamerdes poursuites
contre le transporteur des marchandise
Inthecircumstances,itwouldbeappropriate/therearegroundsfor taking
legal action against the carrier.
The impersonalil seraitform(or equivalent)+adjectivesopportun, sutile,chas
ncessaindispensable,re,souhaitablede+infinistivealsousefulhere,in particular for
making recommendations:
Pourtoutescesraisonilserait,opportun de nepasporterjugement
trop htif sur la question.
Foralloftheserasonsitwouldbeadvisablenotopasstoohasty judgment
on the matter.
(d)Ina writtenport,youcanusedashes,withnounphrasesorinfinitives, order to recap
and/or make recommendations as clea
Cet accident met en vidence la ncessit:
dun effort sensibilisationde aux risques du personne
dune rvision desconsignes de scurit
dun contrleaccrudu personnelaumomentdurelvementdes
quipes.
74
Note the changes when changing from noun phrases
Cet accident met en vidence la ncessit:
de mieuxsensibiliserle personnel employ aux risques
de rviserles consignes de scurit
de mieuxcontrlerlepersonnelaumomentdu relvementdes
quipes.
The English equivalent would probably use infin The accident highlights the
need to

330

FUNCTIONS

improve safety-consciousness among personnel

keep safety instructions up-to-date
improve supervision of personnel during shift
Thefollowingsanothexampleroftheuseofdashestostructurethe information:
Ainsi, sans porter laffaire devant compteunservice de tenu
dune part de qualitla des services de M.Dupuis
dautre part casdu social prsent par la famille don subsistance
ilsembleraitquitablededonnerunesuitefavorablaedemande de
la famille.
So, to avoid legal proceedings, and taking into
the quality of service given by M.Dupuis
and the case made by the family, for whose wel it would seem fair to give a
sympathetic hearin

(5)

Naturally,
when
consequence72.d3): (see

drawing

conclusions,

you

will

expressing

La politique de ainsilemploincessairementest plurielleLe et mi

plusurgentestdonc denousprparercettevolution,damnager
notresocietsesrapportsaveclemondeextrienurfonctionde
cette nouvelle donne dmographique.
EmploymentpolicyisthereforenecessarilypluralisticPreparation.for
thesechangesiurgentlyneeded,andwe mustadaptoursocietyandits relations with the
outside world in terms of this
But you may also wantwrong toconclusionsdismiss with structuresnon
pasque+subjunctive39.2(see):.2
Maiscestbiensrductdelafconditquesejouelejeuessentiel.
Non pas quil faillecraindre de voir vieillir la pyramide
populationsduNordperdredu poidsparrapportcellesduSud,
mais simplement pour que la populationdexisterfranaise.
ButthecrucimaltterisofcoursethefertilityrateOur.concernshould
not be that there is a higher proportion of elde
declintheNorthernpopulationsrelatoivetheSouth,butsimplythatthe population of
France should continue to exist.
74
Celane veut pas direpour autant quilfaillesedsintresserde
lvolution des variables dmographiques.

ARGUMENTATION

331

That does not mean however that we can ignore d

(f) The meaning of individual words and phrases may are part of a concluding
remark:

en+nounornounphrase:enrsum,endfinitive,endecompten,
somme, en guise de conclusion
2
pour+infinitive:pouren finir/en terminer/conclure
3
specific verbs in terminerhefuture tense:
Je terminerai en disantquenouscouronsau dsastresinous
nagissons pas rapidement.
Iwillconcludebysayingthatwearecourtingdisasterifwedonotact
quickly.
Andtherearevariousdevices,suchastheframingstructurecestque,orthe
use of phrases in apposition, available to focus o
Etcestsurceterraincapacitlamobilisepotentielrhumain
dunpaysque sejouerainvitablementlabataillemondialela
comptitivit.
Anditishereonthisgroundtheabilityofcountrytomobilizets
human resourcesthat global competition will be f
Enfin,etce sera ma conclusion,ilestvidentquecesproblmesne
sont pas prs de disparatre.
Finally, and this will be my conclusion, it is are not about to disappear.

(g)Atthevery end,punctuationordirectquestions(see 74.a)3maybeusedfor

finishing effect:

1A cejeu,lamajoritdesFranaispourraientbienseretrouverflous
Inthis,themajorityofFrenchpeoplecouldwellfindthemselvestobe
the losers
Ne conviendraitpasdinverser-illepoposetdessayesavoir
pourquoilescouplesaujourdhuifontencoredesenfantsafinde comprendre ce
qui peut les motiverdemain?en faire enc
Woulditnotbebettertolookatthemattertheotherwayroundandtry
toestablishwhycouplestodaycontinuetohavechildreninorderto understand what will
motivate them to have childr
Andinspeech,thankisngofteninorder,inparticularwithemercider +infinitive or

noun:

332

FUNCTIONS

Je vousremercie davoir rpondumes questions.

Thank you for answering my questions.
74
Nousremercionsle publicdesa participationactive.
We would like to thank everyone present for the
Merci de votre attention.
Thank you for your attention.
Enfin! Merci!

VI
The sounds of French

Sections758containguideliontheessoundsofFrench:vowels,semi-vowels
andconsonantsTheinternati.phonaleticalphabet,insquarebrackets,isused
torepresentthesounds,eachofwhichisfollowedbyexamplesforpractice.
Sections7981containguideliontheesuseofaccents,liaisonandelision.
Dictionaries,suchastheCollinsRobert French Dictionary(2002)andthe
Oxford Hachette French Dictionary (2001)describesoundsusingthese
conventions.
75
Vowels
[i] physique,il,si

[o] le tre,naux,eau

[e] et,donner,t,jai [u] tout,pourtant,ou gen

[] mais,pre,te,f faist[y] rue, voulu,ps
[a] part,atte,pat pl
[] bleu, deux, eucrse
pte,asse,pas b [] neuf,preuve,immeuble
fort,otre,nonnerd

le,premier,d

76
Nasal vowels
an, enct,em tps

son, onrde,om bre

vin, main, plein

un, hum ble,unbr

77

Semi-vowels/semi-consonants
[w]

oui,oir,nouner [j] pied,il,afamille

puits,ui,lu etm

334

FUNCTIONS

78
Consonants
[b] bon,
broe, bruan
[d]
dur,demande
, deai

[6] phrase,ffaire
,fraude
78

[7]

je,gil
et,g
ne

[11] qui,
c,sac
orps,
chol
ogue
ar

[] chat,

gant,cond,
sebague

ch

[12] seul,
[13]
[14]

ent,llle e
femm e,m
on, mdae
ni,
automne,
nntoe

arit

[20] t
h

tr
e
,t
e
,
v
it
t
p
a
e

[p]
soupe,pour,btenir
o
rouge,ris,Paredi
[s] leon,
x,dise,ce, tnaion

78.1 The
letters k,
w, h
The
letterskan
dw occur
only in
importedk

ilo,w
agon
.word
s:The
letter
hisno
t
prono
unce

[v]
vous
,ve,r
vivr
e [z]
zro,
sons
,dixi
me
di

d, but
a
distinct
ion
h,isas
made
homm
ein
betwe

ect
e,c
h
l
ag
ne
au,
gn
vie,
gn
pei

en a mu

in whichis treated
as a
vowel,h,asandharic
otinanaspirate

te(acc indicat gravemayindicat

entai
e an s ethattheletterisi
inwhichi
gu),th may
na
streated egrav
occur stressyllabledje
ascons
e
in the sp:re,Ihope,
onantTh (acce chap ellesregardren
isimport nt
perEng ttheylookedat,p
grave lishesc otepoet,man
ant.disti
),andt apeeq gemerry-goncthasi
he
uivalen roundOver. an
mplicati
circu
t:.
or
ons for
mflex(
79 thegraveisusedto
liaison
accen .The distinguishdiffere
tcirco 3gra
and 80
ntwords:(prepo
nflex
elisiona
ve`is sition),a
e).
used (verb);l(adverb)
nd81).
79.
over ,la(definiarticleor
(see
2The
,
pronoun);o(adv
acute
anda erborpronoun),
is
79
lsoi (conjunctItion)sal
used
Accents,
nthe so.usedinetl
asonl
cedilla,
word hereandthere,vo
ytin
diaeresis

ilthereitis,au
,cole
79.1There
whe del
over.
arethreeac
reT
debeyond,dj
centsinFre Often, he.
already.
nch:theacu an it

THE SOUNDS OF FRENCH 335

79.The4circumflexcanbeusedoveranyvowel:me soul,frlefrail,
frachefresh,prnertoadvocate,mentdulyItmay.indicatethatthe
vowelislong:extrme extreme,grce graceOften.itindicatesthe
disappearanceofs:matremaster,ppasteItmay. indicate
contractionfromLatinsourceword:me (anima)soul,r(securus)sure, safeIt.may
beusedtodistinguishdifferentwords: (pastparticiple masculine
singulardevoironly),u(partitiveofcr article),(pastparticiple
crotre),u(pastparticipleofcroire).Notethatthecircumflovexrreplaces
the dot:crotreto grow,vnmescame.
79.The5cedilla(cdille)showsthatcispronounced[s]beforea,o,u:
commenmes

began,garon

boy,du [desy] disappointed. Compare these with t where there

iscapablenoc[kapabl]dilla: capablcommencer,

begin,cu [kyb] cube. The cedilla ori.s never used be

79.The6diaeresis(trma),usedover,, indicatesthatthevowelmustbe
given full and separateNol pronunciation:

Christmas,astrode

asteroid. The feminine form-guofai(guadjectivessharp,ambigu ending

ambiguous) has a
80 diaeresis:aigutoindicatethatthendingshouldbepronouncedlikethe
masculineform:aigu, aigu [egy]Without.thediaeresisthelasttwolettersofthe
feminine form would fatiguebesilent,[fatig]asfatintrigue,

intrigue. The diaeresis repli:hatoces hatethedot. over an

80
Liaison
80.Liaison1thelinkingofwordstofacilitatepronunciaItoccursion.whena
word begins with a vowelh.Theorfinalmuteconsonant of the pr

336

FUNCTIONS

notnormallypronouncedinFrenchispronouncedanmaybeslightly
modifiednitsnewfunctionofeasingpronunciation:elleestalle[ltale]she
hasgoneLiaison.usedonlywherewordsarecloselylinkedmeaningand
thewordsarespokenasaunitItis.thereforeliktolyoccurbetweenapronoun and verb,
adjective and noun, article and noun.
Some examples:enfants

the children,troishommes

three beauxmn, arts

arts,grand amour

great longve,escalier

long staircase,allez-vous-en

go away.
80.2 Aucun, bien, combien,keepen,theiron, nasalonrienaimesound:

we like,unhomme

amanBut,.inothercases,thefinalnasalispronouncedasanordinaryn: bon
enfant

good littleancienchild,lve

former pupil. Note that the nasal vowel is also p in such cases.
80.3There is usually no liaisonh:un withhomardan aspirate

THE SOUNDS OF FRENCH 337

a lobster,lesharicots

haricot beans.
80.4Some exceptions: therevousis etno[vuel]elleiaisonyouin and s or maisin
oui[mwi] yes, or inlescertainonze numbers:

11,les huit

8,cent un

101,quatre-vingt-un

81, andil noteest onze heures

its 11 oclock,dix-huit

18.
81
Elision
81.In1writtenFrenchora arelided,ordropped,beforeawordbeginning
withavoweloramuteh,andarereplacedbyanapostrophe:isdroppedfrom
thepronounsje,me,te,seandthearticleorpronounle,andfromce,de,ne, que; isa
dropped from the articlela. or pronoun
Someexamples:jcouteIam listenilng,maimehelovesme,va-ten go

away,ilshabilleheis gettingcestdressed,moiitslhommeme,the
man,lanuitdavanthenightbefore,ellesnentendentjamaistheynever
hear,lafemmequiladorethewomanheloveshabitude,thehabit, lamiethe
friend. Notele theonze11exception.
81.The2e
isalsodroppedfromlorsque,puisqueandquoiquebforeil(s),
elle(s),en,on,un(e):lorsquonluicritwhenwe writetohim/her, quoiquelle y
aille souvent
81

338

FUNCTIONS

althoughshegoesthereoftenItis.alsodroppedfromjusquebforea,au,
en, oici,andalors: jusquiciuntiljusqunow, quelleuntilheurewhen.
81.3There is no elisionje,ce, followe,whn la a verb:
Auraije-assez de tempsle faire?pourWill I have enough time to Estce-important
de le faire?Is it important to do it? Offrez-le la dame! Offer it to the lady.
Descendezla(la- valise)de sortiavantBring! it down before you g
81.The4iofsiisdroppedinsil(s)only:silestlifheisheresils,nous voientif
they see us.
81.Other5wordswherelisionoccurs:quelquunsomeone,presqule
peninsula.

Verb tables

The followingtablescontainselectionofverbsfromthefourmain conjugations-er, -(ir,andoir-reinfinitives) and some of the ir

frequentuseThe.principalpartsoftheverbincludedare:thepreseinfinitive,
theparticiplthepresent,s,future,imperfect,pasthistoric,perfectand conditional tenses,
the imperatives, and the prese
sixpartsofeachofthetensescorrespondtothefirsecondt,andthirdpersons
singular(je,tu,il/elle/on)andplural(nous,vous,ils/ell.Thereflexives)verb
sasseoirisgiven with its reflexive pronouns, and bo forms of its imperative are
included. The first an subjunctive and the first person singular of the p are given.

Guidelionestheformationofsimpletnsesaregiveninsections24.,25, 26,27.,1 and for

the formation of compound tenses, re
auxiliaverybsavoir(see28.)1andtre(see28.)2.Remember,onceyouknow
the simple avoirtensesandtreofand the past participle of the
use,youcanformanyofthecompoundtensesThe.perfectinfinistiveformed
byusingthepreseinfinitiveofthauxiliaveryandbthepastparticiple(see
45).
Three important points to remember:
1 Most French verbs are regular. They conform to
oftensesNevertheless,.irregularverbsareinfrequentuseandverbtablesare
providedsothatstudentshaveasyaccesstoa checklistMostof.theirregular verbs are in
groups too:mettre,whfornyouexample,know you also k
compounds,andknowingwhathappenswithverbsending-indre(see craindre,for
example, in the verb tables), means that infinitives -eindreingat yourin fingertips.
2 Formation of the third person singular of the i formsforallformsendinga
vowel:rememberyoumust add-tbefore-il, elleandon,or estue-ce que?
A-t-il donn?Has he given?Na-t-ellepas Hasntshewritten?
crit?

340

VERB TABLES

Va-t-on? Are we/you/thNey parle-Doesnt-ilhe speak going? plus? any

more?
Chante-t-elle?Isshe singing?Neva-t-elleIsntpas? she going? Finira-t-il?Will he
finish?Nerpondra-Wont-we ever
jamais?
reply?
or
Est-ce quil donne?Est-ce quil ne donne pas?
Iftheverbdoesntendinavowel,thentheinterrogativeisformindtheusualway:
prend-il?,nauraitpas?,-elleroit-Theon?onlyexceptiontothisvaincre
to conquer and its moreconvaincreusefultocompoundconvice:vainc-til/elle/on?
3 Therearevariouswaysofaskingquestionswiththefirstpersonsingular.
Youcansimplymakestatementandaddtheintonationofquestion,oryou
canstartyourquestionwithEst-que?,ceQuestqu-ceQue?,O?. Butit
ispossiblewithaveryfewverbstouseinversionwithje:ai-je,dis-je?,dois-je?,saisje?,suis-je?,vais-je?,andnotetheinterrogativeformforpouvoir: puis-je?
4 Forformationofthefutureperfect,conditionalperfect,pluperfectandpast
anterior tenses,28.281.2see

INFINITIVE &INDICATIVE
PARTICIPLES
Present
avoir haveai
ayant, eu

tre be
tant, t

aller go
allant, allvas

Future
as
a
avons
avez
ont
suis
es
est
sommes
tes
sont
vais
va
allons
allez

Imperfect Past historic

aurai
auras
aura
aurons
aurez
auront
serai
seras
sera
serons
serez
seront
irai
iras
ira
irons
irez

avais
avais
avait
avions
aviez
avaient
tais
tais
tait
tions
tiez
taient
allais
allais
allait
allions
alliez

eus
eus
eut
emes
etes
eurent
fus
fus
fut
fmes
ftes
furent
allai
allas
alla
allmes
alltes

vont

iront

allaient

allrent

VERB TABLES 341

INFINITIVE &INDICATIVE
PARTICIPLES
Present Future

Imperfect Past historic

appeler callappelle appelleraiappelais appelai appelant, appelpelles

appellerasappelais appelas
appelle appellera appelait appela appelons
appelleronsappelions appelmes appelez appellerezappeliez
appeltes appellentappellerontappelaientappelrent
sasseoir sitmassiedsmassiraimasseyaismassis sasseyant,
taassissiedstassirastasseyaistassis sassied sassira sasseyaitsassit
nous asseynouns assironsnous asseyionsnous assmes vous
asseyezvous
assirezvous
asseyiezvous
asstes
sasseyentsassirontsasseyaientsassirent
boire drinkbois
boirai
buvais
bus
buvant, bu bois
boiras
buvais
bus
boit
boira
buvait
but
buvons
boirons
buvions
bmes
buvez
boirez
buviez
btes
boivent
boiront
buvaient
burent
commencer commence commenceraicommenaiscommenai begin
commencescommencerascommenaiscommenas commenant, commence
commenceracommenaitcommena commenc
commenonscommenceronscommencionscommenmes
commencezcommencerezcommenciezcommentes
commencentcommencerontcommenaientcommencrent

CONDITION IMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIV
AL
E
Perfect
ai eu
aurais
as eu
aurais
a eu
aurait
avons eu
aurions
avez eu
auriez
ont eu
auraient
ai t
serais
as t
serais
a t
serait
avons t serions
avez t
seriez

Present
aie
ayons
ayez

sois
soyons
soyez

aie
aies
ait
ayons
ayez
aient
sois
sois
soit
soyons
soyez

Imperfect
eusse, et
Perfect
aie eu
Pluperfect
eusse eu
Imperfect
fusse, ft
Perfect
aie t
Pluperfect

ont t
seraient
suis all(e)irais
es all(e)irais
est all(e)irait

va
allons
allez

soient
aille
ailles
aille

eusse t
Imperfect
allasse, allt
Perfect

342

VERB TABLES

CONDITION IMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIV
AL
E
Perfect
sommes all(e)irions
s
iriez
tes all(e)(s)iraient
sont all(e)s
ai appel appelleraisappelle
as appel appelleraisappelons
a appel
appelleraitappelez
avons appelappellerions
avez appelappelleriez
ont appelappelleraient

Present
allions
alliez
aillent

sois all(e)
Pluperfect
fusse all(e)

appelle
Imperfect
appelles
appelasse,
appelle
appelt
appelions Perfect
appeliez
aie appel
appellent Pluperfect
eusse appel
mesuisassis(e)massiraisassieds-toimasseye
Imperfect
tes assis(e)tassiraisasseyons-noustasseyes massisse,
sest assis(e)sassiraitasseyez-voussasseye
sasst
nous sommesnous assirionsnetassiedsnouspasasseyionsPerfect
assis(es) vous assirieznenous
vous asseyiezmesois assis(e)
vous tes sassiraientassisasseyons passasseyentPluperfect
(e)/(es)
ne vous
me fusse assis
se sont assis
asseyez pas
(e)
(es)
ai bu
boirais
bois
boive
Imperfect
as bu
boirais
buvons
boives
busse, bt
a bu
boirait
buvez
boive
Perfect
avons bu
boirions
buvions
aie bu
avez bu
boiriez
buviez
Pluperfect
ont bu
boiraient
boivent
eusse bu
ai commenccommenceraiscommence
commence
Imperfect
as commenccommenceraiscommenonscommences commenasse,
a commenccommenceraitcommencez commence
comment
avons
commencerion
commencionsPerfect
commenc
s
commenciezaie commenc
avez
commenceriez
commencentPluperfect
commenc
commenceraie
eusse
ont commencnt
commenc
INFINITIVE &
PARTICIPLES
Present

INDICATIVE
Future

ImperfectPast historic

conduire leadconduis conduiraiconduisaisconduisis conduisant,

conduitconduis conduirasconduisaisconduisis conduit
conduiraconduisaitconduisit

conduisonsconduironsconduisionsconduismes
conduisezconduirezconduisiezconduistes
conduisentconduirontconduisaientconduisirent

VERB TABLES 343

INFINITIVE & INDICATIVE

PARTICIPLES
Present Future

ImperfectPast historic

connatre knowconnais connatraiconnaissaisconnus connaissant,

connuconnais connatrasconnaissaisconnus connat
connatraconnaissaitconnut
connaissonsconnatronsconnaissionsconnmes
connaissezconnatrezconnaissiezconntes
connaissentconnatrontconnaissaieconnurent
construire buildconstruisconstruiraiconstruisaisconstruisis construisant,
construitconstruisconstruirasconstruisaisconstruisis
construitconstruiraconstruisaitconstruisit
construisconstruironstruisiconstruismes
construisezconstruirezconstruisiezconstruistes
construiseconstruironstruisaientconstruisirent
courir run cours
courrai courais courus courant, couru cours
courras courais courus court
courra courait courut
courons courronscourions courmes courez courrez
couriez courtes courent courrontcouraientcoururent
craindre fearcrains craindraicraignaiscraignis craignant, craintcrains
craindrascraignaiscraignis craint craindracraignaitcraignit
craignonscraindronscraignionscraignmes
craignezcraindrezcraigniezcraigntes
craignentcraindrontcraignaientcraignirent
croire believecrois
croirai
croyais
crus
croyant, cru
crois
croiras
croyais
crus
croit
croira
croyait
crut
croyons
croironscroyions crmes
croyez
croirez croyiez
crtes
croient
croirontcroyaientcrurent
devoir have to,doisowe
devrai
devais
dus
devant, d
dois
devras
devais
dus
(due, dus, dues)doit
devra
devait
dut
devons
devrons
devions
dmes
devez
devrez
deviez
dtes
doivent
devront
devaient durent
dire say, telldis
dirai
disais
dis
disant, dit
dis
diras
disais
dis
dit
dira
disait
dit
disons
dirons
disions
dmes
dites
direz
disiez
dtes
disent
diront
disaient dirent

344

VERB TABLES

CONDITION IMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIV
AL
E
Perfect

Present

ai conduitconduiraisconduis
conduise
Imperfect
as conduitconduiraisconduisonsconduises conduisisse,
a conduit conduiraitconduisez conduise
conduist
avons
conduitconduirions
conduisionsPerfect
avez conduitconduiriez
conduisiezaie conduit
ont conduitconduiraient
conduisentPluperfect
eusse conduit
ai connu
connatraisconnais
connaisse Imperfect
as connu
connatraisconnaissonsconnaissesconnusse,
a connu
connatraitconnaissezconnaisse connt
avons connuconnatrions
connaissionsPerfect
avez connuconnatriez
connaissiezaie connu
ont connu connatraient
connaissentPluperfect
eusse connu
ai construitconstruiraisconstruis construiseImperfect
as construitconstruiraisconstruisonsconstruisesconstruisisse,
a construitconstruiraitconstruisezconstruiseconstruist
avons
construitconstruirions
construisionsPerfect
avez
construitconstruiriez
construisiezaie construit
ont construitconstruiraient
construisentPluperfect
eusse construit
ai couru
courrais
cours
coure
Imperfect
as couru
courrais
courons
coures
courusse,court
a couru
courrait
courez
coure
Perfect
avons courucourrions
courions
aie couru
avez courucourriez
couriez
Pluperfect
ont couru courraient
courent
eusse couru
ai craint craindraiscrains
craigne
Imperfect
as craint craindraiscraignons craignes
craignisse,
a craint
craindraitcraignez
craigne
craignt
avons craintcraindrions
craignionsPerfect
avez craintcraindriez
craigniez aie craint
ont craintcraindraient
craignent Pluperfect
eusse craint
ai cru
croirais
crois
croie
Imperfect
as cru
croirais
croyons
croies
crusse, crt
a cru
croirait
croyez
croie
Perfect
avons cru croirions
croyions
aie cru
avez cru
croiriez
croyiez
Pluperfect
ont cru
croiraient
croient
eusse cru
ai d
devrais
dois
doive
Imperfect
as d
devrais
devons
doives
dusse, dt
a d
devrait
devez
doive
Perfect

avons d
avez d

devrions
devriez

devions
deviez

aie d
Pluperfect
VERB TABLES 345

CONDITION IMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIV
AL
E
Perfect
ont d
devraient
ai dit
dirais
as dit
dirais
a dit
dirait
avons dit dirions
avez dit
diriez
ont dit
diraient

Present
dis
disons
dites

doivent
dise
dises
dise
disions
disiez
disent

eusse d
Imperfect
disse, dt
Perfect
aie dit
Pluperfect
eusse dit

INFINITIVEPARTICIPLESINDICATIVE&
Present

Future ImperfectPast historic

dormir sleep
dormant, dormi

dors
dormiraidormais dormis
dors
dormirasdormais dormis
dort
dormira dormait dormit
dormonsdormironsdormionsdormmes
dormez dormirezdormiez dormtes
dormentdormirontdormaientdormirent
cris
crirai crivaiscrivis
cris
criras crivaiscrivis
crit
crira
crivaitcrivit
crivonscrironscrivionscrivmes
crivezcrirez criviezcrivtes
criventcrirontcrivaientcrivirent
envoie enverraienvoyaisenvoyai
envoiesenverrasenvoyaisenvoyas
envoie enverra envoyaitenvoya
envoyonsenverronsenvoyionsenvoymes
envoyezenverrezenvoyiezenvoytes
envoientenverrontenvoyaientenvoyrent
espre espreraiespraisesprai
espresespreraspraisespras
espre espreraespraitespra
espronsespreronsesprionsesprmes
esprezesprerespriezesprtes
esprentesprerontespraientesprrent
essaye essayeraiessayaisessayai
essayesessayerassayaisessayas
essaye essayeraessayaitessaya
essayonsessayeronsayionsessaymes
essayezessayeressayiezessaytes
essayentessayerontessayaientessayrent

crire write
crivant, crit

envoyer send
envoyant, envoy

esprer hope
esprant, espr

essayer try
essayant, essay

faire do, make

faisant, fait

fais
fais
fait

ferai
feras
fera

faisais fis
faisais fis
faisait fit

346

VERB TABLES

INFINITIVEPARTICIPLESINDICATIVE&
Present

falloir must
fallu
fermer shut
fermant, ferm

Future ImperfectPast historic

faisonsferons
faisionsfmes
faites ferez
faisiez ftes
font
feront
faisaientfirent
il fautil faudrallait il fallut
ferme
fermeraifermais fermai
fermes fermerasfermais fermas
ferme
fermera fermait ferma
fermonsfermeronsfermionsfermmes
fermez fermerezfermiez fermtes
fermentfermerontfermaientfermrent

CONDITIONAIMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIV
L
E
Perfect

Present

ai dormi dormirais dors

as dormi dormirais dormons
a dormi
dormirait dormez
avons dormidormirions
avez dormidormiriez
ont dormidormiraient

dorme
dormes
dorme
dormions
dormiez
dorment

ai crit crirais
cris
as crit crirais
crivons
a crit
crirait
crivez
avons critcririons
avez critcririez
ont critcriraient
ai envoyenverrais envoie
as envoyenverrais envoyons
a envoy enverrait envoyez
avons envoyenverrions
avez envoyenverriez
ont envoyenverraient

crive
crives
crive
crivions
criviez
crivent
envoie
envoies
envoie
envoyions
envoyiez
envoient

ai esprespreraisespre
as esprespreraisesprons
a espr espreraitesprez
avons espresprerions
avez esprespreriez
ont esprespreraient

espre
espres
espre
esprions
espriez
esprent

Imperfect
dormisse,
dormt
Perfect
aie dormi
Pluperfect
eusse dormi
Imperfect
crivisse,crivt
Perfect
aie crit
Pluperfect
eusse crit
Imperfect
envoyasse,
envoyt
Perfect
aie envoy
Pluperfect
eusse envoy
Imperfect
esprasse,
esprt
Perfect
aie espr
Pluperfect

ai essayessayeraisessaye
as essayessayeraisessayons

essaye
essayes

eusse espr
Imperfect
VERB TABLES 347

CONDITIONAIMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIV
L
E
Perfect
a essay essayeraitessayez
avons essayessayerions
avez essayessayeriez
ont essayessayeraient

ai fait
ferais
as fait
ferais
a fait
ferait
avons faitferions
avez faitferiez
ont fait feraient
il a falluil faudrait

Present
essaye
essayions
essayiez
essayent

fais
faisons
faites

ai ferm fermerais ferme

as ferm fermerais fermons
a ferm
fermerait fermez
avons fermfermerions
avez fermfermeriez
ont fermfermeraient

essayasse,
essayt
Perfect
aie essay
Pluperfect
eusse essay
fasse
Imperfect
fasses
fisse, ft
fasse
Perfect
fassions
aie fait
fassiez
Pluperfect
fassent
eusse fait
il faille Imperfect
il fallt
Perfect
il ait fallu
Pluperfect
il et fallu
ferme
Imperfect
fermes
fermasse,
ferme
fermt
fermions
Perfect
fermiez
aie ferm
ferment
Pluperfect
eusse ferm

INFINITIVE &
PARTICIPLES

INDICATIVE

Present

Future ImperfectPast historic

fournir provide fournis fourniraifournissaisfournis fournissant, fournifournis

fournirasfournissaisfournis fournit fournirafournissaitfournit

lire read
lisant, lu

fournissonsfournironsfournissionsurnmes
fournissezfournirezfournissiezfourntes
fournissentfournirontfournissaientfournirent
lis
lirai
lisais
lus
lis
liras
lisais
lus
lit
lira
lisait
lut
lisons
lirons
lisions
lmes

manger eat
mangeant, mang

lisez
lisent
mange
manges
mange

lirez
lisiez
ltes
liront
lisaient lurent
mangeraimangeais mangeai
mangerasmangeais mangeas
mangera mangeait mangea

348

VERB TABLES

INFINITIVE &
PARTICIPLES

INDICATIVE

Present

Future
ImperfectPast historic
mangemes
mangeonsmangeronsmangions
mangez
mangerezmangiez
mangetes
mangent mangerontmangeaientmangrent
mettre put
mets
mettrai mettais
mis
mettant, mis
mets
mettras mettais
mis
met
mettra mettait
mit
mettons mettronsmettions mmes
mettez
mettrez mettiez
mtes
mettent mettrontmettaientmirent
ouvrir open
ouvre
ouvriraiouvrais
ouvris
ouvrant, ouvert
ouvres
ouvrirasouvrais
ouvris
ouvre
ouvrira ouvrait
ouvrit
ouvrons ouvrironsouvrions ouvrmes
ouvrez
ouvrirezouvriez
ouvrtes
ouvrent ouvrirontouvraientouvrirent
paratre appear parais paratraiparaissaisparus paraissant, paru parais
paratrasparaissaisparus parat paratraparaissaitparut

partir leave

perdre lose
perdant, perdu

paraissonsparatronsparaissionsparmes
paraissezparatrezparaissiezpartes
paraissentparatrontparaissaientparurent
pars
partiraipartais partis partant, parti
pars
partiraspartais partis part
partira partait partit
partons partironspartions partmes partez
partirezpartiez parttes partent
partirontpartaientpartirent
perds
perdrai perdais
perdis
perds
perdras perdais
perdis
perd
perdra perdait
perdit
perdons perdronsperdions perdmes
perdez
perdrez perdiez
perdtes
perdent perdrontperdaientperdirent

CONDITION IMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIV
AL
E
Perfect

Present

ai fourni fourniraisfournis fournisse Imperfect as fourni

fourniraisfournissonsfournissesfournisse, a fourni fourniraitfournissezfournisse
fournt

avons fournifournirions
avez fournifourniriez
ont fournifourniraient

fournissionsPerfect
fournissiezaie fourni
fournissentPluperfect
eusse fourni
VERB TABLES 349

CONDITION IMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIV
AL
E
Perfect

Present

ai lu
lirais
lis
as lu
lirais
lisons
a lu
lirait
lisez
avons lu
lirions
avez lu
liriez
ont lu
liraient
ai mang
mangerais mange
as mang
mangerais mangeons
a mang
mangerait mangez
avons mangmangerions
avez mangmangeriez
ont mang mangeraient

lise
lises
lise
lisions
lisiez
lisent
mange
manges
mange
mangions
mangiez
mangent

Imperfect
lusse, lt
Perfect
aie lu
Pluperfect
eusse lu
Imperfect
mangeasse,
manget
Perfect
aie mang
Pluperfect
eusse mang
Imperfect
misse, mt
Perfect
aie mis
Pluperfect
eusse mis
Imperfect
ouvrisse, ouvrt
Perfect
aie ouvert
Pluperfect
eusse ouvert
Imperfect

ai mis
mettrais
mets
mette
as mis
mettrais
mettons
mettes
a mis
mettrait
mettez
mette
avons mis mettrions
mettions
avez mis
mettriez
mettiez
ont mis
mettraient
mettent
ai ouvert ouvrirais ouvre
ouvre
as ouvert ouvrirais ouvrons
ouvres
a ouvert
ouvrirait ouvrez
ouvre
avons ouvertouvririons
ouvrions
avez ouvertouvririez
ouvriez
ont ouvertouvriraient
ouvrent
ai paru
paratraisparais
paraisse
as paru
paratraisparaissonsparaisses parusse, part
a paru
paratraitparaissez paraisse
Perfect
avons paruparatrions
paraissionsaie paru
avez paru paratriez
paraissiezPluperfect
ont paru
paratraient
paraissenteusse paru
suis parti(e)partirais pars
parte
Imperfect
es parti(e)partirais partons
partes
partisse, partt
est parti(e)partirait partez
parte
Perfect
sommes partipartirions
partions
sois parti(e)
(e)s
partiriez
partiez
Pluperfect
tes parti(e)(s)partiraient
partent
fusse parti(e)
sont parti(e)s
ai perdu
perdrais
perds
perde
Imperfect
as perdu
perdrais
perdons
perdes
perdisse, perdt

a perdu
perdrait
avons perduperdrions
avez perduperdriez
ont perdu perdraient

perdez

perde
perdions
perdiez
perdent

Perfect
aie perdu
Pluperfect
eusse perdu

350

VERB TABLES

INFINITIVE &
PARTICIPLES

INDICATIVE

Present

Future ImperfectPast historic

plaire please
plaisant, plu

plais
plairai plaisaisplus
plais
plairas plaisaisplus
plat
plaira plaisaitplut
plaisonsplaironsplaisionsplmes
plaisezplairez plaisiezpltes
plaisentplairontplaisaientplurent
il pleutil pleuvrail pleuvaitil plut

pleuvoir rain
pleuvant, plu
pouvoir can, be ablepeux, puispourrai pouvais pus
pouvant, pu
peux
pourras pouvais pus
peut
pourra pouvait put
pouvonspourronspouvionspmes
pouvez pourrez pouviez ptes
peuventpourrontpouvaientpurent
prendre take
prends prendraiprenais pris
prenant, pris
prends prendrasprenais pris
prend
prendra prenait prit
prenonsprendronsprenionsprmes prenez
prendrezpreniez prtes
prennentprendrontprenaientprirent
recevoir receive reois recevrairecevaisreus recevant, reu
reois
recevrasrecevaisreus reoit recevra recevaitreut

rendre give back rends

rendant, rendu

recevonsrecevronsrecevionsremes
recevezrecevrezreceviezretes
reoiventrecevrontrecevaientreurent
rendrai rendais rendis
rends
rendras rendais rendis
rend
rendra rendait rendit
rendonsrendronsrendionsrendmes rendez rendrez
rendiez rendtes rendentrendrontrendaientrendirent

rpondre reply rpondsrpondrairpondaisrpondis rpondant, rpondu

rpondsrpondrasrpondaisrpondis rpond rpondrarpondaitrpondit

savoir know
sachant, su

rpondonsrpondronsrpondionsrpondmes
rpondezrpondrezrpondiezrpondtes
rpondentrpondrontrpondaientrpondirent
sais
saurai
savais
sus
sais
sauras
savais
sus
sait
saura
savait
sut
savons
saurons savions
smes
savez
saurez
saviez
stes

savent

sauront savaientsurent
VERB TABLES 351

CONDITION IMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIV
AL
E
Perfect
ai plu
plairais
as plu
plairais
a plu
plairait
avons plu plairions
avez plu
plairiez
ont plu
plairaient
il a plu
il pleuvrait

Present
plais
plaisons
plaisez

ai pu
pourrais
as pu
pourrais
a pu
pourrait
avons pu
pourrions
avez pu
pourriez
ont pu
pourraient
ai pris
prendrais prends
as pris
prendrais prenons
a pris
prendrait prenez
avons prisprendrions
avez pris prendriez
ont pris
prendraient
ai reu
recevrais reois
as reu
recevrais recevons
a reu
recevrait recevez
avons reurecevrions
avez reu recevriez
ont reu
recevraient
ai rendu
rendrais
rends
as rendu
rendrais
rendons
a rendu
rendrait
rendez
avons rendurendrions
avez rendurendriez
ont rendu rendraient
ai rpondurpondraisrponds
as rpondurpondraisrpondons rpondes
a rpondu rpondraitrpondez
avons rpondurpondrions
avez rpondurpondriez
ont rpondurpondraient

plaise
Imperfect
plaises
plusse, plt
plaise
Perfect
plaisions aie plu
plaisiez
Pluperfect
plaisent
eusse plu
il pleuve Imperfect
il plt
Perfect
il ait plu
Pluperfect
il et plu
puisse
Imperfect
puisses
pusse, put
puisse
Perfect
puissions aie pu
puissiez
Pluperfect
puissent
eusse pu
prenne
Imperfect
prennes
prisse, prt
prenne
Perfect
prenions
aie pris
preniez
Pluperfect
prennent
eusse pris
reoive
Imperfect
reoives
reusse, ret
reoive
Perfect
recevions aie reu
receviez
Pluperfect
reoivent eusse reu
rende
Imperfect
rendes
rendisse, rendt
rende
Perfect
rendions
aie rendu
rendiez
Pluperfect
rendent
eusse rendu
rponde
Imperfect
rpondisse,
rponde
rpondt
rpondionsPerfect
rpondiez aie rpondu
rpondent Pluperfect
eusse rpondu

ai su

saurais

sache

sache

Imperfect

352

VERB TABLES

CONDITION IMPERATIVESUBJUNCTIV
AL
E
Perfect
as su
a su
avons su
avez su
ont su

saurais
saurait
saurions
sauriez
sauraient

sachons
sachez

Present
saches
sache
sachions
sachiez
sachent

susse, st
Perfect
aie su
Pluperfect
eusse su

INFINITIVEPARTICIPLESINDICATIVE&
Present

Future ImperfectPast historic

suivre follow
suivant, suivi

suis
suivraisuivais
suis
suivrassuivais
suit
suivra suivait
suivonsuivronsuivions suivmes
suivez suivrezsuiviez
suiventsuivrontsuivaientsuivirent
tiens
tiendraitenais
tiens
tiendrastenais
tient
tiendratenait
tenons tiendronstenions
tenez
tiendrezteniez
tiennenttiendronttenaient tinrent
viens
viendraivenais
viens
viendrasvenais
vient
viendravenait
venons viendronsvenions
venez
viendrezveniez
viennentviendrontvenaient vinrent
vis
vivrai vivais
vis
vivras vivais
vit
vivra
vivait
vivons vivronsvivions
vivez
vivrez viviez
vivent vivrontvivaient vcurent
vois
verrai voyais
vois
verras voyais
voit
verra
voyait
voyons verronsvoyions
voyez
verrez voyiez
voient verrontvoyaient virent
voudraivoulais
veux
voudrasvoulais
veut
voudra voulait

tenir hold
tenant, tenu

venir come
venant, venu

vivre live
vivant, vcu

voir see
voyant, vu

vouloir want, wishveux

voulant, voulu

suivis
suivis
suivit
suivtes
tins
tins
tint
tnmes
tntes
vins
vins
vint
vnmes
vntes
vcus
vcus
vcut
vcmes
vctes
vis
vis
vit
vmes
vtes
voulus
voulus
voulut

voulonsvoudrontvoulions voulmes
voulez voudrezvouliez
voultes
veulentvoudrontvoulaientvoulurent
VERB TABLES 353

CONDITION IMPERATIV SUBJUNCTI

AL
E
VE
Perfect

Present

ai suivi
suivrais
suis
suive
Imperfect
as suivi
suivrais
suivons
suives
suivisse, suivt
a suivi
suivrait
suivez
suive
Perfect
avons suivisuivrions
suivions
aie suivi
avez suivisuivriez
suiviez
Pluperfect
ont suivi suivraient
suivent
eusse suivi
ai tenu
tiendrais tiens
tienne
Imperfect
as tenu
tiendrais tenons
tiennes
tinsse, tnt
a tenu
tiendrait tenez
tienne
Perfect
avons tenutiendrions
tenions
aie tenu
avez tenu tiendriez
teniez
Pluperfect
ont tenu
tiendraient
tiennent
eusse tenu
suis venu(e)viendrais viens
vienne
Imperfect
es venu(e)viendrais venons
viennes
vinsse, vnt
est venu(e)viendrait venez
vienne
Perfect
sommes venueviendrions
venions
sois venu(e)
(e)s
viendriez
veniez
Pluperfect
tes venu(e)(s)viendraient
viennent
fusse venu(e)
sont venu(e)s
ai vcu
vivrais
vis
vive
Imperfect
as vcu
vivrais
vivons
vives
vcusse, vct
a vcu
vivrait
vivez
vive
Perfect
avons vcuvivrions
vivions
aie vcu
avez vcu vivriez
viviez
Pluperfect
ont vcu
vivraient
vivent
eusse vcu
ai vu
verrais
vois
voie
Imperfect
as vu
verrais
voyons
voies
visse, vt
a vu
verrait
voyez
voie
Perfect
avons vu
verrions
voyions
aie vu
avez vu
verriez
voyiez
Pluperfect
ont vu
verraient
voient
eusse vu
ai voulu
voudrais
veuille
veuille
Imperfect
as voulu
voudrais
veuillons veuilles
voulusse,
a voulu
voudrait
veuillez
veuille
voult
avons vouluvoudrions
voulions
Perfect
avez vouluvoudriez
vouliez
aie voulu
ont voulu voudraient
veuillent Pluperfect
eusse voulu

Index of grammar andstructuresfunctions

ReferencesaretosectionsSections.from49onwardsrefertofunctionsWhere.
itemsarefollowedbyseveraleferencthesare,generallyrankedintermsof
numbersofexamplesoftheitemina sectionInsome.cases,specificfunctions have been
identified in addition to a list of ref range of functions for which a grammar
structure m

grave79.3
with
articles2
circumflex79.4
with
infinitives45.,685.3
cedilla79.5
noun+infinitive45.6
diaeresis79.6
adjective++infinitive45.6
adjectives10
with towns, cities,2.4 countriesseealodemonstrative, possessiv
49.11

indefinite, and interrogative

expressing ownership:

feminine 10forms.5

tre6. a,38.,249.a,5

plural 9forms.,910.9

and appartenir49.d5
masculine adjectives with tw
meaning with in2.descriptionsb,410.5.2
49.,1

grand, demi,10.6nu

andavec 49.1

grand, large, frais, premier

in expressions2.c, 450of.d4time
+past participle10.b6
in expressions of price, agreementpay,quantity,ofadjectives of c
speed2.d4

10.7

cest+adjective+6.b,345.6

agreement of adjectives with

cause48de .,724.b1

than one10noun.a9

condition39 que/de.,685.c4 compound adjectives10.b,949.1

moins que/de39.5 introducedcestbyoril 6est.b3
and indirect object12.4 pronounsposition of 10adjectives.1
replacedy12.b5y

adjectives which precede the

+emphatic pronouns14.b2
10.2
referring to personal reladjectivetionships:which have a diff
avoir 49.a3

meaning with a change of pos

expressing consequence72.3
10.,113.a5
au point+que+subjunctive39.2,.2
position when there is more
+de +infinitive72.b3 adjective10.4

accents79,79.1
acute79.2

preceded by the 4partitive.,211.6 de

used as adverbs10.,478.1.3
354

INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS 355

used as 2nouns.i,49.e,149.a,34

adverbsexpressicon sequenceg72.b3

verbal adjectives43.1 d
past participles used42.1as advjerbsctive

xpressing73c opposition how to form

negative47.13adjectivesadverbs
expressing74.a2transition
10adjectives.,1049.9 aussi que49.b9
superlative10 .forms,1139.,49.9
autant de/d 49que.b9
le dernier49.a9
combien de/d22.3.1
comparative and superlativeplusformsdun22.3of
bon, mauvais,10.petit12
position of47adverbs.6
describing someone or something:adverbsof 47negation.,537

comparison

tre +adjective49.1
forms47.,47.,153ab
describing personal qualities:nonandpas47.7,39.1.2.2
avoir+noun+adjectivetr or
nonque+subjunctive, denying a
+adjective49.2
cause72.c1
avoir un air/la adjective49r+.2b
part and full53bnegation
referring to personal, social,negative questions 53cand comma
professional relationshipsi:answering a negative quest
tre+adjective/past49 .participle347.7,53c,.267a
expressing age:
with a partitive4.1 article
tre, paratre+adjective/past position of negative47.8 adverbs
participle49.4
nenini47.8,11..7,22.1.3,.3
admitting and 65conceding
4.e,114.g,253a
admitting
explicitly65.a,163.1
nulle 47part.8.2
omissionne andofpas 47.,53a9
admitting
mistakes65.b1
conceding65.2
sans+plus, rien,47.aucun(e)9,.1
the three stages65of.a2concedingb39.5
neque47 .,104.d,170.g3
adverbs47
forms47
nepas toujours, netoujours
formation of adverbs47.1of manner47.11
adjectives used47as.1.adverbs3nimporte11.13
some adverbial phrases ofexpletivemanner 47.,1249.c9
47.1,49.3.b12
in comparisons10.10
comparative and superlativene informssubjunctive39expressions.2,.1
47.2 72.a5
comparative and superlatindefiniteveormsofseeadverbsindefinite
bien, mal, beaucoup,47.2.1 peu adjectives, pronouns, and adv
some expressionsplusandwith
interrogativese advinterrogativebs
moins47.2.1
pronouns, adjectives, and adv
agreeing and disagreeing63
bienused vouloirwith47.2.2
with 63a.statement1
adverbs and adverbial phrasesagreeingof
quantity47.,43.,321,49.9
agreeing
to do63something.f1
adverbs and adverbial phrasesdisagreeingoftime with63a.a2statementb
47.,504.,4

saying what or who you disag

of

in indirect51bspeech 63.c2e
adverbs and adverbial phrasesotherofwaysplaceof disagreeing63.f2
47.,495.b,11 agreeing to63.differ3
in indirect51bspeech alors que, tandis73e que
apologies and 56sympathy

356

INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

apologies56.1
in superlative10.11forms
some examples from officindefinitealand 3 articles
business contexts56.1
in lists3
giving an explanation andwithexpressingqualified abstract3.1 noun
regret56.1

with occupations, religions,

giving reassurances aboutnationalitythe future3.b,149.c3

56.1with the pronounautre11.b6
sympathy56.2

omission when nouns are in

in spoken and written56.2 contextsappoition3.c1

appreciationseecongratulations andfor emphasis3.d1
appreciation

un(e)meaning the number3.1 one

approximate quantities19, and partitivenumbers4 articles

49.,507.b4

in lists4

expressing approximate49.4 ageindefinite and partitive art

describing age49.groups4
negative
context4.a1
fractions18,49.7
withne que 4.d1
argumentationseeIntroduction
withne ni niandsans4.e1
articles:
before an adjective+noun4.,211.a,6
definite, indefinite,24 partitive11.10
forms1.1
partitive articles in expres
definite 2articles
quantity4.3c,21,49.a5
contracted formsdeand 2,with4.,1
de/d+adjective following inde
8.c1
neuter,
and negative4.4 pronoun
elision before a vowelh2.1
oromissionamute of articles in set
position of thetoutarticle2.2 with4.,411.a,149.2
use of the definite2.3 articldescription of personal qual referring to specific
peopleavoirandun/avothirngs+adjectivelair
2.3
49.a2b
asking questions52,16,68.b,469.34
in lists2.3
referring to people and thingsasking inquestionsa
in a conclu
74.a,3
g
general2.way4
nest-ce 52epas?
with parts of2.b,the449.body1
in expressions of time, seasons,-t-incertaindtes,question forms
festivals2.c,450.4
tables
asserting and 64confirming
articles:continued
asserting explicitly64.1d
speed2.d4
confirming an arrangement or
statement64.2c
with towns, cities,2.4
in expressions of price, pay, quantity,

countries

confirming by 64repetition.d2
49.d11
withtitles,qualifiedpropernouns,and attitudeseeIntroduction
when nouns are in2.f,4apposition

and ordinal17,49. ,64numbers7

49.b3
cardinal
with languages2.4
simple
forms17.1
with meals, games, musicalcompound forms17.2
instruments2.h4
compound forms etlinked17.2.1by
with other parts of
speechfourto
numbersform which are not i
nouns2.i,49.e,111.b6
17.3

INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS 357

correcting someone66f else

in dates,amendingtitles documentsof66hj
cardinal numbers
kings and queens, with criticizingchaptersseecontradicting and criti pages, 17time.5
mille17.,4.1

expressing age:
avoir +number+ans49.4

de
expressing ownership49.c5

referring to 49age.4 groups

with
mille, un millier, un million, 6974.d3 un
milliard 17.4,19. ,49.d7
punctuation in17.numbers6
ordinal numbers17.7
premier, second/deuxime17.7.2,1
49.b7
addition-imeof17.7.2
examples with numbers
and adjectives17.7.2
fractions18,49.7
demi 18,10.c6
see alsoapproximate quantities and
numbers
certaintyseedoubt and certainty
car 72.c1

infinitives45.1,51b,56.2.,68,1

noun+de+infinitive45.6
adjective+de+infinitive45.6
de in
superlatives10.11
dautant 72que.c1
dautres11.a6b
de nombreux11.14
as nouns
de replacend12by.6
il +adjective+estde+infinitive6.b,3

usede tels11.a10

comme 10.d,1049.,721.c1
concedingseeadmitting and conceding

45.6
remercier55.de2

de+noun to describe what some

is made of, and2.dimensionse,420.2
referring to physical charac
tre+de+noun phrase49.1
expressing dim+adjective/nsions:

conditionseedoubt and certainty noun49.,206.2

confirmingseeasserting and confirmingexpressions50.dof4 time
congratulations and55 appreciation
demonstrative 5adjectives
congratulations55.1
formal
congratulations55.1
forms5.1
appreciation55.2
with-ciand-ladded to5.nouns2
formal
appreciation55.2
in lists5.3
contradicting and67 criticizing
contradicting someone or a statement
followed by relative6.1.1pronoun
67ad
stating your intention to explain/prove
the contrary67e
with-ciand-l6.2
contrasting attitudes,58emotions, feelings
approval and disapproval62
ce/c; ceci,6.d3cela; a
enthusiasm and indifferen60cest/ce6.b, sont 355.,571.2
definite seearticles

demonstrative 6pronouns

forms6.1

followed by prepositions6.1.1

meanings6.2of

hopes,

fears 61and

and 58dislikes.,1
likes
and preference58.2
love and59hate
correcting and66protesting
correcting information and

regrets

cestquefor emphasis55.,562.2
with

relative6.a,pronouns315.12

describing ancest/ilobject:sagit
de qui, que/qu, 49.dont1
with

emphatic 6pronouns.a,314.c,2

15.,12

and

apologizing66
denying then 66bcorrecting

expressing 49ownership.a5

ce in

set expressions6.a3

announcing the 66correction

358 INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

introducing someone:
cest/ce+emphaticsont
pronouns+qui
cest/voil49.b3
15.12
cest+adjective++infiniltive/est
for
emphasis14.d2
+adjective+de+infinitive6.b3
in expressions without14.e2 verbs
ceci, 6cela.c,312.c3
in comparisons14.f2
a 6.5d
withni ni ne 14.g2
dimensions20,49.6
in double 14subjects.h,212.b,222.2
length20.12,49.6
withmme(s)14.i,211.a,9 c
breadth, height,20.492.depth6
withaussi, seul,14.dautres2
weight20.,493.6
soi14.j,211.8
de +adjective/noun49.6
moi, toi,with positive imperativ
disagreeeingareeing and disagreeing14.b,314.d,444.1.1
disgustseesurprise and disgust position of 14pronouns.3
doubt and certainty71
order of pronouns14.4
various ways of expressingexpositiondoubtseeIntroductionand
certainty71.1e
expressing doubt in a debatingfaute 72.1
situation71.f1
fractions18,49.c7
expressing doubt and reservation
politely,
in a debating71.1 situation
impersonal phrases referring back or
correspondence54.1
forward to what71is.g1 in doubt
expressing possibility and probability
leave-taking54.2
71.2
in correspondence54.2
using impersonal71.a2phrases
greeting and leave54-taking

greeting54.1

in

usingpeut- tre71.b2

hopes, fears 61and regrets

usingvariousformsof pouvoir71.c2 hypothesisseedoubt and certainty
e
addingbiento express probability
71.f2

expressing

condition

imperativesseeverbs

impersonalseeverbs

negative71.kprobability2
indefinite
and 71hypothesis.3

withsiclauses,quand or71.a3c

other ways of expressing condition

71.d3
using varioussupposerformsof
71.e3
a summary

of forms71.inf3 context

elision81.15
emphatic pronouns14
forms14.1
following
prepositions14.a2

adjectives, pronouns

adverbs11

tout(adjective)11.1

tout(pronoun)11.b1

tout+autre11.c1
tout(adverb)11.1
diffrent11.2
divers11.2

plusieurs11.3
plusieurs(adjective)11.3
plusieurs(pronoun)11.b3
chaque(adjective)11.4
chacun(e)(pronoun)11.b4

following14.b,2

certain(adjective)11.5

and expressing 49ownership.a5 certain(pronoun)11.b5

pronouns
autre(adjective)11.6
cest/ce+emphaticsont

6.a,311.,149.c2

autres+emphatic pronoun14.d2

INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS 359

autre chose11.6
autre(pronoun)11.b6

forms
for 16people.1
forms
for16things.2
guidelines on16, inversion52,
verb tables
qui?andquoi?standing16alone.4
lequel?and its16forms.4.1
interrogativequel?adjectiveandits

dautrui11.d6
lunlautre11.7
lun+preposition+lautre11.7
lun et/ou11lautre.7.1
ni lun ni11lautre.7.1
on 11.,66f,8
forms16.4.2
see verbs:
interrogativecombienadverbsde/
passive
d?, comment?, o?,andquand?
on+son, soi,andvousse,11.8
their
position16.4.3
agreement of adjectives andwithpastnoun16subject.4a.3
participles11with.8 on
with a
pronoun16.subject4.3
on used to form 11the.,8 passivepourquoi?and how it can be use
41.,413.4.1
16.4a.6c
mme (adjective)11.9
interrogative adverbs with o
mme (pronoun)11.b9
inversion16.4a.163.4.4
mme (adverb)11.c9
prepositions preceding some
some set expressionsmme withinterrogative16.adverbs4.5
in reported (indirect)51b,
11.d9
tel(adjective) 11.a,1049.c9

69.e3

ask questions52ae,68.e,1
tel(pronoun)11.b10
how to
some set expressions11.c10 with69tel.a3d
quelquun11.11.1
see alsoasking questions
quelquun+adjectivee+11.11.1
introducing yourself or someone
quelque chose11.11.2
giving your name, using a ver
quelque chose+de+adjective11.11.2 prsenter49.a3b
quelque (adjective)11.,1173f

irregularseeverbs tables
quelque(adverb) 11.b,1173f
quelques-(pronoun)uns11.11.3
leave-takingseegreeting and leave-ta
qui que, quoi+subjqunctive11.,12
liaison80.14
logical relations72
73g
quoi que(pronoun)quoiqueand
cause72.1
(conjunction)11.,1273e
stating a cause explicitly,
nimporte (adjective)quel11.13
doubt
on a72cause.1d
nimporte lequel(pronoun)11.b13
implicit72c.a2usec
and consequence72.3
nimporte(pronoun),qui
quiconque11.b13
stating a consequence explic
nimporte (pronoun)quoi11.b13
72.a3d
nimporte combien, comment, o,
aim72.5
quand(adverbs)11.c13
maint11.14
maintreplacedplusbydun,
narrating:
tenses referring 50,to other tim
plusieurs, de 11nombreux.14
implicit consequence72.a4

speec

indefiniteseearticles
infinitivesseeverbs
interrogative pronouns, adjectives, and
adverbs16,52

see sequence in time and tense

verbs:
how to use each of the tense

360

INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

negationseeadverbs of negation, orderhowtof pronouns with the p

form negative adjectives,
andimperative14.d,444
disagreement, confirming, conceding,
correcting, contradicting and
persuading, volition, permission and
partitiveseearticles
prohibition70.c,170.,2
exemption70.4
passiveseeverbs
permission and 70obligation
nouns9
masculine nouns according to
70.1
meaning9.1
masculine nouns according to
prohibition70.a2c
9.2
feminine nouns according to meaning
expressing obligation to do
9.3
feminine nouns according to ending
obligation expressed in lega
9.4
masculine nouns referring to either
obligation not to70do.f3 somethi
sex9.,549.c3
nouns with masculine and femin
e
70.h3
forms9.5.1
nouns with different masculine and
do something70.4
feminine 9forms.5.4
nouns with either masculine or
pronouns12
forms12.1
feminine
gender9.5.5
change of meaning with change of
agreement of the verb with t
gender9.6
genswith masculine or feminine
il(s), 12elle(s).c2
adjectives9.7
gender
of
compound9.8 nouns
on11.,8
plural forms9.of9 nouns
see indefinite adjectives, p
plural
of
compound9.10 nouns
and adverbs
plural
of
imported9.11 words
ce/creplacingil(s), 12elle(s).c2
nouns which change their meaning in
45.6
the plural9.12form
nouns which are singular in French
position of direct object pr
and plural in9.13English
numberssee cardinal and ordinal numbers
parce quecriticizing,

72.1

past participlesseeverb

giving permission to do some

denyindingpermission70.c1

prohibitive70notices.d2

70.3

70.b3c

ordering someone to do somet

saying that someone does not

personal

tu andvous12.a2

more subject 12pronouns.b2

il +adjective+estde+infinitive6.b,3

the impersonal directle/l12.3 object

12.a,314.3

the direct objectle/l,pronounsles

obligationseepermission and obligationnever combinedordewith12.b3
opposition73,
the indirect object pronouns
see alsodisagreement,
protesting,12.4
lacking volition, prohibition,y(adverb) logical12.a,544
relations
y (pronoun) replacing+noun12.b5
cohesive
devices73
y compris42.1
replacingde 12.a,644
implicit
opposition73h
en (adverb)
order of
pronouns14.,44
en (pronoun)
rde+nounplacing

12.b6

INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS 361

en referring to12.bquantity6probabilityseedoubt and certainty

en replacing a12statement.c6pronounsseedemonstrative, indefini en in some set
expressions12.d6interrogative, personal, posse
persuadingseesuggesting and persuadingreflexive, relative, order of position of personal,
reflexiveandpositionandcertainofpronouns
emphatic pronouns14.3
protestingseecorrecting and protesti
before the verb, the aux puisqueliary72.c1verb, the
infinitive14.a,312.3
punctuation in direct and repor
withnegativeandpositiveimperatives(indirect) 51aspeech
14.b3
in numbers17.6
additionstofthe singular positive
imperative-verbsof beforeyand referring to people, 49things and
en14.b3
describing people49.and1 things
withfaire, laisser,andenvoyerverbsdescribing someones persona
of the
senses14.c3
49.2
possessive adjectives7
describing relationships49.3
forms
with one7.a1owner
making
introductions49.b3
forms
with more than7.b1 one
owner
introductions49.b3
in lists7.c,149.b5
giving
information about som
differences
from7.d1 English
occupation49.3
in superlative10.12forms
expressing49.age4
expressing ownership49.a5d,f
with the pronounautre11.a6
formal

with 11on.8

referring to parts49.5eof the bo

referringseeto dimensionssize 49.6

expressing
ownership49.b5c
les leursandles leur49.b5
referring to quantity49.,7 and nu
referring to parts49.e,5of
the body
approximate numbers, fractio
see alsodefinite articles
possessive pronouns8
referring to quality and dis
forms
with one8.a1owner
features49.8
forms
with more than8.b1 one
owner
formsde8with.c1 a or
contracted
possibilityseed
oubt and
certaintyequalit
y or
49similarity.b9
prepositions
and
prepositional48
, phrases
see also
directions49.
giving
10
andde
giving
or48
location,
of
manner,
.,means491.12
origin or d
of
49.11
see alsocardinal numbers,

comparison49.9

inequality49.9

other

ways of 49comparing.9

place2.e,484.,
492.a,11 d
of
of
of
of

referring to
the manner
of d
something49
.12

time48.,503.4
cause48.,724.
b1
consequence7
2.b5
restriction48.,
73b5
aim, or
48purpose.6

dates
reflexive
pronouns13

of
referring
see
to
alsoorder of
49oc.c3up pronouns,
ation
and
referring
to
49age.4
position of
groups
pronouns
expressing
dimension reflexiveseev
s49.6
erbs
comparison49
expressing .9
register
expressing opposition73a relative
daprs4.
4
present participlesseeverbs

forms13.1

xiii
pronouns15,
see
alsoindefinite
pronouns

and50time.4

362

INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

qui15.,11.,1211.b14

asking questions as a conclu

preposition+qui15.3

74.a,3 g

que15.2

use of punctuation74.b,3d, g

lequel15.4

cohesive devices indicating

preposition+lequel15.5
de, +lequel15.6
dont15.8

conclusion74.e3f

subjunctiseeverbs

suggesting and 68persuading

dont=de qui,15duquel.8
suggesting68.a1b
order of wordsdontfollowing15.8.1 announcing
your suggestion p
dontfollowing its15 antecedent.8.268.c1d
dontnot equivalentdequi,toduquelpersuading
someone to think
you do.a2b,68 d
15.8.3
o 15.,73g9
stating that you 68are.c2 persuad
prepositiquoi15n+.10
persuading
someone to do som
cequi 15.,11
68.a3
and the emphaticcequiform
persuading
someone not to do
cest/cest que58.1
something68.b3
tout ce 15qui.11,11..b1
other ways
of persuading and
cest/ce sontqui, que/qu, dissuadingdont 68.4
15.12

supposer71.e3

pronoun+qui,surprise and57 disgust

cest/ce+emphaticsont
que/qu,15dont.12
surprise and57disbelief.1
reporting information 51(indirectdisgust57speech).2
writing minutes51c
indirect questions51b

and giving

an explanation57.2 fo

sympathysee apologies and sympathy

sequence in time50and.,50.dtenses5tenssees verbs, sequence in time a

tenses expressing previoustensesactions or
events50.a5
tenses expressing simultaneous
verb tables
actions or50events.b5
tenses expressing subsequent actions
or events50.c5
agreement of verb22and.,1 subjec
sounds of French
12.b,222.23.49,.c7
vowels75
compound subjectso linkedorni
nasal vowels76
22.3.3
semi-vowels/semi- 77consonants
22.3.4
consonants78
formation of23, tenses
the lettersk,w,78h.1
structuring74
verb tables
beginning74.1
indicative
tenses:
cohesive devices giving an outline
verbs22,

the four conjugations22

impersonal verbs and agreeme

by

74.c1
use of punctuation74.1
continuing74.2
changing the74subject.d2
ending74.3

compound24
the present24.tense2
simple and

of-erverbs24.a2
of-irverbs24.b2
of-reverbs24.c2
of-oirverbs24.d2

INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS 363

avoir, 24tre.2.1agreement of past participle

verbs ending-eler,in -eter, -cer,subject-28.2.1
ger, -oyer, -uyer,24.2.3-ayer how the perfect 29,tense is use
verbs ending+consonant+in-er

50.b,256.1

24.2.3 compared with the29,26imperfect.1

verbs ending-indre24.2.4 how the future perfect tense
verbs ending-oudre24in.2.4
30
howthepresenttenseisused24.34.1, in dependent clausesd followi
50.,501.d,250.e5que, aussitt que, quand, lo
expressing directions49.a10b

aprs 30que

venir+infinitivede 24.,263.,501.d2 how the pluperfect31,tense is

si +present24.,33.1,68.1.c4

50.c,256.1

FrenchpresenttenseEnglishpresent si +pluperfect31,33.1.1
tenses24.4

how the past anterior32, tense

tre en train+infinitivede24.4
50.c,250.e5
aller(+en)+present participle24.4in dependent clausesd followi
the future25 tense

que, aussitt que, quand, lo

forms25,25.1.31
aprs que 32peine
how the future tense25.,2 is usthed conditional and the condi
50.,563.,701.h3
expressing directions49.a10b
quand+future 25tense.3

perfect 33tenses
forms33
how the

conditional and cond

tenses33 .,are71.e1used
aller(+en)+present participle25.3.1perfect
aller+ infinitive25.3,50.2.c,367e
in dependent clausesd followi
present tense, future25.3 meaningque, aussitt que, quand, lo
the imperfect26 tense
33.1
formation26
si+conditional and conditiona
how the imperfect 26tense.,1 is33.used1.1
1.,150.a,256.1
siand the sequence33.1of,.1 tenses
venir+infinitivede26.1
71.a3b
si+imperfect26.,331.1.1
order of clauses when expres
used in conjunction with
conditionsthepast33.1.1
sinot introducing73eafconditio
historic26.1
the past 27,historic50.e5
use queof to introduce second an
formation27.1
subsequent conditions33.1.2
how the past historic27.,2 is
howusedtheconditiotenalisseused33.1
50.b2
1.58,.,66f,268.d,168.f,469.d,1
used in conjunction with the69.a 4imperfectc,71 f,.g,171.m,273e, 74h,.c3
27.,26.1
how the conditional perfect
the compound28tenses
used33.1.56,.,66d1

the past participle42

avoir+past participle28.1
agreement of past participleformationwith42 the
preceding direct28.1.object1
past participles used as nou
no agreement28with.1.1
adjectives, prepositions, co
tre+past participle28.2
42.1
verbscontinued
the past participletre42.,2 with
28.2

364

INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

agreement of the past participlechanging withthe74subject.d2

reflexive42verbs.3 as an exclamation44
agreement of the past participleotherwayswithof giving44.2,.an2 orde
the
subject42.3
70.3
if the reflexivethe infinitivepronoun45
no
agreement
is equivalent to an indirectthe presentobject and perfect45 infi
42.3
used as a45noun.1
agreement with a precedinguseddirectasan
imperative, an
object42.4
exclamation, an 45interrogativ.1,.1
no agreement with a direct70.objecth3
following the42.3verb
expressing
directions49.b10
agreement of the past
participleusedin correctingwith66documentsj
expressing 69volition
avoir42.4
no agreement
with42the.4
subjectfollowingde45.1.2
agreement with the precedingfollowingdirectpour, sans, aprs, avan
object42.4
de45.1.3
no agreement42with.4
used when the subject is the
no agreement of the past bothparticipleparts of 45the.2 sentence
impersonal42verbs.5
past particfaireplein theof
intheconstructionverb+,de,pour
constructfaire+infinitiveon42.7
+infinitive45.5,69.1
vu, y compris42.1
assez,+adjective+troppour
the passive41
+infinitive45.6
present 43participle
formation41,41.2
the
par,+thede
agent41
formation43
formed mainly with transitive verbs
gerunds, prepositions, conju
41.1.1
other ways of expressing the passive
tant donn42.1
41.3
on41.4
the
subjunctive34
reflexive41verbs.3
the four tenses of34the.1 subju
the passive with an indirect object in
English,
but
not41.in4.1French
passive
forms
for writing51c minutes
expressing enthusiasm60
stem changes in the indicati
expressing
exemption70.b4
the subjunctive35.1,24..24.2.4
expressing72cause.1
verbs which have completely
the imperative44
different forms in the prese
forms44,44.1
indicative and 35subjunctive.1.3
imperatives with personal pronouns
changes in the first and sec
14.b3
imperatives
of reflexive44.1.1
verbs
used as nouns, adjectives, v

43.,491.b12

the present subjunctive35

similarities of some subjunc

indicative35forms.1

verbs with different forms a

persons 35plural.1.4

how imperatives44 .are,542.,2used the

imperfect 36subjunctive
perfect subjunctive37

56.,2,166f,67e,69.d4e

the

expressing
persuading68.4

pluperfect 38subjunctive
the
sequence of tenses:

directions49.a10

expressing
expressing

con71.d3itions
opposition73h

INDEX OF GRAMMAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS 365

the subjunctive in dependentused claustokeeps your63.e1distance

39,39.24

il (me) semble46.3

French preference for theexpressingpresentandexemption from do perfect

subjunctive39,50.a 5tensesomething70.f4h
the subjunctive in39.main1 clausexpressing 71doubt.g1
the subjunctive in dependexpressingntclausespossibility and p
39.2

71.a,2 cd, f, hi

expressing doubt, uncertain ty,structuring74.b,2 74a.ctext3

possibility39.2,71 ..a1c

reflexive40verbs

ne pas douter+indicativeque39.2,.1
71.a1

reflexive pronouns13

position of 14pronouns.3

expressing necessity, obliagreementation, of the past42.3 partic restriction,39

advantage.2,68.1.f1 tenses of reflexive40.1 verbs expressing wanting, wishing,the
imperative of reflexive
agreeing, accepting39.2.1
44.1.1
expressing feelings, emotihowns,reflexive verbs40.2 are used
attitudes39.2,.1
with parts of40the.,42.body3
see also attitude,71.k2
transitive verbs and reflexi
il semble46.que3
differences between French a
expressing39.time2.2
English40.2,40.1.2.2
expressing
concession39.2,73.2g
reciprocal meaning of some r
expressing
hypothesis,
conditionverbs40.2.3
39.2,71.2.d3e
change of meaning when some
expressing aim, result, consequencebecomereflexive40.2.4
39.2,72 .. b3c,72.a5
reflexive verbs with a passi
subjunctive
or indicativedemeaningfollowing40.2,41.5.3
sorte que, de manire que,reportingdefaoninformation (indir
que39.2,72 ..a3
expressing39place.2.2
subjunctivenonafter(pas) que
39.2,72 .. c,174.e3

speech)51b
expressing enthusiasm and
indifference60

volition69
subjunctive in a 39relative.,3wantingclause to do 69something.1
72.c5
stating your intention to do
subjunctive following certain69.2 negative
clauses:
asking what someone intends o
il ny a rien39.3que
69.3
volitioncontinued
subjunctive quifollowingque,quoi
que11.12
asking someone for69.something4
subjunctive following sup rlative
adjectives and 39expressions.,49.c9
ways of avoiding the subju ctive
done on purpose69.6or not
39.,725.c3
expressi(un)willingnesstoactupon

request69.5

indicating whether something

impersonal46,verbs42.5
used for expressing dates, time,

stating what someone does no

69.7

weather46.1
emphasizing what someone wan
some examples of impersonal 69.e7verbs
46.,22.3,39.4.3
expressing directions49.a10b