Kingdom Protozoa

Protozoa

-composed of protein filaments e.g

actin, microtubules, vesicles, e.g alveoli,
or combination of all three

-means first animals

-formerlly known
animalcules

as

-motile, eukaryotic,
organisms

infusoria

and

or

unicellular

-polyphyletic taxon with an unclear

boundary
*Choanoflagellata
-the only taxon of protozoa that is
considered the sister taxon of Metazoa
and truly classify as the first animals
*Myxozoa
-formerly myxosporidia
-a group of animals related to cnidarians
Form and Function
-the body most protozoans consists of a
single cell, although many species form
colonies
-body is usually enclosed only by the cell
membrane
-the rigidity or flexibility of the body and
its shape are largely determined by the
cytoskeleton
Pellicle
-cytoskeleton
together

and

cell

membrane

-a sort of protozoan body wall

Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeletons
of
Actin
Microfilaments, Microtubules, and
Alveoli
o Epiplasmic microfilaments
Euglenoids
Amoebas
o Microtubular corset
Euglenoids
Flagellates
Apicomplexans
ciliates
o Microtubular axial skeleton
of flagellates / axostyle
Axostylates
flagellates
o Axopod microtubules
*centroplast [an MTOC]
Heliozoans
Spherical radiolarians
o Alveoli
-alveoli are vesicles
-together they form alveolata
*empty alveoli , like those in
ciliates, may be turgid and help
support the cell, but they also
store ca2+ , which can be released
to trigger cellular responses
Ciliates
Apicomplexans
dinoflagellates
o Alveoli with plates of cellulose
Dinoflagellates
Test/lorica/theca/shell
-a skeleton that forms a more or less
complete covering, whether internal or
external
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Kingdom Protozoa
Locomotor Organelles
o Flagella
*undulatory waves
-pass from base to tip and drive
the organism in the opposite
direction
*Mastigonemes
-fine lateral hairs in flagella
-cause the flagella to pull rather
than push as the flagellar waves
pass from base to tip
o Cilia
o Pseudopodia
All types of nutrition occur in protozoa.
o Photosynthesis
o Absorb dissolve organic material
from the environment
o Digest food particles or prey
intracellularly in food vacuoles
[phagocytosis]
o Diffusion
-important for internal transport
in all protozoans
Cytostome
-a definite cell mouth
Cytopharynx
-specialized microtubular tract
Cyclosis
-circulation of fluid cytoplasm
e.g paramecium
bidirectional shuttling of vesicles
-occurs in tracks of microtubules in the
axis of each slender pseudopodium

Freshwater protozoa osmoregulate to

remove excess water and to adjust the
concentration and proportions of their
internal ions.
Excess water enter the body of
freshwater protozoa by osmosis, with
food in vacuoles, and pinocytotic
vesicles.
Osmoregulation
-accomplished by active ion transport at
the cell membrane and by a system of
water-and-ion-pumping
organelles
called contractile vacuole complex
Contractile vacuole complex
-no significance in removing metabolic
wastes
o Large spherical vesicles
o Contractile vacuole
Contractile
vacuole
pore
Microtubules
-discharges the fluid to the
outside of the organism
*rate of discharge depends
on the osmotic concentration
of the external medium
o Spongiome
-array of cytoplasmic vesicles or
tubules
-collects fluid from cytoplasm and
conducts it to the contractile
vacuole
Paramecium caudatum

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Kingdom Protozoa
-can complete a cycle of vacuole filling
and discharge as rapidly as every 6
seconds and expel a volume equivalent
to its entire body every 15 minutes
Freshwater
protozoans
hypotonic urine.

excrete

Reproduction and Life Cycles

o Clonal
reproduction
by
mitosis
Fission
-division of parent cell into
two or more daughter cells
-it is called binary
fission if it results in two
similar progeny cells
-it is called budding if
progeny cell is much
smaller than the other
-multiple fission is a
result of division of parent
into two or more daughter
cells
Schizogony
-a specialized form of
multiple fission in which
repeated divisions of the
nucleus precede the cell
divisions
Mitotic Division of Protozoan Cell
Nucleus vs. Mitotic Division of
Animal Cell Nucleus
Animal Cell
*Open spindle
-the
nuclear
membrane
disintegrates
as
the
chromosomes
condense
and
attach to the mitotic spindle
Protozoan Cell

*close spindle
-the nuclear membrane does not
break and the spindle forms
within its nucleus
-primitive form of mitosis
Intermediate between open and
closed spindles
-occure
in
chlamydomonas
apicomplexans

chlorophytes
and volvox

e.g
and

-the nuclear membrane remains largely

intact, but breaks occur that allow
cytoplasmic spindle microtubules to
enter the nucleus and attach to the
chromosomes
o Sexual reproduction
-widespread but not universal
-life cycles are diverse
Three general forms of Sexual
Reproduction in Protozoans
Haploid-dominant life cycle
-includes haploid individuals that
either transform into gametes or
produce them by mitosis
-fusion of haploid gametes results
in a diploid zygote that soon
undergoes meiosis to form four
new haploid individuals
-typifies apicomplexans
Diploid-dominant life cycle
-the 2N individuals undergo
meiosis to produce N gametes [or
gamete nuclei], which fuse into a
2N zygote individual
-occur in ciliates and animals
Haploid-diploid codominant
life cycle
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-an asexual generation alternates
with sexual generation
-occurs in forams and plants
Encystment
-the
protozoans
secrete
a
thickened envelope about itself
and becomes inactive
Simplest life cycle
-includes only two phases: active
phase and protective, encysted
phase
Complex life cycle
-involves encysted zygote or by
formation of special reproductive
cyst
Diversity of Protozoa
EuglenozoaP
EuglenoideaC
-

body is elongate with an invagination,

the reservoir, at the anterior end
-cytostome lies at the base of the
reservoir and joins a cytopharynx
-A contractile vacuole discharges into
the reservoir in freshwater species
-two flagella, each bearing a row of
mastigonemes, arise from the reservoir
wall
-pellicle is thrown into rounded ridges
alternating with narrow grooves, which
together wind helically around cell
-ectoplasm has a dense skeletal mesh of
fibrous proteins

-pellicular microtubule under this mesh

may be responsible for the peristaltic
movements of cell known as euglenoid
movement or metaboly
-the
photosynthetic
euglenoids
chloroplast contains chlorophylls a and
b
- photosynthetic euglenoids rotate
around their longitudinal axis as they
swim toward light so that the
paraflagellar
body
will
receive
continuous illumination
-photosynthetic
species
synthesize
paramylon
in
the
pyrenoid
of
chloroplast and stored as free granules
in the cytoplasm
-heterotrophic mode of nutrition is
primitive
-colorless heterotrophs feed on organic
compounds
absorbed
from
the
surrounding water, bacteria, and other
protozoan cell
-chloroplast
membranes

is

surrounded

by

-clonal reproduction by binary fission

-two flagella, basal bodies, and nucleus
replicate before cell division
o Peranema
-both flagella are long, but one
trails backward and can be used
to catch food or temporarily
attach to something
-long locomotory flagellum is
thickened and stiffened along
most of its length by a paraxial
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Kingdom Protozoa
rod located to one side of
axoneme
-Seizes pray with a unique rod
organ
associated
with
its
cytopharynx and cytostome. It
consists of two stiff, parallel
rods /microtubule bundles and
other intracellular structures
called vanes
-feeds on wide variety of living
organisms
o Euglena
-one flagellum is very short and
terminates at the base of the long
flagellum
-a pigmented eyespot, or stigma,
shades a photosensitive bulge, the
paraflagellar body, at the base of
long flagellum
-autotrophic
-has rudimentary rod organ
Cyclidioposis acus
-longitudinall
aligned
granules
form
an
intracellular backbone
KinetoplastidaC
-colorless heterotrophs
-most are important parasites
-all share the flagellar paraxial rod
-uniquely have a conspicuous mass of
DNA called kinetoplast [located within a
single, large mitochondrion] which code
for the morphogenesis of mitochondria
-the one or two flagella arise from a
reservoir-like pit

-basal bodies are located on or near the

kinetoplast mitochondrion
-undergo binary fission
o Bodo
-free-living
-biflagellate
-feed on bacteria
-anterior
flagellum
with
mastigonemes
o Trypanosome
-gut parasites of insects and
blood parasites of vertebrates
-usually, only the anterior
flagellum is present, the second
being represented only by a basal
body
-commonly, the flagellum trails
and is joined to the side of the
body by an undulating membrane
-pellicle has a thick glycocalyx ,
whose protein composition is
controlled by up to 1ooo genes,
roughly 4o% of cells large
genome
-differential gene expression and
protein synthesis during various
infective stages changes the
antigen signature of glycocalyx,
enabling the parasite to elude the
hosts immune system
*Leishmania and Trypanosoma
-agents od numerous diseases of
humans
and
domesticated
animals
-part of the life cycle is passed
within or attached to gut cells of
blood-sucking
insects
and
another part of the cycle is spent
in the blood plasma or in white
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Kingdom Protozoa
blood cells and lymphoid cells of
vertebrate host
-intracellular
stages
are
aflagellate, but during the life
cycle, motile, extracellular, and
flagellated stages occur in the
vertebrate bloodstream or in the
invertebrate host
Leishmania
-the
agent
of
the
widespread kala-azar and
related diseases
-cause skin lesions and
interfere with the immune
responses
-the blood-sucking insect
hosts are the sand flies or
no-see-ums
[Ceratopogonidae]
Trypanosoma brucei
-12o chromosomes
*Trypanosoma
brucei
rhodesiense
&Trypanosoma
brucei
gambiense
-cause African sleeping
sickness
-transmitted by tsetse fly
-invades the cerebrospinal
fluid and brain, producing
the lethargy, drowsiness,
and mental deterioration
Trypanosoma cruzi
-causes Chagass disease
-transmitted by bloodsucking bugs
-may invade organs
ChlorophytaP
VolvocidaO

the large, cup-shaped chloroplast

contains chlorophylls a and b and a
pyrenoid that synthesizes amylopectin
as a food storage product
-permanently flagellated
-flagella lacking mastigonemes
-cells are enclosed in a gel matrix
composed
of
glycoproteins
and
glycoaminoglycans and are interjoined
by cytoplasmic bridges
o Spirogyra
-nonmotile
-filamentous
-fresh water algae
o Chlamydomonas
-solitary
o Gonium
-colonial
-flat plates of 32-4o cells
o Pandorina
-form hollow sphere
-16-32 cells
o Eudorina
-form hollow sphere
-32 cells
o Pleodorina
-form hollow sphere
-64-128 cells
o Volvox
-form hollow sphere
-2ooo-6ooo cells
ChoanoflagellataP
-sister taxon of animals
-mostly tiny
-While feeding, the flagellum creates a
water current from which he collar
filters bacteria and organic particulates.
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Kingdom Protozoa
Bacteria trapped on the collar are
ingested by phagocytosis

specialized for glycolysis rather than

aerobic respiration

*both choanoflagellate and primitive

monociliated animal bear a single
flagellum, which bears a bilateral vane
of mastigoneme-like filaments and is
surrounded by a cylindrical collar of
microvilli

RetortamonadeaC

-may be solitary or colonial, attached or

free swimming

-mitochondria are absent

-some sessile species are attached by a

stalk, part of a vaselike test
-test is composed of interconnected,
extracellular, siliceous rods
o Proterospongia
-colonial, planktonic form
-united by a jellylike extracellular
matrix or by their collars
Proterospongia
choanojuncta
-found to include both a
colonial planktonic stage
and a solitary, aflagellate
attached stage
RetortamonadaP
-heterotrophic flagellates have from four
to thousand of flagella organized in
functional groups
-most live anaerobically in the guts of
vertebrates and insects, especially wood
roaches and termites
-because they live in oxygen-free
environments, mitochondria are either
absent or atypical, the cells being

-two or four anterior flagella, one of

which is associated with the cytostome,
which is elongate longitudinally as a
body furrow

o Chilomastix sp.
-cause diarrhea in humans
o Retortamonas
-cause diarrhea in poultry
DiplomonadeaC
-cell with eight flagella, two cytostomes,
two nuclei [twinned, diplozoic cell]
-mitochondria are absent
-with attachment disc and long flagellar
axonemes
o Hexamita
-free living in anoxic habitats
o Giardia
-mitochondria are absent
-parasitic
-certain mitochondrial genes and
proteins occur, suggesting that
the lack of mitochondria is
secondary rather than primary
Giardia lamblia
-have four flagella, one of
which trails behind the
leading three and the cell
body
-lack golgi bodies and
mitochondria
-cause bloody diarrhea
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Kingdom Protozoa
-common
intestinal
parasite in America
Axostylata

TrichomonadidaO
-

has two to six flagella

-flagellum forms undulating membrane

-They have a bundle of microtubules

called axostyle that extends the length of
the cell. In most species, skeletal in
function, like an intracellular backbone,
but in some primitive species, it
undulates and imparts a snaky motion
to cell

-axostyle projects posteriorly to form the

attachment site
o Trichomonas
-have
surface-attached
spirochetes
whose
motion
propels the flagellate
Trichomonas vaginalis
-a small parasite with four
anterior
flagella
that
inhabits the urogenital
tract of humans and
causes
a
widespread
sexually
transmitted
disease
o Mixotricha
Mixotricha paradoxa
-have
surface-attached
spirochetes whose motion
propels the flagellate

-lack mitochondria but have golgi bodies

OxymonadeaC
-four posterior flagella
-no cytostome, mitochondria, or golgi
bodies
-undulatory axostyle
-with intracellular bacteria and surfaceattached spirochetes
-anaerobes in the gut of termites and
wood roaches
o Oxymonas
o Pyrsonympha
C

Parabasalea

-cells have from few to thousand flagella

and aggregates of large golgi bodies
[parabasal bodies]
-axostyle is skeletal single, replicated, or
lost
-mitochondria are absent
-gut symbionts

HypermastigidaO
-

has many flagella at the anterior end of

the cell
-have hundreds or thousands of flagella
and astounding internal complexity
-rely on intra- and extracellular bacteria
and spirochetes for the actual
breakdown of cellulose
o Barbulanympha
o Lophomonas
o Trichonympha
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Kingdom Protozoa
-have saclike or elongated body
usually bearing an anterior
rostrum
Trichonympha
campanula
-live in the gut of termites
AlveolataP

*longitudinal flagellum
-drives
water
posteriorly
contributes to forward motion

and

-contractile vacuole is called pusule

-united on the basis of having similar

ribosomal DNA sequences and pellicular
alveoli
DinoflagellataSP
-dinoflagellates with chloroplasts have
xanthophyll pigment peridinin which
colors them red-brown or golden brown
-chloroplasts are surrounded by 3
membranes and have chlorophylls a and
c, but lack chlorophyll b
-heterotrophic
dinoflagellates
plastid and are colorless

-causes both rotation and forward

movement

lack

-few are endoparasites of other

protozoans, crustaceans, and fishes
-nucleus
contains
permanently
condensed chromosomes attached to the
nuclear membrane

*pusule is surrounded by contractile

myonemes
-have complex skeleton called theca
which contains deposits of skeletal
cellulose in alveoli
-naked/unarmored theca is thin and
flexible
-either
pigmented autotrophs
colorless heterotrophs

or

-prey
is
usually
captured
by
pseudopodia and ingest through an oral
opening associated with the long
flagellar groove
-undergo longitudinal binary fission
-forms cyst
*ciguatera food poisoning in humans

-They have 2 flagella. One is attached a

short distance behind the middle of the
body, is directed posteriorly, lies in a
longitudinal groove [sulcus], and have
two rows of mastigonemes. The other is
transverse and located in a groove
[cingulum]

-caused by a marine dinoflagellate that

lives attached to multicellular algae

*transverse flagellum

-can
cause
diarrhea,
respiratory
problems, nausea, muscle weakness,
skin sensation

-bears unilateral row of mastigonemes

*ciguatoxin
-acquired by grazing herbivorous fish
that concentrate the toxin in their
tissues and pass it up the food chain

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Kingdom Protozoa
*palmella
-occur in some species

-many animal tissues and organs have

many analogs in the cellular anatomy of
ciliates

-naked, nonflagellated ball form

-all are heterotrophs

-can transform into multicellular form

by fission

-one third are ecto- or endocommensals

or parasites

o Gymnodinium
-theca is thin and flexible
-cause of red tide
o Gonyaulax
-cause of red tide
o Noctiluca
-principal
contributors
to
bioluminescence
-a predator that uses a single
contractile tentacle, containing
myonemes, to catch prey and
convey it to its cell mouth
o Pfiesteria
-colorless heterotroph that feeds
by phagocytosis on variety of
organisms
-can retain the chloroplast intact
and then use them to provide
itself with photosynthate when
feeding on unicellular algae
-life cycle includes biflagellated
planktonic cell stage, benthic
ameba stage, encysted stage
* Pfiesteria piscicida
-cell from hell
-cause skin lesion in fish
o Symbiodinium
Symbiodinium
microadriaticum

-fixed anterior-posterior polarity

-most are asymmetric, few are radially
symmetric with an anterior mouth
-most are solitary and motile, some form
colonies and are sedentary
-most are naked, some are housed in a
test
-surface cilia are divided into somatic
ciliature [body] and oral ciliature
[mouth]
*kinety
-longitudinal row of cilia composed of
kinetids
*kinetid
-composed of a cilium, basal body,
striated rootlet, kinetodesma, and
ribbons of microtubules
*monokinetid
-a unitary kinetid
*dikinetid

CiliophoraSP

-double monokinetid

-monophyletic taxon of animated and

engaging cell-organisms

-cilia occur in pairs along kinety

*polykinetid
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Kingdom Protozoa
KaryorelicteaC
o
o
o
o

Loxodes
Geleia
Remanella
Tracheloraphis

SpirotricheaC
HeterotrichiaSC
o
o
o
o

Blepharisma
Folliculina
Spirostomum
Stentor

OligotrichiaSC
o Halteria
StichotrichiaSC
o Stylonychia
HypotrichiaSC
o Aspidisca
o Euplotes
LitostomateaC
o Didinium
o Dileptus
o Mesodinium
TrichostomatiaSC
o Balantidium
o Entodinium
ProstomateaC
o Coleps
o Prorodon
PhyllopharyngeaC

PhyllopharyngiaSC
o Chilodonella
ChonotrichiaSC
SuctoriaSC
o
o
o
o

Allantosoma
Ephelota
Heliophyra
Tokophyra

NassophoreaC
PeniculidaO
o Paramecium
OligohymenophoreaC
HymenostomatiaSC
o
o
o
o

Tetrahymena
Ichthyophthirius
Pleuronema
Uronema

PeritrichiaSC
o
o
o
o
o

Carchesium
Epistylis
Trichodina
Urceolaria
Vorticella

ColpodeaC
o Bursaria
o Colpoda
ApicomplexaSP
GregarineaC
o Gregarina
o Monocystis
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Kingdom Protozoa

Monocystis lumbrici

CoccidiaC
o
o
o
o

Cryptosporidium
Eimeria
Haemogregarina
Toxoplasma

Hematozoea

o Haemoproteus
o Leucocytozoon
o Plasmodium
Ameboid Protozoa
Amebas
CaryoblastaP

Pelomyxa palustris
o Mastigamoeba
o Mastigella

o Euglypha
o Gromia
o Vampyrella
ForaminifereaP
AllogromiinaC
o Iridia
o Myxotheca
o Nemogullmia
TextulariinaC
o
o
o
o
o

MiliolinaC
o Pyrgo
o Quinqueloculina
o Sorites

HeterolobosaP
o Naegleria
o Tetramitus
Amoebozoa
Lobosea
o Naked amebas
o Acanthamoeba
o Amoeba
o Chaos
o Entamoeba
o Vannella
o Testate amebas
o Arcella
o Difflugia
Filosea
*Testate and atestate amebas*

Allogromia
Ammodiscus
Astrorhiza
Clavulina
Textularia

RotaliinaC
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Bulimina
Discorbis
Globigerinoides
Homotrema
Lagena
Marginulina
Rotaliella

ActinopodaP
RadiolariaC
PolycystineaO
o Collozoum
o Eucoronis
o Thallasicola
PhaeodareaO
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Kingdom Protozoa
o Astracantha
o Coelodendrum
o Phaeodina
AcanthareaC
HeliozoaC
ActinophryidaO
o Actinophrys
o Actinosphaerium
o Camptonema
DesmothoracidaO
o Clathrulina
o Hedriocystis

o Orbulinella
CiliophryidaO
o Actinomonas
o Ciliophrys
o Pteridomonas
TaxopodidaO
o Sticholonche
CentrohelidaO
o Acanthocystis
o Gymnosphaera
o Hedraiophrys
o Heterophrys

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