1.

Pretend you are a patent agent and an inventor comes to you

saying that he has invented a self-powered engine that requires
no fuel to run. Will you agree to patent this invention? Why or
why not? Use the first law of thermodynamics to justify your
answer.
I would not agree to patent the invention. The first law of
thermodynamics states that one form of energy can be converted
to other forms of energy, but it also states that energy can be
neither created nor destroyed. An invention that required no
fuel would have no source of energy and it would be unable,
according to the first law, to create anew the energy it
required. Mechanical devices cannot create energy from nothing.
Therefore, such an invention would be impossible and unworthy
of a patent.
2 You are still a patent agent, but now another inventor comes
. to you saying she has invented a perpetual motion machine.
Will you agree to patent this invention? Why or why not? Use
the second law of thermodynamics to justify your answer.
The suggested answer is
A perpetual motion machine would also not be awarded a
patent. Perpetual motion machines, by definition, will
keep moving forever without an infusion of energy. The
Second Law says that without an infusion of energy from
an outside system, all systems spontaneously move closer
to equilibrium at all times. When a system reaches
equilibrium, no more changes can occur unless the system
gets energy from outside. Without an infusion of energy,
the motion in the perpetual motion machine would move
toward equilibrium, that is, it would run down and
eventually stop. This would happen since in any process,
including machines, some energy, especially the energy
available for work (free energy), is always lost
increasing the entropy of the universe (via dissipated
heat, friction, sound, resistance from the air or wind,
etc.). To keep the machine from attaining equilibrium or
to change its state after it has attained equilibrium, a
new infusion of energy would be required. Thus, a
perpetual motion machine violates the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.
3 Compare and contrast entropy and equilibrium. Begin by giving
. a definition of each. How are these two concepts related?
The suggested answer is
Entropy is the name for the amount of disorder in the
universe. Equilibrium is the condition of maximum
entropy. When a system has attained maximum entropy, when
it is as random as it can be, it has reached equilibrium.
When equilibrium has been reached, no more changes can
occur unless energy is obtained from the outside.

4. What evidence did Lavoisier use to reject Priestley's

contention that breathing and fire added poisonous
phlogiston to the air? How do these two activities really
change the quality of air? What general term is given to the
chemical reactions of both fire and metabolism?
The suggested answer is
Lavoisier reasoned that if breathing and fire added
phlogiston to the air during burning, then the weight of
the material being burned should decrease. Lavoisier
carefully accounted for all of the products produced
during burning and compared their weight to the weight
of the material before it was burned. He found that the
weight had actually increased and concluded that burning
does not add phlogiston to the air but instead that it
removes something from the air adding it to the burned
material. He called the material removed from the air
oxygen. Both burning and breathing thus remove oxygen
from the air. Both fire and metabolism are given the
general name oxidation.
5 You are debating a person who believes in vitalism, or the
. existence of a special kind of energy peculiar to life. Your
opponent claims that the second law of thermodynamics cannot
apply to living things because when organisms grow, they
become more ordered (entropy decreases), and the second law
says that entropy in the universe is always increasing. What
argument can you make that the laws of thermodynamics apply to
both living and nonliving things?
The suggested answer is
Vitalism suggested that living organisms did not have to
obey the laws of the universe like the First Law. After
experimentation with living organisms, it quickly became
apparent that living organisms are no more able to create
energy from nothing than are mechanical devices. It was
found that the energy for life comes directly or
indirectly from the radiant heat and light of the sun.
The realization that living organisms obeyed the First
Law (the Law of the Conservation of Energy) was the
beginning of the end of vitalism. It meant that life was
no longer exempt from the laws of the universe. Living
organisms also obey the Second Law of Thermodynamics by
increasing the randomness of the part of the universe
outside the system of the living organism. Thus, while
order within the living organism increases (entropy
decreasing), the remainder of the universe outside the
living organism exhibits a larger increase in entropy.
Thus, the sum of entropy both inside and outside the
living organism is positive, satisfying the requirements
of the Second Law. The increased entropy of the
surroundings is largely due to the conversion of useful
energy into useless energy (heat), which then contributes
to the disorder in the rest of the universe.

6 This same opponent argues that there must be a vital force

. because cells have enzymes that make reactions occur that
would not normally occur. How do you answer this argument?
The suggested answer is
Enzymes do not make reactions occur that would not
normally occur. Many reactions are favored
thermodynamically, but still run very slowly. Those that
do run slowly do so because there is an input of energy
required before these reactions can be carried out at
significant rates. The amount of energy required for this
purpose is referred to as the activation energy. Enzymes
speed up reactions that are thermodynamically favored by
overcoming this activation energy. If a reaction is not
thermodynamically favored, an enzyme cannot cause it to
occur; it is referred to as nonspontaneous and will occur
only after a significant input of energy.
7 Give an example of how metabolic oxidation is more specific
. than oxidation that occurs in a fire. Give an example of how
metabolic oxidation is more efficient than oxidation that
occurs in a fire.
The suggested answer is
A fire, once started, will generally burn anything that
it touches. It speeds up the oxidation of paper raising
the overall energy of all of the paper molecules.
Metabolic oxidation, on the other hand, is selective
about what is being oxidized. The cell generally burns
fuel molecules like glucose and not cellular machinery
like proteins and DNA. Enzymes, which are responsible for
catalyzing all reactions in the cell, including oxidative
reactions, are extremely specific with respect to the
substrates upon which they can act. For each step in
metabolic oxidation, only the appropriate substrate
reacts. Oxidation of glucose by fire releases the energy
stored in glucose all at once resulting in the emission
of significant amounts of heat and light. This would not
be good for a living organism since the heat and light
given off would be likely to damage a living organism
severely or kill it. Living organisms are much more
efficient in extracting energy from glucose. Living
organisms enhance their specificity either by capturing
as much energy as possible from oxidative reactions or by
spending as little energy as possible to catalyze
reactions that consume energy. When glucose is oxidized
in the cell, energy is released from it in a stepwise
fashion, a little bit at a time. At particular points in
that sequence, some of the energy that is released is
captured and stored in ATP or other similar molecules.
While some energy is given off as heat during such a
process, the process harnesses energy much more
efficiently than does a fire.

8 Why do metabolic pathways have so many small steps instead of

. just one big step?
The suggested answer is
A number of small steps in metabolism facilitates a more
efficient capture and storage of energy than could occur
if the energy were released in one big step.
9 Many reactions that are very favorable in a thermodynamic
. sense do not seem to occur at all. Explain.
The suggested answer is
Reactions that are thermodynamically favorable may occur
very slowly or seemingly not at all. The reason for this
is that most reactions have an energy barrier, the
activation energy, that must be surmounted before the
reaction can be completed. This is the energy required to
break bonds, which is usually the first step in such
chemical reactions. Very few substrate molecules, at any
given time, have energy content sufficient to surmount
the activation energy.
Thus, such reactions occur at
very low rates.
10 Four pairs of nucleotide-based compounds are cycled in
. cellular metabolism: ATP/ADP, NADH/ NAD+, FAD/FADH2, and
NADPH/NADP+. For each
of these four pairs, which form of the compound has the
highest energy?
The suggested answer is
The forms of the four compounds that have the highest
energy are ATP, NADH, FADH 2, and NADPH. ATP carries an
extra phosphate group attached to the structure by a
high-energy bond. FADH 2, NADH and NADPH carry extra
high-energy electrons that give them their extra energy.
11 Some scientists argue that glycolysis was the first metabolic
. pathway to evolve. What kinds of evidence are used to support
this argument?
The suggested answer is
Glycolysis is widely considered to be the first
metabolic pathway to evolve for a few reasons. First, it
is a universal energy-harvesting process of life and has
been shown to be the most widespread metabolic pathway
in the living world. It is common to every living thing
and is similar or identical in every type of living cell
and thus appears to be very primitive. It is thought
that it may have been present in the first living cell
and then may have been passed on to all successful
progeny of that first cell.
12 Yeast cells can live anaerobically (without oxygen)
. indefinitely. What metabolic pathway does yeast depend on for

energy in the absence of oxygen?

What differences between yeast and humans account for the
fact that we cannot survive without oxygen?
The suggested answer is
When yeasts are living anaerobically, they depend on
glycolysis for energy. Humans are multicellular
organisms, unlike yeasts, and have higher ATP
requirements than do yeasts. Thus, the elevated
efficiency of aerobic respiration (18 times the ATP
production per glucose) over anaerobic respiration is
needed to fulfill the higher energy requirements of
humans. While humans can survive for a time under
anaerobic conditions, their energy requirements are so
high that they will die without the oxygen that allows
them to produce ATP more efficiently.
13 What goes into glycolysis? What comes out? Where is the
. energy of glucose at the end of glycolysis?
The suggested answer is
Glucose goes into glycolysis and it carries all of the
chemical energy entering the pathway. At the end of
glycolysis, there are two pyruvate molecules produced
for every glucose that entered glycolysis. Furthermore,
there is a net gain of two ATPs for every glucose
molecule metabolized. Finally, two reduced NADH
molecules are produced for every glucose molecule. They
will be used in the electron transport system to make
ATPs if oxygen is available. At the end of glycolysis,
portions of the energy originally stored in glucose can
be found in the ATPs, reduced NADH molecules, and
pyruvate molecules produced by glycolysis.
14 One way of getting an overview of cellular respiration is to
. take an accounting of carbon atoms as they move through the
three stages. Six carbons enter glycolysis at the beginning
of cellular respiration. Where are those carbons at the end
of glycolysis? Where are they at the beginning of the Krebs
cycle? Where are they at the end of the Krebs cycle?
The suggested answer is
At the end of glycolysis, the six carbons that entered
the pathway in glucose are found in the two 3-C pyruvate
molecules produced at the end of glycolysis. At the
beginning of the Krebs cycle, four of the six carbons
are found in intermediates of the Krebs cycle,
specifically citric acid. Citric acid is produced when
two carbons from pyruvate are donated to oxaloacetate (a
four-carbon molecule) to produce citric acid, a sixcarbon molecule. In accounting for the products from one
glucose molecule, two pyruvates (a 3-carbon molecule)
must be considered together. The two carbons from the
original glucose that do not enter the Krebs cycle are
given off as CO 2. At the end of the two turns of the

Krebs cycle required to metabolize one glucose molecule,

four carbons have been given off as CO 2 (two carbons for
each turn of the cycle). Thus, for every glucose
entering the Krebs cycle, 6 carbons are given off as
CO 2, although they may not all be carbons donated by
that particular glucose molecule.
15 In the analogy made between oxidative phosphorylation and a
. hydroelectric dam, what part of the mitochondrion is
analogous to the dam? What is analogous to the water behind
the dam? What parts of the dam are analogous to the
mitochondrial ATP synthase?
The suggested answer is
The inner mitochondrial membrane is analogous to the
dam. The H + ions (protons) concentrated between the two
mitochondrial membranes is analogous to the water behind
the dam. The turbine in a hydroelectric dam is analogous
to the mitochondrial ATP synthase.
16 When chlorophyll molecules are dissolved in a flask of
. alcohol and a beam of blue light is directed at the flask,
the solution glows red. Explain.
The suggested answer is
Chlorophyll in solution absorbs the blue light and some
of its electrons are boosted to higher energy levels. In
an intact chloroplast, the electrons would travel down
the electron transport system eventually ending up in
NADPH or being used to make ATP and ending up back in
the photosystem from which it originated. However, when
chlorophyll is in solution, the connections that convey
the electrons to NADPH or back to the photosystem are
not present. Consequently, the electrons drop back to
their original lower energy level. Most of the energy is
re-emitted as red light, which is longer-wavelength,
lower-energy light than the blue light that was
originally absorbed by the chlorophyll. The missing
energy was lost as heat and explains why the re-emitted
light was not the same color as the light that had been
absorbed originally.
17 The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis that
. produce sugars can occur in a test tube using only the plant
cells' juices and no parts of the cell.
Can the light-dependent reactions also occur using only the
cells' juices? Why or why not?
The suggested answer is
The light-dependent reactions cannot occur in a test
tube using only the plant cells' juices. The reason for
this is that the pigments that absorb the light and the
electron transport system are located in the thylakoid
membranes. Furthermore, intact thylakoid membranes are

required in order to set up the proton gradient between

the thylakoid lumen and the stroma of the chloroplast
that is used to produce ATP. Finally, the chloroplast
ATP synthase enzyme that synthesizes the ATP is embedded
in the thylakoid membranes as well and extracts the
energy from the proton gradient as the protons move back
into the stroma from the thylakoid lumen.
18 What is the significance of cyclic photophosphorylation?
.
The suggested answer is
Noncyclic photophosphorylation makes more NADPH than
ATP. The light-independent reactions (the Calvin-Benson
cycle) that make carbohydrates actually require more ATP
than NADPH (three ATPs for every two NADPHs). Plants
compensate for this difference in supply and demand for
ATP by using an alternate pathway, cyclic
photophosphorylation, to make more ATP. Like noncyclic
photophosphorylation, it generates a proton gradient
between the thylakoid lumen and the stroma, but it does
so without generating NADPH or oxygen. Furthermore, the
electrons that move through the electron transport system
end up exactly where they started, hence the name cyclic
photophosphorylation. Finally, the Archaebacteria use a
version of cyclic photophosphorylation to make ATP. For
them, it supplies enough ATP to sustain life. The
ancient heritage of the Archaebacteria and their
reliance on this cyclic pathway suggest that it may be
very ancient, maybe one of the earliest metabolic
pathways. Noncyclic photophosphorylation is also most
likely an evolutionary offshoot of cyclic
photophosphorylation.
19 The enzyme rubisco has been called the most important enzyme
. in the biosphere. What does this enzyme do?
The suggested answer is
Rubisco (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase) fixes
gaseous CO 2 out of the atmosphere and attaches it to a
solid 5-carbon skeleton (ribulose bisphosphate). Without
it, plants could not manufacture the food they need to
sustain their lives and the lives of all of the
organisms that depend on plants directly or indirectly
for their nourishment.
20 The chloroplast ATP synthase and the mitochondrial ATP
. synthase have been called molecular cousins. What does
this mean?
The suggested answer is
The chloroplast and mitochondrial ATP synthases are
called "molecular cousins" because they probably evolved
from a common ancestor protein. Their structures and
functions are thus very similar and they both work by

1.

converting the energy stored in a proton gradient into

ATP by allowing the protons to flow back into the
stroma/matrix of the organelles in which they are found.
Having traveled back in time to the 19th century, you are
debating an early naturalist. Your opponent is arguing that
traits in natural populations exhibit a continuum of forms and
therefore cannot be attributed to genes. Explain to your
opponent why he is mistaken.
The suggested answer is
Not all traits are determined by a single gene. Some are
the result of the effects of a number of different genes,
each with a number of different alleles; such traits are
called polygenic or quantitative traits. The different
combinations of alleles that can arise in such a situation
will smooth out the forms of the trait over a continuum,
usually defining a bell-shaped curve. If the influence of
the environment on the expression of each allele is added
to the mix, the bell curve will become even smoother.
2 What is the difference between a polygenic trait and a
. monogenic trait? Give an example of each.
The suggested answer is
A polygenic trait is one that is due to the simultaneous
expression of two or more genes, while a monogenic trait
is determined by the expression of only one gene. As the
number of genes determining a trait increases, variation
within a population changes from discrete categories to a
smooth continuum. Height, weight, and growth rate are
examples of polygenic traits. The traits Mendel studied,
like stem height and flower color in the pea, are
examples of monogenic traits.
3 What is a genetic locus? What is the relationship between a
. locus and an allele?
The suggested answer is
A genetic locus is the specific chromosomal address of a
gene, the fixed position occupied by one of the alleles
or forms of that gene. The genetic locus is therefore the
position of the gene; an allele is one of the forms of
that gene.
4 What is a gene pool? How does a gene pool differ from a
. population?
The suggested answer is
All of the alleles found in a population of organisms are
called the gene pool. One can often speak of the total
number of alleles of all genes in a population as the
gene pool or simply speak of the gene pool with respect
to all of the alleles of one particular gene found in a
population. Usually, when studying population genetics,
one deals with the latter. A population is a group of

organisms that occupy the same habitat and can

interbreed.
5 In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, what do the letters p and q
. represent? What do the mathematical terms p2, 2pq, and q2 each
represent?
The suggested answer is
In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, the letter p represents
the frequency of the dominant allele, while the letter q
represents the frequency of the recessive allele. The
mathematical terms p2, 2pq, and q2 represent the
frequencies of the homozygous dominant, heterozygous and
homozygous recessive genotypes, respectively.
6 Describe in words what it means when a population is in
. genetic equilibrium. Now describe genetic equilibrium using
mathematical terms.
The suggested answer is
When a population is in genetic equilibrium, the
frequencies of its alleles for a particular gene or genes
do not change from generation to generation. This means
that forces like natural selection,
emigration/immigration, small population size, non-random
mating, and mutation are not acting to change allelic
frequencies and that these frequencies will remain the
same from generation to generation. In mathematical
terms, genetic equilibrium means that p and q will remain
the same from generation to generation.
7 What assumptions did Hardy and Weinberg make when they derived
. their mathematical principle describing genetic equilibrium?
What factors may prevent a population from reaching genetic
equilibrium?
The suggested answer is
When Hardy and Weinberg derived their mathematical
principle describing genetic equilibrium, they assumed
that populations are very large; that individuals within
the population mate at random; that populations do not
gain or lose individuals by emigration or immigration;
that natural selection is not occurring; and that
mutation is not occurring at a high enough rate to
influence genetic variation. If one or more of the
assumptions made by Hardy and Weinberg were incorrect, a
population would most likely be prevented from reaching
genetic equilibrium.
8 You are studying a population of caterpillars in which some of
. the individuals are woolly and some are bare. The woolly trait
is caused by the recessive w allele of the woolly gene. The
dominant W allele causes caterpillars to be bare. Sixteen

percent of the population is woolly. What is the frequency of

the w allele? What is the frequency of the W allele? What
proportion of the population is heterozygous at the woolly
locus?
The suggested answer is
Since the double recessive phenotype ( ww ) makes up 16%
(0.16) of the population, the frequency of the recessive
w allele ( q ) would be the square root of 16% (0.16) or
40% (0.4). The frequency of the W allele ( p ) would be
100% - 40% (60%) or 1.0 - 0.4 (0.6). The frequency of
heterozygotes in the population would be 2pq [(2)(0.6)
(0.4)] or 0.48 (48%).
9 What is the heterozygote advantage? Give an example.
. The suggested answer is
The heterozygote advantage is a circumstance where the
heterozygote for a particular trait has a better chance
to survive and reproduce than either of the two
homozygotes. An example of heterozygote advantage is the
gene for b-hemoglobin. The normal allele for this gene is
the HbA allele; the mutant allele is known as HbS. The
homozygous dominant genotype HbA/HbA has normally
functioning hemoglobin, but such individuals are
susceptible to malaria. Homozygous recessive (HbS/HbS)
individuals suffer from sickle-cell anemia but are
resistant to malarial infections, allowing them time to
acquire immunity from later infections. Heterozygous
individuals (HbA/HbS) have hemoglobin function that is
essentially normal. However, under conditions of low
oxygen tension, they can suffer relatively minor sicklecell symptoms. They also are better able to survive
malaria allowing them to acquire immunity from later
infections. Thus, they derive the benefits of both
alleles and the disadvantages of neither comprising a
heterozygote advantage.
10 Distinguish between microevolution and macroevolution. How
. are they related?
Microevolution comprises changes in population allelic
frequencies. Macroevolution describes the larger-scale
changes that lead to the origin of higher taxa or
categories of organisms (like orders, families, and
phyla). Most evidence indicates that the higher taxa
that characterize macroevolution are formed by the
accumulation of many small changes in gene frequencies
at the population level. Thus, microevolution gives rise
to macroevolution.
11 What kind of selection: directional, stabilizing, or
. disruptive is illustrated by industrial melanism of the
English peppered moth in the last half of the 19th century?

Explain.
Directional selection is illustrated by the industrial
melanism of the English speckled moth. When tree trunks
were lighter and patchy, the lighter form of the
speckled moth was favored. When trunks became darker
because of industrial pollution, the population shifted
relatively quickly to the darker form of the speckled
moth. This form persisted until the environment was
cleaned up. As the tree trunks got lighter, the
population began to shift back toward the lighter form
of the speckled moth.
12 Why is genetic drift more likely to occur in small
. populations than in large populations?
In small populations, a chance change can lead to
significant changes in allelic frequencies while the
same change is less likely to have an effect on a larger
population. For example, consider two populations, one
consisting of ten individuals and one consisting of one
hundred individuals. Assume that 10% of the individuals
in each population carry a particular allele b of the B
gene. Thus, one individual in the smaller population
carries the allele, while ten carry it in the larger
population. While crossing the road, one member (10%) of
the smaller population is struck and killed by a
vehicle. If the individual killed by the vehicle was the
one carrying the b allele, that allele will be removed
from the population. If the larger population crosses
the road and 10% of their population is killed by a
vehicle, the most likely result is that nine of those
killed will not carry the b allele, while one will. The
b allele would still be found in 10% of the remaining
population. Thus, there is a good chance that a small
sample drawn from a larger population may not exactly
reflect the allelic frequencies of the population from
which it was drawn.
13 The founder effect and genetic bottlenecks are two examples
. of changes in gene frequencies that occur by chance. Explain
how these two mechanisms are similar and how they differ.
The founder effect occurs when there is a difference in
the gene pool allelic makeup due to the initiation of a
population by a small number of individuals. Bottlenecks
occur when a population undergoes a temporary decline to
low numbers from which survivors of all future
generations are derived. They are similar in that future
populations, in both cases, arise from a portion of a
parent population. Also, in both cases, the portions of
the population that establish the future generations do
not have the same allelic frequencies as the parent
population. In both cases, the allelic compositions of
the portions of the population that establish a new
population are determined by chance and not natural

selection. Thus, both result in a decrease in genetic

variation. They differ in the reason for the
establishment of the new population. With the founder
effect, the new population is established because a
portion of the parent population leaves and sets up shop
somewhere else. In the case of bottlenecks, the portion
of the population that establishes a new population is
what remains after a severe depletion of the parent
population.
14 What is gene flow? Is gene flow more likely to occur between
. two populations on distant islands or two populations that
overlap in time and space? Why?
Gene flow is movement between populations that results
in the introduction of alleles from one population to
another via immigration or the loss of alleles from one
population to another via emigration. It is more likely
that gene flow will occur between two populations that
overlap in time and space. It will be unlikely that much
immigration/emigration will occur between populations on
distant islands. However, two populations that overlap
in time and space will allow many opportunities for
emigration/immigration.

1.

15 How has the Hardy-Weinberg principle been used to learn about

. populations that are not in genetic equilibrium?
The suggested answer is
If populations do not conform to the Hardy-Weinberg
principle, we can learn exactly how they differ from
genetic equilibrium. Once this has been accomplished, we
can then determine the factors responsible for those
differences.
What is the study of physiology?
Physiology is the biological study of the functions of
living organisms and their parts.
2 Internally, multicellular animals are hierarchically
. organized. What does this statememt mean? Name the layers of
the internal hierarchy.
The suggested answer is
Smaller, less complex parts of the human body are organized into larger
parts. Cells are organized into tissues, tissues into organs, organs into
organ systems, and organ systems into organisms.
3 What are the differences between epithelial, connective,
. muscle, and nerve tissue? Give examples of each.
Epithelial tissues cover both inner and outer surfaces
throughout the body. Their job is to protect what they
cover. They typically reproduce rapidly to replace those
damaged by injury or disease. In fact, they divide more

often than other tissues. Examples of epithelial tissue

are the skin, the intestinal lining across which
nutrients are moved to the blood stream and the pigmented
epithelium that surrounds the eye. Connective tissues are
also found throughout the body. They usually reproduce
much more slowly than epithelial tissues. Unlike
epithelial tissues in which the cells are organized into
layers and fairly tightly packed, connective tissues are
composed of living cells surrounded by non-living
matrices that are usually secreted by the cells of the
connective tissue. The functions of connective tissues
vary, but generally, as their name suggests, they serve
to connect things in the body. Fibrous connective tissue
forms tendons that bind muscles to bones or ligaments
that bind bones to other bones. Loose connective tissue
forms delicate sheets throughout the body that surround
and protect other parts and fill spaces. Cartilage and
bone are the connective tissues that comprise the
skeleton. Blood is a connective tissue that transports
materials around the body. Muscle tissues, like
connective tissues, reproduce more slowly than epithelial
tissues. Their major function is to move internal parts
or, along with the bones, to move the body as a whole.
There are three types of muscle tissue: striated muscle
tissue that is associated with body movements, smooth
muscle that is associated with movements of internal body
parts, and cardiac muscle which is associated with the
heart. Nerve tissues are also found throughout the body.
They are especially numerous in brains and nerve cords.
In many organisms, nerve tissue cells lose the ability to
reproduce prior to birth. Their primary function is to
relay information from external and internal environments
to the brain. In the brain, the information is processed
along with other information. They then relay messages
from the brain to all internal body parts. The brain, the
spinal cord and the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems are examples of nerve tissue.
4 Give an example of organs working synergistically.
. The liver can store nutrients such as glucose. The
pancreas can monitor, produce and release hormones.
Together they can control the blood glucose levels.
5 Contrast how snakes and humans maintain homeostatic body
. temperatures.
Snakes are cold-blooded (ectothermic or poikilothermic)
animals. To maintain their body temperature, they must
exchange heat with the environment. Early on cool
mornings, they will bask on sunny rocks, soaking up the
sun. It warms their internal temperature to get it within
optimal range. Later, as the day warms, snakes seek the
shade to avoid overheating. They use their behavior to
regulate their internal temperature to keep within a

rather narrow range. Humans are warm-blooded (endothermic

or homeothermic) animals. Their body temperatures are
generated internally. Maintaining a nearly constant
internal temperature in the face of ever-changing thermal
environments is much more complex and involves both
behavioral and physiological processes. A small portion
of the hypothalamus serves as the body's thermostat. It
monitors blood temperature. If the blood's temperature at
the hypothalamus is only a few tenths of a degree below
the body's set point, the hypothalamus signals the body
to shiver, draw in its limbs, get restless, etc. When the
body gets too warm, the hypothalamus causes the body to
sweat. Each of the functions described is controlled by
feedback systems.
6 Besides body temperature, what other internal body conditions
. are maintained homeostatically?
Blood glucose levels and acidity of the blood are
maintained homeostatically.
7 What are the differences between negative and positive
. feedback? How are they similar? Give examples of each.
A major difference between positive and negative feedback
is that while positive feedback leads to increasing
instability of a system, the general effect of negative
feedback is to lead to stability in a system. To
accomplish these contrasting goals, negative feedback
acts to slow down, reverse, or shut off a physiological
process and return it to an optimal condition, while
positive feedback amplifies a physiological process that
is already happening. Positive feedback keeps the process
it is regulating going in the same direction (it
intensifies or enhances the process) and negative
feedback reverses the direction of the process being
regulated. Of the two feedback systems, negative feedback
is the one that is most useful to the organism and most
often seen. Both negative and positive feedback are
typified by feedback loops that contain essentially the
same components. Each feedback loop possesses receptors
that monitor the organism's internal and external
environment. Each feedback loop must also have a control
center that processes the information perceived by the
receptors. The control center makes decisions regarding
the third component of the feedback loop, the effector.
The effector produces responses to the stimuli received
by the receptors and processed by the control center.
Examples of processes regulated by positive feedback are
hysteria, childbirth (labor), and sexual arousal.
Examples of processes regulated by negative feedback are
blood pressure (stress), blood glucose levels, body
temperature, blood pH, etc.

8 Explain the statement there is a relationship between form

. and function.
Often the shape (form) of a body part, be it cell, organ,
or organ system, is affected by what it does (function)
and visa versa. For instance the long threadlike shape of
a typical neuron facilitates its function of relaying
information from one area of the body to another.
Likewise, the long, tube-like shape of the digestive
system facilitates its function as an assembly line
processor of nutrients.
9 Two organ systems in animals are involved in sensing the
. environment. How are they similar? How are they different?
The two organ systems in animals that are involved in
monitoring the environment are the endocrine system that
exerts control through chemicals called hormones and the
nervous system that communicates and controls events via
nerve cells. The chemically-based monitoring and control
of the endocrine system in animals is exerted on
functions and processes that happen slowly over a period
of several days or weeks. Examples of processes
controlled by the endocrine system are growth, maturity,
reproduction, and many metabolic functions. The hormones
that operate in the endocrine system have a long
evolutionary history, as does the nervous system. Some of
the hormones produced by humans and other vertebrates
have been found in invertebrates and protists. Their
functions in these organisms are presently unknown but
suggest their ancient origin. Hormones often work
together to control complex animal phenomena like
maturation and molting in insects. Such hormonal control
can be complicated, involving as many as seven
interacting hormones or perhaps even more. In contrast to
the endocrine system, nervous systems are used by animals
to make quick adjustments to environmental conditions.
Often, such quick adjustment is essential to survival.
The currency of the nervous system is not chemicals as is
the case with the endocrine system. Cells, specifically
neurons, do the work of the nervous system. These neurons
connect all parts of the body with the animal's brain.
Signals conducted by the nervous system do not depend on
the bloodstream, as does the endocrine system. Like the
endocrine system, the nervous system integrates a number
of sensory inputs before initiating an appropriate
response via the motor neurons (instead of by secreting a
hormone). The nervous system is relatively ancient as
well, making its first appearance in a very primitive
form in the jellyfish. Both systems get more complex as
the organisms get more complicated.
10 Contrast the processes used by protists and multicelluar
. organisms in obtaining nutrients.
The evolution of digestive systems in animals, perhaps

more than any other physiological system, shows a

definite sequence as organisms become more complex.
Sponges, among the simplest multicellular organisms, do
not really have a digestive system. Flagellated cells
lining their internal spaces create currents that suck
water into and through their bodies. They then pick up
food material by endocytosis and digest it
intracellularly. Smaller compounds diffuse into cells or
are picked up by active transport. This process is
called filter-feeding. Jellyfish and flatworms have
digestive systems with only one opening. Food is
swallowed into a large cavity that in flatworms is
highly branched. Digestive enzymes are secreted into the
cavity to break down complex compounds into simpler ones
that can be absorbed. Undigested material and metabolic
wastes are expelled through the mouth into the
environment. Roundworms have a complete digestive system
with two openings, a mouth and an anus. The tube in
roundworms is uniform throughout its length. Swallowed
food moves along the tube and mixes with digestive
enzymes. Usable nutrients are absorbed and undigested
material exits the anus as feces. This arrangement
allows the processing of more than one meal at a time.
Segmented worms adopt the same philosophy but have
digestive systems that are divided into a series of
specialized areas that perform somewhat different
digestive functions. The food is handled in an assemblyline fashion, at various places being chewed, stored,
digested, absorbed, and then excreted. Mollusks,
insects, and vertebrates further refined the digestive
system. Digestive tubes became coiled and twisted
increasing the length and surface area available for
picking up nutrients. This made digestion more complete
and efficient. These organisms also evolved accessory
organs (liver, gall bladders, pancreases) for the
digestive system that enhanced digestion further.
11 How are the three basic types of respiratory systems similar
. and different?
All three types of respiratory system are involved with
the exchange of gases between the environment and the
body (oxygen in and carbon dioxide out). Skin exchanges
gases through the outer body covering. Gills exchange
gases through outpockets of tissue that work best in
water, while lungs exchange gases through inpockets of
tissue that work best in air.
12 Contrast the respiratory systems of insects with those of
. mammals.
Insects have tracheae, which are complex systems of
tubes leading from the external world to the body
interior. The external openings for the tracheae are
called spiracles and they are generally located on the

insect's abdomen. Gas exchange occurs in the smallest of

these tubes, which are generally located furthest from
the spiracles. In most insects, the flow of gases is
passive and based on diffusion. However, more active
insects with high oxygen requirements have muscles that
pump air in and out. Mammals possess lungs that are
highly branched and composed of numerous small pockets
(alveoli) that look like bunches of grapes and vastly
increase internal surface. This is in direct contrast to
the system of rather featureless tubes in insects. All
mammals possess rib muscles and diaphragms that help to
move air into and out of their lungs. Mammals also have
fewer openings to their respiratory system than do the
insects with their numerous spiracles.
13 What are the major functions of circulatory systems?
. A major function of the circulatory system is to
distribute nutrients and O 2 to the needy cells and
tissues of the animal and to remove wastes and CO 2 from
those same cells and tissues. In more complex animals,
circulatory systems carry products made by the animals'
cells and tissues around the body often for regulatory
or protective purposes (hormones, disease-fighting
proteins, and cells).
14 How do animals living in salt water maintain proper water
. balance in their cells? (Hint: There are two solutions for
animals living in salt water.)
Organisms that live in salt water maintain proper water
balance by drinking copious quantities of water. They
get rid of the solutes that enter their bodies in such
an environment by active transport of these solutes from
the gills and concentrate other solutes in and void them
with the urine. Gills are the primary site of water loss
from the bodies of these organisms since the rest of
their bodies are protected from water loss by scales,
skin, or layers of slime.
15 How do animals living in fresh water maintain proper water
. balance in their cells?
Organisms that live in fresh water tend to gain water
from and lose solutes to the environment. They generally
void the excess water by special excretory organs, e.g.
kidneys in highly diluted urine. They recapture solutes
from the environment by active transport through gills
or intestines. Some of the lost solutes are replaced in
the food these fish eat, by their normal digestion, and
active transport.
16 What can terrestrial animals do to reduce water loss?

. There are five ways in which terrestrial animals can

reduce water loss. They can seek out moist environments
as earthworms, frogs, and salamanders do. They can seek
out habitats where humidity is high to lower losses by
evaporation; such habitats would be burrows in soil or
wood, under logs or rocks, and in leaf litter. Some
organisms are active mainly at night when humidity is
usually highest. Body coverings can protect them from
water loss (snail shells, arthropod exoskeletons, the
scaly skin of reptiles, bird feathers, impermeable skin,
and waxy secretions). Animals in the driest environments
(meal worms, kangaroo rats) often have special
mechanisms to conserve water.
17 Contrast the excretory systems seen in segmented worms with
. those seen in insects and those seen in vertebrates.
In segmented worms, the excretory system consists of
special tubules found in each body segment that collect
wastes and void them to the environment through special
pores. In insects the excretory system consists of
Malpigian tubles, numerous tubules that lie in the body
cavity that collect wastes and void them into the
intestine. Vertebrates have kidneys that collect wastes
from the blood and either void them into the lower
intestine or directly into the environment.
18 By what processes do kidneys transport metabolic wastes from
. blood to urine?
Kidneys transport metabolic wastes from the blood to the
urine primarily by four processes: diffusion, osmosis,
active transport, and filtration.
19 Explain the mechanisms by which muscle cells contract.
. Muscle cells are rich in the proteins actin and myosin.
When these proteins interact, they slide over one
another, which contracts the cell.
20 Contrast the three kinds of skeletons.
. Roundworms have a water-filled cavity within their
bodies that keeps them from collapsing. The
incompressibility of water provides a kind of skeleton,
a hydrostatic skeleton. Such a skeleton is useful to
soft-bodied animals and soft tissues. Insects have
external skeletons (exoskeletons) made of hard
materials, including chitin. They provide great
protection and a nearly infinite number of potential
sites on which to anchor muscles. As a result,
arthropods can move in a variety of ways, by way of a
variety of appendages. Movement of this variety of
appendages is controlled with delicate, complex muscle

groups fastened at strategic locations to the

exoskeleton. Exoskeletons are heavy and impose rather
severe limits on how large arthropods can become. In
most chordates, especially vertebrates, the skeletons
are internal (endoskeletons). Endoskeletons have a cost
- more soft tissue is directly exposed to the
environment. The benefit of an endoskeleton is that it
weighs less and that it is easier to move. Endoskeletons
facilitate growth and they permit individuals of larger
size, and also provide numerous attachment sites for
muscles, allowing complex body movements.
21 What are the three major reproductive cycles seen in
. organisms? How are they similar? How are they different?
The three major reproductive cycles seen in organisms
are the diploid cycle in which all cells of the organism
are diploid except the gametes, the haploid cycle, in
which the cells of the organism are haploid throughout
most of their lives except when cells merge during
reproduction, and the alternating cycle in which there
are two distinct generations of individuals, one haploid
and the other diploid. They are similar in that all
cycles involve haploid cells combining to form new
diploid individuals. They are different in which cells,
diploid or haploid, comprise the adult organism.
22 One of the biggest challenges faced by terrestrial animals is
. protection of gametes. Why is this a problem? How have
terrestrial segmented worms solved this problem? How have
terrestrial mammals solved this problem?
The major difficulty that gametes and developing young
from land animals face is dryness of land and
desiccation. Terrestrial segmented worms are
hermaphroditic, containing both male and female
reproductive systems. During mating, two individuals
exchange sperm and store the sperm that they have
received internally. This protects them from drying out.
Each individual then develops a collar-like structure
around the outside of its body near the head end into
which eggs and the stored sperm are released. Later, the
collar is shed as a cocoon in which development takes
place. Storage of the sperm in the body and subsequent
development in the cocoon both protect the sperm, eggs,
and developing embryos from drying out. Mammals prevent
their gametes from drying out by employing internal
fertilization so that the gametes normally do not get
out into the environment where they can dry out.
23. Which came first, the chicken or the egg? Why?
The egg came before the chicken. An egg essentially
identical to bird (chicken) eggs evolved in reptiles,
which subsequently evolved into birds.

1.

What are the elements of a homeostatic control system? Suppose

you have accidentally touched a hot stove. Describe your
response in terms of a homeostatic control system. Name the
structures of your body that correspond to each of the system's
elements.
The elements of a homeostatic control system are the
sensors, the integrating center, the effector system, and
the signal pathway. Sensors first recognize the change in
the internal environment. The integrating center receives
the signal that something is amiss and coordinates the
response that will bring the variable factor in the
internal environment back within the narrow limits that are
optimal for cells. The effector system is composed of
cells, tissues, or organs that actually carry out the
homeostatic response. The signal pathway is the body's
messenger system that carries the signal from the sensors
to the integrating center and then from the integrating
center to the effector system, which can be either the
nervous system or the endocrine system. If you touch a hot
stove, your hand's heat receptors (sensors) sense the heat
and notify the central nervous system (specifically the
spinal cord) via sensory neurons (the signal pathway) that
the hand is being burned. The spinal cord, in this case,
acts as the integrating center and "decides" that the
appropriate response is to pull the hand away from the hot
stove. The spinal cord sends the appropriate signal along
the motor neurons (part of the signal pathway) to the
muscles that will move the hand away from the hot stove
(effector system). This particular process is a reflex and
does not require input from the brain. The extra distance
the signals would have to travel would leave the hand in
contact with the hot stove for a longer time thus causing
it to sustain more damage.
2 If you inserted a tiny electrode into a neuron and placed
. another electrode outside the neuron, then measured the
voltage between the two electrodes with a voltmeter, what
would you see on your voltmeter? What is this called?
If you inserted a tiny electrode into a neuron and placed
another electrode outside the neuron, your voltmeter
would register a voltage, an electrical potential, of
about -70 mV, indicating that the inside of the cell is
more negative than the outside of the cell. This
particular electrical potential is referred to as a
resting potential, since it is the potential measured
from a resting (non-firing) neuron.
3 Describe the movements of ions that occur across the membrane
. of a neuron during an action potential. Which ions are
involved? In which direction, into the cell or out of the
cell, do they move? What force moves these ions?
In a resting neuron, sodium ions are present at higher concentrations

outside the cell while potassium ions are present at higher concentrations
inside the cell. The resting potential of the neuron is -70 mV. Once a
neuron receives a stimulus, a depolarization begins at the point of
stimulation. The stimulus causes sodium channels at the point of
stimulation to open, allowing sodium ions to flow down their
concentration gradient into the cell. This causes the electric potential of
the cell to rise. The cell interior becomes more positive with the influx of
positive sodium ions. If the stimulus is too weak, the resting potential will
be reestablished. If the stimulus is strong enough, that is, if it raises the
potential level to the threshold, an action potential will be generated. The
sodium ions will rush into the cell if the threshold is reached and the
polarity of the potential will eventually reverse rising to about +30 mV
when the potential reaches maximum depolarization. This takes about
one msec after the initial stimulus. When the potential becomes positive
(after reaching maximum depolarization), the sodium channels close and
the potassium channels open. Potassium flows down its gradient and
leaves the cell. As potassium leaves the cell, it carries its positive charge
with it. The departing positive charges cause a drop in the potential,
which again becomes negative. The neuron does not return exactly to the
resting potential. It actually overshoots a bit and becomes
hyperpolarized. At this point, the potassium channels close preventing
further outflow of potassium ions. The sodium-potassium pump moves
three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions in to reestablish
their gradients. By pumping three positive charges out for every two
potassiums pumped in, the cell is able to reestablish the resting potential
at -70 mV. The ions that are moved during the action potential move
down their gradients by diffusion, thus no energy is required. The action
of the sodium-potassium pump to reestablish the resting potential pumps
sodium and potassium ions against their gradients; this requires energy
in the form of ATP.
4 What is myelin? What is it made of? What role does myelin play
. in neurons?
Myelin forms a sheath around the axons of neurons. It is
formed by Schwann cells that wrap themselves in a spiral
around most axons and some dendrites in several layers.
The whole sheath is formed by a series of Schwann cells
that line up along the axon. There are unsheathed spaces
between adjoining Schwann cells so the sheath is
interrupted. Thus, the myelin sheath is composed of
multiple layers of Schwann cell membrane since each
Schwann cell wraps around the axon a number of times.
Myelin helps to speed up the passage of nerve cell
impulses moving down the axon. The action potential jumps
from node to node, which accounts for the higher rate of
action potential passage.
5 Describe what happens when an action potential reaches a
. chemical synapse.
When an action potential reaches the end of the axon, it

causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Before the impulse arrives at the synapse, the
neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles. When the action
potential arrives, it causes the vesicles to be released
by exocytosis, which results in neurotransmitters
flooding the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters
diffuse across the cleft to the postsynaptic cell where
they bind to receptor proteins in the membrane. The
binding opens sodium channels in the postsynaptic cell,
which begins depolarization of the second cell. Once the
threshold stimulation is reached, a new action potential
is triggered.
6 Give an example of a voluntary activity. Now give an example
. of an involuntary activity. Which parts of the human nervous
system mediate these two kinds of activities?
A voluntary activity would be turning on the television
or catching or throwing a ball. An example of involuntary
activity would be circulation of blood or movement of
food through the digestive tract. Voluntary activities
are mediated by the somatic nervous system, a portion of
the peripheral nervous system. Involuntary actions are
mediated by the autonomic nervous system, which is
divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems.
7 Suppose you are walking to class when a large, growling dog
. blocks your path. Describe some physiological responses you
might have to this emergency. Which subdivision of your
autonomic nervous system would dominate in this scenario?
If a large, barking dog blocked your path on the way to
class, you would most likely be afraid. Your fight-orflight (hopefully flight) responses would be activated.
Blood flow to the muscles would be likely to increase and
blood would be diverted away from the digestive system.
Heart rate and breathing rate would also increase. The
sympathetic nervous system is the portion of the
autonomic nervous system that would dominate in this
scenario.
8 How is the role of hormones similar to that of the nervous
. system? How is it different?
Both hormones and the nervous system help the body to
maintain homeostasis. To do this, they both help
different parts of the body communicate in order to
control and coordinate the internal environment by
regulating various physiological processes. Both systems
accomplish these goals by using the same elements:
sensors, an integrating center, an effector system, and
signal pathways. The nervous system generally provides
more rapid communication, while the endocrine system is

generally best suited for slower delivery of more longlasting messages that control ongoing body processes,
although some responses to hormones can be more rapid.
The endocrine system conducts information via a
collection of chemical messengers called hormones.
Responses to hormones are usually involuntary and
unconscious, while responses to the nervous system can be
both voluntary and involuntary. Hormones can act on a
number of different cells/tissues at the same time and
can have different effects in these different cells. The
nervous system can only affect the tissues to which it is
directly connected via a nervous pathway.
9 Hormones circulate in the blood and reach every cell of the
. body, yet only certain cells respond to certain hormones.
Explain.
To respond to a certain hormone, a tissue or cell must
possess receptors for that hormone. Such a tissue (or
cell) is called a target tissue (or target cell) for that
hormone. Cells that do not contain a receptor for a
particular hormone cannot respond to it and, in fact, do
not even "know" that the hormone is present.
10 Compare the functions of the anterior and posterior pituitary
. gland. How are the hormones of the posterior pituitary
regulated by the hypothalamus? How are the hormones of the
anterior pituitary regulated by the hypothalamus? What are
the advantages to having one gland regulated by hormones from
another gland?
The anterior pituitary responds to hypothalamic
neurohormones called releasing hormones or releaseinhibiting hormones that cause or inhibit, respectively,
the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary. The
hormones of the anterior pituitary target many tissues
and coordinate a wide variety of functions. Many of
these hormones stimulate target endocrine tissue to
release yet another hormone or hormones to carry out the
final response. The hormones secreted by the anterior
pituitary are growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating
hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, prolactin,
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing
hormone (LH). The posterior pituitary secretes two very
similar neurohormones: antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which
causes its target cells in the kidney to undergo changes
that act to conserve water, and oxytocin, which is
involved in reproduction. It causes uterine contractions
during childbirth and also causes the release of milk
into the breast during nursing. Both hormones are
synthesized in neural cells of the hypothalamus and
migrate down the axons of these cells to their release
sites, the axon endings in the posterior pituitary. They
are then released when they are needed. If these
hormones are needed in the posterior pituitary, they

will be made in the hypothalamus and transferred for

storage to the axon endings in the posterior pituitary.
The hypothalamus controls release of hormones from the
anterior pituitary by secreting into the bloodstream
releasing hormones or release-inhibiting hormones that
cause or inhibit, respectively, the release of the
appropriate hormone(s) from the anterior pituitary. Both
the hypothalamus and pituitary are usually controlled by
negative feedback loops as well. The layers of control
in the endocrine system allow the fine-tuning needed to
keep the human body in homeostasis. The multiple layers
allow multiple points at which the system can be
regulated.
11 The four digestive processes are digestion, secretion,
. motility, and absorption. Which parts of the digestive system
are involved in digestion? What is secreted in the stomach?
Where in the digestive tract does most absorption occur? What
are the two main kinds of motility?
The process of digestion begins in the mouth with the
salivary enzymes that digest carbohydrates. The
esophagus does not contribute to digestion directly.
Digestion begun in the mouth continues in the esophagus.
Its major job is to move food from the mouth to the
stomach. The stomach helps to liquefy the ingested food
and prepares it to be constantly fed into the intestine
where most digestion and absorption occur. However,
protein digestion does begin in the stomach. Most
digestion and absorption occurs in the small intestine
and it is here that the final stage of digestion begins.
Fats are also broken down in the small intestine and the
digestion of proteins down to amino acids and
carbohydrates down to simple sugars occurs here. These
processes are accomplished by enzymes on the inner
surface of the intestinal wall and by secretions from
the pancreas and liver. As mentioned above, protein
digestion begins in the stomach facilitated by stomach
secretions that include protein-digesting enzymes and
HCl that enables these enzymes to work. Salivary enzymes
are disabled in the stomach by the highly acidic
environment. The stomach also secretes a thick layer of
alkaline mucous that protects the stomach from its
acidic and corrosive secretions. The mucous neutralizes
stomach enzymes and acid before it contacts the stomach
wall. The two main types of motility in the digestive
tract are peristalsis, waves of muscle contraction in
the esophagus, stomach, and occasionally the intestine
that help to move chyme from the mouth to the stomach
and then into the small intestine and then through the
intestine. Chyme is moved through the small intestine by
the second kind of motility, segmentation, in which
small regions or segments contract and relax in a
rhythmic pattern. This thoroughly mixes the chyme with
the various secretions from the pancreas and liver and

helps to bring it into contact with the intestinal wall

to facilitate transport of digested material.
12 How is the absorption of fat in the small intestine different
. from the absorption of proteins and carbohydrates?
Different digestion products (amino acids, simple
sugars, fatty acids from larger lipids) are each moved
into cells of villi in their own way. Sugars and amino
acids are water-soluble and large; specific transport
proteins that are embedded in the brush border membranes
pump these nutrients into the brush border cells. Once
these nutrients are inside the brush border cells, a
different set of membrane transport proteins on the part
of the plasma membrane opposite the microvilli moves
sugars and amino acids into the extracellular fluid of
the villi. Each villus contains capillaries, tiny blood
vessels that absorb nutrients from the extracellular
fluid into the bloodstream; sugars and amino acids
diffuse into the capillaries from the extracellular
fluid. The nutrients are then carried to various cells
of the body by the circulation. Fatty acids, on the
other hand, are lipid-soluble and cross the brush border
cell membranes without the aid of protein transporters.
Inside the brush border cells, the fatty acids are
reassembled into a larger lipid, triacylglycerol, and
combined with cholesterol and proteins into droplets
called chylomicrons. Because of their relatively large
size, chylomicrons leave cells and enter the
extracellular fluid by exocytosis. When they enter the
circulatory system, chylomicrons relinquish their
triacylglycerols to cells that need fat for energy or to
make new membranes. Triacylglycerols remaining in the
bloodstream are taken up by fat cells that store them as
fat.
13 What role does the liver play in digestion? What does the
. pancreas do?
The liver secretes bile. Bile is a mixture of
bicarbonate and bile salts that aid in lipid digestion.
Bicarbonate helps to neutralize stomach acid, prevents
stomach acids from damaging the intestine and creates a
more hospitable environment for pancreatic enzymes to
accomplish their task. The bile salts act as emulsifiers
and help to break larger fat globules in the watery
chyme into smaller fat droplets that are more accessible
to pancreatic enzymes that digest lipids. The pancreas
secretes pancreatic juice that contains several enzymes
that break down carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids and
even the tiny amount of nucleic acids that is found in
food. It also secretes bicarbonate, the function of
which was mentioned above.

14 Compare the structural features of the small intestine and

. the lungs that increase their surface areas. Why must the
surface areas of each of these two organs be large? Neither
the air spaces in the lungs nor the lumen of the intestine
are considered to be inside the body. Explain.
The wall of the small intestine is characterized by
ridges and valleys, on the surface of which are
multicellular fingerlike projections called villi that
extend into the intestinal space. Each villus is, in
turn, covered with a layer of epithelial cells that form
the first barrier between the intestinal contents and
the inside of the body. The ends of the cells that face
the lumen of the intestine are further convoluted into
tiny, hairlike projections called microvilli. Due to
their brushlike appearance, this layer of microvilli is
called the brush border. At every level, especially the
villi and microvilli, the intestinal wall anatomy is
adapted for increasing surface area to facilitate
absorption and make it more efficient. It is essential
that the surface area of the intestine be as large as
possible so that the maximum amount of nutrients
possible can be internalized by the digestive system.
Neither the air spaces of the lungs nor the lumen of the
intestine are considered to be inside the body. The
digestive system is a tube through the organism and at
both ends is continuous with the outside environment.
Just like the hole in a donut is not inside the donut
but passes through it so does the digestive tract pass
through the organism, never really being inside it. The
main passage into the respiratory system is the trachea;
it branches into two bronchi, with one leading to each
lung. Each bronchus branches many more times into ever
shorter and ever thinner tubes. The tubes eventually end
in clusters of alveoli extending from terminal airway
bronchioles like clusters of grapes on a hollow vine.
These alveoli greatly increase the surface area of the
lung across which oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange
takes place to nearly the size of a tennis court. A
large amount of surface area is required to allow the
gas exchange (O 2 & CO 2) necessary to support the
metabolism of an organism the size of a human. The space
inside the lungs is continuous with the air outside. If
it were not, breathing as it occurs would be impossible.
In order to be inside the body, the lungs would need to
be surrounded on all sides by the body, in much the same
way that a lake is surrounded by land. The lungs are
more like a bay or cove that is part of a larger body of
water, but partially separated from that body of water
by land on some of its sides.
15 How does the diaphragm function in respiration?
. The main muscle for moving air is the diaphragm, a
sheet-like muscle that forms the floor of the thorax.
When relaxed, the diaphragm is shaped like a dome

pushing up into the thoracic cavity. Signals from

neurons originating in the brain cause the diaphragm to
contract. As it contracts, the diaphragm flattens,
pulling down about one inch to form a flat surface. This
causes the lungs to expand, creating a suction that
draws air into the mouth & nose, through the conducting
system and ultimately into the alveoli. Signals from the
brain causing the diaphragm's contraction come in
rhythmic spurts. When the diaphragm is fully contracted,
these signals temporarily cease. Without signals from
the brain, the diaphragm relaxes back to its dome shape,
pushing upward on the lungs and forcing air back out
through the mouth and the nose. As the diaphragm
relaxes, the brain signals start again which will
initiate another respiratory cycle.
16 Describe the flow of blood through the body, starting in the
. right atrium and ending at the vena cava, and name the
structures of the cardiovascular system through which the
blood moves.
Oxygen-poor blood enters the right atrium through the
vena cava, a large vein that carries blood coming from
the body's peripheral tissues. From the right atrium,
the blood moves into the right ventricle through a oneway valve separating the right atrium and the right
ventricle, the tricuspid valve. The right ventricle then
pumps blood into a set of pulmonary arteries that carry
the blood to the lungs. After CO 2 and O 2 exchange has
occurred in the lungs, the blood returns to the heart in
the pulmonary veins. This completes the first circuit of
blood flow, the pulmonary circulation or circuit. Blood
returning to the heart via the pulmonary veins enters
the left atrium; this begins the second circuit. From
the left atrium, blood moves through another one-way
valve, the bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle. The
left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta, a large
artery (the body's largest) that feeds other, smaller
arteries. Arteries and then arterioles carry blood
throughout body, where it exchanges nutrients & wastes
with the cells and tissues. The exchange of materials
between blood & tissues occurs only in capillaries, the
smallest blood vessels that connect arterioles/arteries
and venules/veins. Venules and then veins carrying blood
from the tissues converge into the vena cava and blood
is returned to heart's right atrium. This is the end of
the second circuit the systemic circulation or
circuit. The two circuits are separated so that O 2-rich
blood from the lungs does not mix with the O 2-poor blood
from the tissues.
17 What are the electrical and mechanical components of the
. heartbeat? Where does the heartbeat originate?

The heartbeat has two components, the electrical

component and the mechanical component. The electrical
component is a widespread action potential that spreads
through the heart. The mechanical component is the
contraction of heart muscle cells. The heartbeat
originates in heart pacemaker cells located in a region
called the sinoatrial or SA node, a clump of cells found
in the upper portion of the right atrium.
18 What features of capillaries enable them to serve as the
. sites of exchange between the blood and the extracellular
fluid? What kinds of substances move out of the capillaries?
What stays in the capillaries? What moves into the
capillaries?
The capillary diameter is so small that red blood cells
can only pass through in single file. This ensures that
each red blood cell is equally and maximally exposed to
the surrounding medium facilitating exchange. The
average capillary is about 1 mm in length and there are
lots of them that together form extensive capillary
networks. There are so many of them penetrating the
body's tissues so completely that no cell is more than
about 10 m from a capillary. In addition to the
proximity to cells, capillaries have walls that are one
cell layer thick. The thin capillary walls and the short
distance between the capillaries and the cells makes
diffusion an ideal method for moving things into and out
of the cells. Capillaries also have very small spaces
called clefts between the cells that comprise their
walls. These clefts allow substances that cannot easily
cross membranes, like ions and water-soluble substances,
enter and leave the blood. These spaces are too small
for proteins to pass through, therefore proteins that
are in the blood generally stay there. In the body
tissues, O 2, water, and nutrients leave the capillaries.
Ions and other water-soluble substances can move out of
the capillaries as well. Red blood cells and proteins
cannot pass through the capillary walls and therefore
stay in the capillaries. White blood cells, however, can
depart the capillaries by passing between the cells of
the capillary walls. Ions, water, and water-soluble
substances can move into capillaries, as can metabolic
wastes like CO 2.
19 Describe the relationship between the blood vessels of the
. nephron and the nephron tubule. Follow a drop of fluid from
the renal corpuscle through the tubule, and to the bladder.
Name the parts of the tubule through which the fluid moves.
The nephron is divided into two parts, the vascular
element composed of the blood vessels of the nephron,
and the tubule, the hollow, twisted tube that carries
the urine as it is being processed. Blood enters the
kidney through an arteriole that branches into a ball of

capillaries called the glomerulus. Unlike the body's

other capillaries, the glomerulus is enclosed in a
capsule formed from one end of the nephron tubule; it
looks like the fingers of a loosely clenched fist (the
glomerulus) pushed into a balloon (the capsule). The
entire structure combining the glomerulus and the
capsule is referred to as the renal corpuscle. A second
set of capillaries, the peritubular capillaries, envelop
the entire nephron tubule; its job is to pick up sodium
and chloride ions and water from the extracellular
fluid. The pressure of blood entering the glomerulus is
high enough to force water, salts, and lower molecularweight materials like glucose out of the glomerular
capillaries and into the tubule; this fluid will become
the urine. The presumptive urine enters the proximal
convoluted tubule after entering the tubule from the
glomerulus. It then moves to the descending loop of
Henle followed by the ascending loop of Henle. From the
ascending loop of Henle, the urine moves to a second
twisted tubule region, the distal convoluted tubule. The
distal convoluted tubule empties into the collecting
duct, which empties into tubes leading to the ureter.
The ureter carries the urine from the kidneys to the
bladder.
20 What are the three basic renal processes? Which one occurs in
. the renal corpuscle? Which occurs in the proximal convoluted
tubule?
The three basic renal processes are filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion. Filtration occurs in the
renal corpuscle. Reabsorption occurs in the proximal
convoluted tubule.
21 Which renal processes are responsible for removing wastes
. from the blood? Which one is responsible for retrieving
substances before they are excreted in the urine? Which
process removes foreign substances, such as penicillin, from
the blood?
Filtration and secretion remove wastes or unwanted
materials from the blood. Reabsorption is responsible
for retrieving substances before they are excreted in
the urine. Secretion removes foreign substances, like
penicillin, from the blood.
22 How do changes in the permeability of the distal convoluted
. tubule and collecting duct act to conserve water? What
hormone regulates this response?
If the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct to water is increased, water leaves the
tubule via osmosis into the salty environs of the
extracellular fluids and is thus conserved by the body.
Once in the extracellular fluid, the water diffuses into

the capillaries surrounding the nephron and is returned

to the body via the circulation.
As a result of this
process, the urine becomes relatively concentrated. If
the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct to water is decreased, water remains in
the urine since it cannot move into the extracellular
fluid; the water is therefore not conserved. As a
result, the urine becomes relatively dilute. The
permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting ducts is controlled by antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) made by the posterior pituitary.
23 The force of muscle on bone is always a pulling force and
. never a pushing force, yet we are capable of pushing on an
outside load. Explain this.
By exerting force through tendons, muscle contraction
causes bones to move & the skeleton to bend at its
joints. The force of muscle on bone is always a pulling
force and never a pushing force. The arrangement of
different pairs of muscles around certain bones allows a
joint to be bent or straightened, depending on which
muscle is contracting and the direction of the pulling
force. Movable bones act like lever systems with the
fulcrum of the lever at the joint. Both the nature of
the joint and the positions and numbers of different
muscles inserted on the bones surrounding the joint
determine how the skeleton bends and the possible range
of motion. Thus, a pushing force can be exerted on an
outside load by arranging the bone and joints in the
proper position and then contracting and relaxing the
correct combination of muscles.
24 Muscles cause movement by becoming shorter. If you examined a
. contracted muscle cell and a relaxed muscle cell under the
microscope, would the proteins of the contracted cell be
shorter compared with those of the relaxed cell? Why or why
not?
If a contracted and a relaxed muscle are examined under
the microscope, the proteins of the contracted cell
would be no shorter than the proteins of the relaxed
cell. This is due to the fact that muscles shorten not
by shortening the individual proteins of the muscle, but
instead by having the long, fibrous proteins of the
muscle slide past one another. What changes during
muscle contraction is that the area of overlap between
the two types of muscle proteins increases during
contraction.
25 Muscle contraction has both an electrical component and a
. mechanical component. What constitutes the electrical
component? What constitutes the mechanical component? How are
they related?

The electrical component of muscle contraction begins

with the central nervous system sending an action
potential down a motor neuron. The motor neuron then
transmits the signal to the excitable muscle fiber cell
via a neurotransmitter, which initiates an action
potential in the muscle fiber cell. The action potential
in the muscle fiber cell travels deep into the cell and
opens Ca2+ ion channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
It is at this step that the electrical component of
muscle contraction triggers the mechanical component,
which is the sliding of the muscle filaments. In a
relaxed muscle, Ca2+ ions are found at high
concentrations within the sarcoplamic reticulum and low
concentrations around the sarcomere, the contractile
apparatus. When the action potential triggers the
opening of the Ca2+ ion channels, Ca2+ ions diffuse down
their gradient into the cytoplasm where they flood the
region of the sarcomeres. The Ca2+ ions interact with
regulatory proteins covering the myosin-head-binding
sites on actin filaments. The binding of Ca2+ ions to
the regulatory proteins causes them to shift their
positions, exposing the myosin binding sites on actin
and thus allowing the myosin heads to bind. Before
binding to actin, the myosin head is bound to ADP and a
phosphate group. Once the myosin binding sites on actin
are exposed by the binding of Ca2+ ions, the myosin head
with its bound ADP and phosphate group binds to actin.
The binding to actin causes a change in position of the
myosin head toward the center of the sarcomere (the
power stroke). The filaments slide past each other and
the muscle contracts. Next, ATP binds to the myosin head
releasing it from the actin filament and the ATPase
activity in the myosin head breaks the ATP into ADP and
a phosphate group. The energy from the broken bond
causes the myosin head with its bound ADP and phosphate
group to swing away from the center of the sarcomere to
a new position where it again attaches to an exposed
myosin-binding site on a nearby actin filament, and the
cycle begins again. The electrical and mechanical
components of muscle contraction are connected to each
other by the release of Ca2+ ions which is triggered by
the electrical component. The release of the Ca2+ ions
triggers the mechanical component. When the action
potential disappears, the Ca2+ ions are pumped back into
the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The regulatory proteins
change position covering the myosin-head binding sites
on actin and contraction stops.
26 What is gametogenesis? How does it differ in males and
. females? How is it the same?
Gametogenesis, in both sexes, is the process of making
gametes, including meiosis and the maturation of meiotic
daughter cells into gametes, either sperm or egg. Male
and female gametogenesis involves many of the same

hormones, control mechanisms, and processes (like

meiosis), but the relative amounts of the hormones,
timing of their release, and effects on the organism
differ. Meiosis is essentially the same process with the
major exception that each meiotic event in the female
will normally give rise to one viable egg. In males,
meiosis gives rise to four viable sperm. The timing of
gametogenesis is different in males and females. In
females, meiosis begins even before birth. A newborn
girl has in her ovaries all the eggs that she will ever
have. The eggs mature and are released from the ovaries
one at a time about every 28 days during the female's
reproductive years from the onset of puberty (at ~12 13 years) until menopause at an average age of 50. In
males, meiosis and sperm maturation occur continuously
in certain testes cells from puberty (starting at ~12-13
years) until death. While most of the sex hormones are
common to both males and females, different levels of
sex hormones are responsible for many of the differences
between the sexes. Hormonal control of reproduction
begins in the brain; the hypothalamus and the pituitary
gland regulate gametogenesis in both males and females.
In both sexes, a releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
causes the anterior pituitary to secrete luteinizing
hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH),
which travel in the bloodstream to the gonads. FSH
stimulates gametogenesis and the maturation of the
gametes. LH stimulates the accessory (nongamete) cells
of the gonads to produce another set of hormones called
the sex steroids. Both sexes make all of the sex
steroids, but testosterone is more abundant in males,
while estrogen and progesterone are more abundant in the
female. Estrogen and testosterone are responsible for
the secondary sexual characteristics. In females,
estrogen causes proliferation of breast tissue and the
pattern of fat deposition that characterizes the female
body form. In males, testosterone causes changes in
voice quality, facial and pubic hair growth, the growth
of muscle and bone tissue, and the sex drive. The sex
steroids also play a role in the maturation of the
gametes of both sexes. Sex steroids circulating in the
blood act upon the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus
to regulate the release of both LH and FSH from the
pituitary gland. In many cases, the regulation occurs by
negative feedback. In addition, the timing of sex
steroid release is very different in males and females.
27 Vasectomy is a means of sterilization for males in which a
. portion of each vas deferens is removed. How does this
prevent pregnancy? Does this procedure affect secondary male
sexual characteristics, such as beard growth or voice
quality? Why or why not?
In order to be ejaculated and make it into the female
reproductive tract, the sperm must travel from the

testes through the epididymis, the vas deferens and the

urethra, in order. Removing a segment of each vas
deferens will interrupt this pathway before the sperm
reach the urethra, the final leg of the trip out of the
penis, and prevent the ejaculation of sperm, thus
preventing pregnancy. If the sperm cannot get to the
egg, they cannot fertilize it. The procedure does not
affect secondary sexual characteristics in the male
since it does not in any way interfere with the
secretion of the hormones that control secondary sexual
characteristics. Vasectomy does not affect the
production of sperm, just their arrival in the female
reproductive tract.
28 If the first day of menstruation is arbitrarily assigned as
. day 1 of the menstrual cycle, on what days are the levels of
FSH and LH the highest? What ovarian event do these peaks
correspond to? When is the level of progesterone the highest?
FSH and LH levels are highest on day 14 of the menstrual
cycle. These peaks correspond to ovulation, the release
of the egg. Progesterone levels are highest on about day
19 or 20.
29 In one kind of female birth control pill, progesterone levels
. are kept artificially high for most days of the female
menstrual cycle. How does this prevent pregnancy? Can you
propose altering the levels of other sex hormones as a method
of birth control? How does your proposed hormone treatment
prevent pregnancy?
During pregnancy, progesterone production is maintained
by human chorionic gonadotropin which keeps the corpus
luteum producing progesterone. The resultant high
progesterone levels maintain the endometrium preventing
it from breaking down. This ensures that no menstruation
will occur until the pregnancy ends, since high levels
of progesterone will prevent further secretion of FSH
and LH, which are required for the maturation of new
eggs and ovulation. When pregnancy ends, progesterone
levels drop. FSH and LH will be produced again since
they are under negative control and a new menstrual
cycle will begin. Progesterone at high levels will make
the body "think" it is pregnant. Consequently, there
will be no more egg production and no pregnancies. An
estrogen-based pill might also work as a birth control
pill since it also inhibits FSH and LH release by the
pituitary. It would theoretically have the same effect
on preventing pregnancy as progesterone. However, since
higher levels of estrogen actually stimulate the release
of LH and FSH, the concentrations of estrogen would have
to be kept low (below the threshold that begins to
stimulate FSH and LH release). Other methods that could
decrease FSH and/or LH levels might also be effective.
This agent, whatever it is, would prevent egg maturation

and ovulation.
30 What role does the endometrium play in pregnancy?
. In the event of fertilization, the endometrium must be
prepared for the arrival of the embryo. The embryo will
implant into the endometrium, the cells of which along
with some cells from the embryo will build the placenta.
The placenta is used by the developing embryo to obtain
nutrients and O 2 from the mother's blood, which flows
through the built-up endometrium. Embryonic wastes are
also carried to the mother through the placenta and
transferred to the mother's bloodstream for removal from
her body to the external environment. Without the
endometrium, there would be nowhere for the embryo to
implant and nowhere for it to get the necessary
nutrients and O 2. The pregnancy would therefore not be
maintained.
31 The body has several avenues for warding off would-be
. invaders, including physical barriers, nonspecific immune
defenses, and specific immune responses. Give an example of
each. Which of these avenues of defense are mobilized by
vaccines?
The skin is an example of a physical barrier to a wouldbe invader. Most pathogens cannot cross it unless it is
damaged. It also possesses oil glands that secrete
chemicals capable of weakening or killing bacteria.
Phagocytes that recognize invaders and ingest them by
phagocytosis are examples of nonspecific immune
defenses. They engulf the invading particle, bringing it
into the phagocyte's cytoplasm within a vesicle that
fuses with a lysosome. The enzymes in the lysosome kill
and/or digest the particle. Specific examples of
phagocytes are the neutrophils found in the blood and
the macrophages found within the tissues. Macrophages
are called monocytes before they leave the bloodstream.
The third line of defense, the specific immune response,
recognizes familiar, repeat invaders. A small subgroup
of the body's lymphocytes recognize and binds to certain
chemical groupings (antigens) on the invader's surface
that are specific to it. The lymphocyte or lymphocytes
that interact with these antigens are stimulated to grow
and divide or to make antibody proteins that will be
secreted. The secreted antibodies bind specifically to
the invader and only to the invader. Invaders coated
with antibodies are recognized by the phagocytic cells
of the immune system, which ingest and destroy them. The
antibodies also activate chemical defenses that are part
of the nonspecific immune response like histamines and
cytokines. Some of the lymphocytes produced by this
process become memory cells that allow a quicker
response the next time this specific invader is
encountered. Vaccines directly mobilize the specific

immune responses. When the invader shows up again, the

specific response mobilized by the vaccine will likely
elicit at least a small nonspecific response. Thus, the
vaccine could also be considered to mobilize indirectly
the nonspecific immune responses.
32 What is the significance of memory cells? If your classmate
. sneezes on you, exposing you to a novel virus, will the virus
stimulate existing memory cells? Why or why not?
The first time you are exposed to a particular invader,
you make a clone or clones of lymphocytes that recognize
the antigen(s) on the surface of the invader. Included
in the clones are memory cells that will not make an
immediate response. They will persist in the bloodstream
and the next time you are exposed to this particular
invader, you will make a more rapid response than you
did the first time. The second exposure will elicit a
response within hours rather than within several days
and the response will generally be stronger as well.
This more rapid and stronger response will usually
prevent the disease from developing as it normally does.
This explains the immunity that we experience with
diseases like chickenpox. We can only catch it once.
After that one exposure, we are immune to it for the
rest of our lives. It is this fact that allows vaccines
to work.
If your classmate sneezes on you exposing you
to a novel virus, it will be unlikely to stimulate
existing memory cells. A novel virus would be one to
which you had never been exposed. Thus, you would never
have had an opportunity to make memory cells that could
recognize this novel virus. However, if it possessed, on
its surface, an antigen similar to an antigen on another
virus to which you had previously been exposed, you
might be able to stimulate at least a few memory cells
initially produced in response to that other virus.
33 What happens when the immune system fails to distinguish
. between proteins that are a normal part of the body's
repertoire and foreign proteins? Give an example of a disease
in which this happens.
If the body cannot distinguish between proteins that are
a normal part of the body's repertoire and foreign
proteins, you may make an immune response against that
normal part of your body. This can cause a disease state
called an autoimmune disease. Examples of autoimmune
diseases are multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis,
insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, and systemic lupus
erythematosus.
1.

What is the difference between a heterotroph, a chemoautotroph,

and a photoautotroph? Which probably evolved first?
Heterotrophs are organisms that cannot make their own food.
These organisms obtain their food from the environment by

ingesting it. Chemoautotrophs are organisms that extract

energy and build organic compounds from inorganic acids
that were plentiful in the primordial seas; they can make
their own food. Photoautotrophs make their own food as well
but they tap into the energy of sunlight to acquire the
energy needed. The heterotrophs probably evolved first.
They were able to feed on the ready-made organic materials
that had built up in the seas abiotically before the first
living heterotrophs evolved. Once enough of the
heterotrophs were present in the seas and enough time had
passed, the supplies of these organic materials began to
dwindle. This set up competition and selective pressure
that favored the evolution of organisms that could
synthesize their own food, the autotrophs. Probably the
chemoautotrophs evolved first after the heterotrophs and
the photoautotrophs evolved after the chemoautotrophs.
2 How did the early cyanobacteria change the chemical
. composition of the atmosphere? How did that change influence
the evolution of life?
Before the cyanobacteria evolved, there was no free
oxygen in the atmosphere. The cyanobacteria produce
oxygen as a waste product and, as they lived and
multiplied, they greatly increased the amount of oxygen
in the atmosphere. Between about 3.8 and nearly 1.3
billion years ago, they had released enough oxygen as a
byproduct of photosynthesis to raise the atmospheric
content of oxygen to nearly 2% of its current level
(about 20% of the gaseous content of the atmosphere).
Prior to the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere,
the organisms living on the planet had obviously evolved
to live in an atmosphere lacking oxygen. Once oxygen
began accumulating in the atmosphere, very few of these
organisms could tolerate the oxygen. Only organisms that
could survive the oxygen or escape it could survive. The
others died off. Most modern organisms are well adapted
to the oxygen-rich atmosphere that was originally
produced by the cyanobacteria. The organisms that cannot
survive in an oxygen-rich atmosphere have been restricted
to habitats that have no oxygen, like muds at the bottom
of lakes and oceans, hydrothermal vents, and the
digestive tracts of some animals, among other sites. The
direction of the evolution of life on the planet was thus
completely changed by the appearance of oxygen in the
atmosphere.
3 What evidence indicates that eukaryotic cells evolved from a
. symbiotic relationship between two or more prokaryotes?
There are a number of pieces of evidence that support the
correctness of the endosymbiotic theory. First of all,
the DNA of prokaryotic cells is more like that of
mitochondria and chloroplasts than the DNA found in the

nucleus of the cell of which these organelles are a part.

The DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts is a single loop
of DNA lacking histones like that in prokaryotic cells
and unlike the DNA in the eukaryotic cell's nucleus. The
nuclear DNA of a eukaryotic cell is found in the linear
chromosomes of these cells, associated with many
histones. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are selfreplicating organelles; they divide within the cytoplasm
of a cell by a process resembling binary fission that
prokaryotic cells use to divide. They do not exhibit
mitosis as do the nuclear chromosomes of the eukaryote.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own proteinsynthesizing machinery (tRNAs, enzymes, ribosomes); it is
more similar to that of prokaryotes than that of cells in
which they reside. For example, mitochodrial and
chloroplast ribosomes are smaller than the ribosomes in
the cytoplasm of the cell that surrounds them; these
ribosomes are very similar in size to the ribosomes of
prokaryotes. There is evidence of living prokaryotes that
share many features with mitochondria and chloroplasts of
eukaryotes e.g. cyanobacteria photosynthesis is similar
to that of chloroplast. Also, the metabolic processes of
aerobic bacteria are similar to those of mitochondria.
4 What are the advantages to being multicellular as opposed to
. unicellular? How did multicellularity in plants contribute to
the successful invasion of land?
The suggested answer is
Multicellular organisms have the opportunity for cellular
specialization. They can have cells specialized for such
activities as nutrient acquisition or production,
reproduction, structural support, conduction of
substances through organism, etc. There is no such
specialization in unicellular organisms; each cell must
carry out all life processes. Multicellular organisms are
also larger by virtue of the fact that they are composed
of more cells. This leads to decreased vulnerability to
changes in temperature, humidity, and nutrient
availability and the lowered incidence of death from
predation and disease that comes with increased size. For
example, if part of an organism is attacked, it can be
cut off from the rest of the organism, allowing escape
from the attack (lizards that shed their tails). Such
adaptations are necessary for survival on land because
conditions constantly change there, unlike in the sea,
which is a relatively stable environment. The greatest
challenge of a terrestrial existence is desiccation. Much
plant form and physiology is about acquiring,
transporting, and holding onto water. There are a number
of adaptations in plants that minimize water loss across
their surfaces. Among these adaptations is the epidermis,
a transparent cell layer on the outer surface of the
plant that helps to retard water loss. The cells of the
epidermis secrete a waxy, waterproof coating called

cuticle. Furthermore, the delicate egg and developing

embryo are enclosed in a structure that prevents them
from drying out. This also requires the cooperation of a
number of different cell types. Other specialized cells
in the plant produce carbohydrates and transport them
around the plant. Still others in the roots transport
water and nutrients into the plant. The presence of these
many different specialized cells has helped plants adapt
to and survive in a terrestrial environment in ways that
a single-celled organism could not.
5 Do humans exhibit alternation of generations? Why or why not?
. In what way is a human analogous to a plant sporophyte?
The suggested answer is
Human beings do exhibit an alternation of generations,
but the haploid phase is extremely deemphasized while the
diploid phase is overwhelmingly dominant. The haploid
phase in humans that results from meiosis is restricted
to only one cell, either an egg in the female or a sperm
in the male. There is never a multicellular haploid
structure as there usually are in plants. If such a
multicellular haploid structure is required for a true
alternation of generations, then humans do not exhibit
alternation of generations. The human organism grows by
mitosis (the diploid phase) only after fertilization. A
plant sporophyte is diploid and it produces spores by
meiosis. Humans, like plant sporophytes, are diploid and
make haploid gametes by meiosis.
6 What features of seeds make seed-bearing plants particularly
. well adapted to life on land? Do all land plants make seeds?
The suggested answer is
The most vulnerable stages in the life cycle of any
organism, especially on land, are the gametes and the
embryos. Gametes and embryos are more subject to
desiccation, damage, and attack by predators or pathogens
than the larger, more mature stages so most vascular
plants developed seeds. Seeds are partly responsible for
their success on land. The seed is a delicate plant
embryo that is encased in a tough, drought-resistant
coat. The seed also often contains nutritive tissue, the
purpose of which is to nourish the embryo until it can
provide its own nourishment. The seed not only protects
and nourishes the developing embryo, it is exquisitely
structured to disseminate that embryo to new places where
it can grow and flourish. This is important because
plants do not move; often the seed is the only phase of
the plant's life cycle that can move about and colonize
new territory. Actually, the seed does not move itself.
It possesses innovations that allow it to be moved by
wind, water, and animals. Not all vascular land plants
make seeds; ferns, for example, are seedless. Bryophytes

are small and restricted to moist habitats; they are also

land plants that do not make seeds.
7 What, in biological terms, is a flower?
. The suggested answer is
A flower is the structure that produces seeds. A flower
structurally is a stem that bears leaves. The leaves are
often highly colored and modified into petals, sepals,
and reproductive structures called stamens and carpels.
Stamens and carpels are the places where angiosperm
gametophytes are enclosed and where the gametes are made.
They are analogous to the gonads of animals. Animals have
nothing, however, that is analogous to the plant
gametophyte. The vast array of flower varieties and types
reflects the many strategies that plants have evolved to
assure the delivery of sperm from one plant to another.
The flowers are, therefore, the sex organs of the
angiosperms.
8 Describe three ways in which leaves are adapted to absorb
. light.
The suggested answer is
First, most leaves are broad, flat, and thin with
sunlight absorbed across the entire leaf surface. The
broad flat surface provides for maximum light absorption
with a minimum amount of leaf volume. The sun is not
always in the same place in the sky, therefore, some
leaves adjust their position to follow the sun throughout
the day, a process called solar tracking. The leaf
interior also functions to maximize light absorption. The
upper and lower leaf surfaces are covered with a layer of
clear epidermis cells that are coated with a waxy cuticle
that prevents water loss. Immediately below the clear
upper epidermis that allows light to pass through is a
layer of photosynthetic cells called the palisade layer.
These cells are tall and thin and rich with chloroplasts.
They do much of the leaf's photosynthesizing and are
tightly packed with very narrow spaces in between. The
narrow spaces between the cells act much like optical
fibers; they direct any light not absorbed by the
palisade layer down to the next cell layer, the spongy
mesophyll. The spongy mesophyll cells also
photosynthesize and are rich in chloroplasts; they are
not as tightly packed as are the palisade cells. Because
the light they use must first pass through the palisade
layer, these cells need an extra light boost. The
presence of the air spaces creates lots of surfaces from
which light entering through the "optical fiber" pathways
can bounce and reflect. This gives the deeper cells more
opportunities to absorb light. The whole leaf is an
extremely efficient light trap with a structure that
maximizes its photosynthesis potential.

9 Explain the conflict between a plant's need to acquire carbon

. dioxide from the atmosphere and its need to prevent water loss
by evaporation. How have plants evolved to meet these two
competing needs?
The suggested answer is
Photosynthesizing cells need a constant supply of CO2 that they must
obtain from the atmosphere. Leaves exhibit adaptations that prevent
desiccation like the waxy cuticle and the epidermis. While preventing
water loss, these same adaptations act as barriers to gas diffusion across
the leaf surface as well. Pores called stomata, which are located on the
underside of the leaf, solve this problem. These pores allow the passage
of CO2 and O2 into and out of the leaves, respectively. However, when the
pores are open to allow CO2 into the leaves and O2 out, water will also
leave the leaf causing it to dry out if the stomata are open too long. The
stomata open when a plant's greatest need is the acquisition of CO2.
They close when the greatest need is saving water. Conflict arises in
hotter, drier weather. Stomata stay closed more often in this type of
environment to prevent water loss. This means that CO2 is used up as the
plant photosynthesizes. Normally, stomata would open as CO2 levels
dropped too low, but in hot, dry weather the stomata stay closed to
prevent water loss. If the stomata open to allow CO2 into the leaf, water
loss will increase as will the risk of desiccation. Consequently, many
plants do not do well in hot, dry weather. Plants have evolved two
strategies to get around this problem. The first is C4 photosynthesis. CO2
is fixed from the atmosphere in these plants and attached to a 3-carbon
compound thus producing 4-carbon molecules, hence the name C4
photosynthesis. This reaction can occur when stomata are closed and
CO2 levels are low. Thus, carbon fixation can occur with the stomata
closed and reduce water loss at the same time. Under identical
circumstances, plants that cannot perform C4 photosynthesis will have
to open their stomata in order to continue photosynthesizing; they will,
therefore, be more susceptible to desiccation. Desert plants resolve the
conflict in a different way. They keep their stomata closed all day to
prevent water loss. They open their stomata only at night when the risk
of desiccation is much reduced. CO2 enters the plant during the night
and is stored as part of a 4-carbon (as in C4 plants). During daylight, the
stored CO2 is released behind closed stomata, thus reducing the risk of
desiccation. They are called CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism)
plants.
10 Describe three ways in which roots are adapted to absorb
. water.
The suggested answer is
Plant roots are often enormous compared with the parts
of plants above ground. Some have root systems with one
deep primary root that extends downward for one or
several meters. Desert plant roots extend tens of meters
to reach deep moisture. This allows them to reach deep

water supplies. The primary root gives rise to side

branches (lateral roots) that increase surface area and
thus the ability to absorb minerals and water. Such a
root system is called a taproot system, an example of
which is the carrot. Adventitious roots are shallow,
laterally directed root branches; they absorb water from
areas around the plant. This is a fibrous root system.
Tiny hairs (root hairs) extend from the outermost layer
of root epidermis cells; the root hairs increase root
surface area manyfold, thus maximizing water and mineral
uptake. The arrangement of cells that makes up the
inside of the root, the internal architecture of the
root, provides a conduit for moving water to all parts
of plant. The epidermis layer with its root hairs
provides a large adsorptive surface. From there water
moves from cell to cell by diffusion through the bulk of
the root called the cortex. Air spaces dot the fleshy
root cortex and water moves both through and between the
cells on its way to the vascular tissue, the columns of
cells that carry water & minerals to upper parts of
plants. A single sheetlike layer of cells, the
endodermis, forms a ring around the vascular tissue.
Connections between the endodermis cells are watertight,
forcing water to move into vascular tissues through the
cells of the endodermis. Endodermis cells thus regulate
water movement into the plant body. This arrangement
also prevents pathogens from entering the vascular
system.
11 What is nitrogen fixation? What organisms accomplish nitrogen
. fixation? Why is it not possible for plants or animals to use
the abundant nitrogen in air?
The suggested answer is
Nitrogen fixation is the process in which nitrogen gas
is used by some microbes to make organic compounds.
Nitrogen-fixing microbes include free-living species and
species that form close symbiotic relationships with
other organisms. The free-living forms are seen in soils
and sediments, on leaf and bark surfaces, and in animal
intestinal tracts. The symbiotic species have a special,
intimate relationship with their hosts in which the host
provides chemical food energy to the bacterium in return
for nitrogen in a usable form. Such partnerships are
seen in legumes like alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, and
peanuts. As legume seedlings develop, their roots
secrete substances into the soil that attract bacteria
called rhizobia. Rhizobia are a group including three
genera of bacteria: Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and
Azorhizobium; these are further divided into several
species. Animals and plants are unable to use nitrogen
gas in the air. The nitrogen gas must be made part of a
solid chemical compound before it can be used by animals
and plants, a process called nitrogen fixation. In order
to fix nitrogen gas from the atmosphere, the two

nitrogen atoms of nitrogen gas must be broken apart. The

two nitrogen atoms of nitrogen gas are attached by three
bonds (a triple bond). Such a bond is very strong and
neither plants nor animals can break it. Thus, they
cannot use or fix nitrogen gas.
12 How do plants contribute to global cycling of nitrogen and
. other minerals?
The suggested answer is
Nitrogen fixation by soil-borne microbes is an essential
step in global nitrogen cycling between life and the
environment; all living organisms depend upon it. Green
plants form a crucial link in the cycle by absorbing
nitrogen from the soil and the associated microbes and
converting it to organic nitrogen (amino acids, nucleic
acids) that can be used by animals. Plants require an
assortment of minerals for body structure and metabolic
machinery. A list of some minerals needed by both
animals and plants includes: phosphorus, calcium, iron,
sulfur, potassium, copper, zinc, and magnesium. Other
mineral needs are specific to plants: molybdenum and
nickel, for example. Plants use their roots to meet
these mineral needs just like they do for water. Roots
invade a large soil volume, often to considerable
depths, in order to extract water. Water brings with it
dissolved minerals; they move up the plant's body from
deep in soil and are transported upward to the stems and
leaves. Plants, like miners, bring minerals from deep in
the soil to the surface. Animals may eat plants
providing for some of their own mineral needs; or plants
may drop their leaves or die. As plant parts decay,
minerals go back to the soil, but on the surface where
they are available to soil organisms. Without constant
mineral retrieval from deep soil, essential minerals are
soon washed away by rain and weather; thus mineral
mining is a vital activity upon which all life depends.
13 What force moves water upward through the body of a vascular
. plant? What force moves sap throughout the plant body?
The suggested answer is
The forces responsible for moving water upward through
the body of a vascular plant come from negative pressure
created in the leaves when they lose water by
transpiration. It is similar to what happens when a
child drinks through a straw. By sucking on the straw, a
child creates negative pressure. Water and minerals from
the roots move up into the xylem to replace water that
was lost to the atmosphere during transpiration. The
polarity of water molecules gives water a great deal of
cohesion or tensile strength. As water moves up through
the xylem, it pulls other water up behind it in a thin,
unbroken column. The force that moves sap through the

plant body is called pressure-flow movement. It works by

loading carbohydrates into one region of plant (near
leaves) called the source. The carbohydrates in that
region attract water into that region. This, in turn,
raises pressure in the area above that of other areas
surrounding the source. The water and carbohydrates move
elsewhere toward areas of the plant where pressure is
lower. In certain areas of the plant, the sinks, the
sugars are removed and stored. Water leaves following
the carbohydrates out of the phloem and lowering the
pressure in the area of the sink. This maintains the
pressure differential between the sources and sinks and
keeps the sap moving around the plant.
14 What are the two main kinds of plant vascular tissues? How
. are they the same? How are they different?
The suggested answer is
The two main kinds of plant vascular tissue are xylem
and phloem. Phloem conducting cells are connected endto-end to form long, narrow tubes of cells as are xylem
cells. Both types of vascular tissue extend throughout
the entire plant. Both kinds of vascular tissue contain
a couple of different cell types. A major difference
between xylem and phloem is that xylem is composed of
dead cells when it is mature, while phloem is made of
living cells. The sieve tube members of the phloem have
clusters of pores on the ends that abut each other, but
no pores on the sides. The conducting cells of the
xylem, the tracheary elements, are a little shorter than
the sieve tube members and have pits and perforations on
the ends like the conducting cells of the phloem, but
also on the sides unlike the phloem cells. Thus, water
moves through xylem end-to-end and sideways as well. Sap
moves through the phloem cells only up and down the
plant. In addition to being specialized for transport,
xylem functions as structural support for the plant. As
a rule, therefore, the walls of xylem cells are usually
thicker and harder than the cells of the phloem.
Companion cells, which are adjacent to sieve tube
members, aid in moving substances into and out of the
sap, sometimes at the expense of metabolic energy. This
movement is sideways as well but it does not occur
through holes as it can in xylem. Movement of materials
throughout xylem is mostly in an upward direction in the
plant. Movement through the phloem is predominantly
downward, but there can be movement upward in the plant
as well, e.g., from more mature leaves to new leaves
that need carbohydrates to build structure. The forces
that cause movement in xylem and phloem are different
(negative pressure and cohesion of water in xylem and
pressure-flow movement in phloem).

15 Is a nonwoody plant likely to grow to be very tall? Why or

. why not?
The suggested answer is
A non-woody plant is unlikely to grow very tall. Nonwoody plants must rely on turgor pressure to make cells
rigid and hold the plants erect. Plants relying on such
hydrostatic support cannot grow too large or they will
begin to bend under their own weight. Thus, soft-stemmed
plants do not grow to great heights. Furthermore, if
such a plant could grow taller, it would need to grow in
a very moist area in order to assure itself enough water
to maintain the turgor pressure that serves as their
mechanical and structural support.
16 Explain why plant growth is indeterminate and the growth of
. most animals is determinate.
The suggested answer is
Unlike most animals, plants continue to grow as long as
they live. Such growth is referred to as indeterminate
growth. As a plant gets longer and wider, it can exploit
more soil for water and nutrients, more sunlight for
photosynthesis and more air for CO 2. Plants are not very
limited in growth since their ability to acquire the
necessities of life keeps pace with their growth.
Animals, on the other hand, move through their
environments gathering resources as they go. Animal
growth is determinate; they stop growing when they reach
a certain size and shape beyond which movement may
become unwieldy. Thus, their ability to acquire the
necessities of life would decrease if they got too big
and they would be likely to perish. These different ways
of growing reflect different strategies for acquiring
the necessities of life.
17 What is a meristem tissue? Where are the meristem tissues
. found in plants?
The suggested answer is
A meristem tissue is a cluster of cells within a plant
that retains the ability to divide (undergo mitosis),
thus creating new cells. Meristem tissues are found at
root tips and shoot tips; these are called apical
meristems. There is also a meristem tissue called an
axillary bud meristem; this tissue is found at the base
of leaves in the angle formed by the leaf and the stem.
The vascular cambium is also a meristem tissue. It is a
ring of meristematic tissue found between the primary
xylem and primary phloem. There is another meristem
tissue called the cork cambium that is produced from
cells of ground tissues. It produces a new layer of
cells called cork that is involved in the formation of
bark.

18 Distinguish between primary and secondary growth. Do all

. plants exhibit primary growth? Do all plants exhibit
secondary growth?
The suggested answer is
Primary growth is growth from the apical meristems of
plants, resulting in an increase in the length of shoots
and roots. Secondary growth in plants is growth from the
vascular and cork cambium, resulting in increased
diameter of stems and roots. All plants exhibit primary
growth; they all grow in height although the mosses and
their relatives stay fairly low to the ground. Not all
plants, however, exhibit secondary growth. Non-woody
plants with relatively soft stems do not generally grow
wider as do the woody plants, which do exhibit secondary
growth.
19 Auxins and ABA have opposite effects on plant growth.
. Explain.
The suggested answer is
Auxins have a number of effects on plant growth.
Generally, auxins have a positive influence on growth
causing it to occur more rapidly in tissues exposed to
the hormone. One effect of auxins is to stimulate cell
elongation which plays a role in phototropism. When
light shines on one side of a plant, auxins diffuse down
the stem to the shaded side. Cells on the shaded side
elongate faster than those on the lighted side of the
stem. Consequently, the stem bends toward the light.
Auxins also play a role in causing the growing root of a
plant to bend downward in a response called
gravitropism. Cells facing upward, away from the
direction of gravitational pull, elongate faster than
those situated downward. Thus, the root bends into the
Earth. Terminal bud auxins inhibit axillary bud growth
on side branches. They promote apical dominance and
cause the lead shoot to grow faster than side shoots.
This results in the pyramid shape that is most familiar
in evergreens. For shrubs in which a bushier shape is
preferred, horticulturists remove the terminal buds.
This removes growth-inhibiting auxins from the terminal
bud and hastens the growth of the axillary buds. This
causes the plant to grow outward instead of upward and
the plant grows in a more pleasing, bushier form.
Another effect is an involvement in fruit development.
It prevents fruits from dropping prematurely. Abscisic
acid (ABA), on the other hand, has as its general effect
the slowing or inhibition of growth. More specifically,
as its name suggests, it is involved in a process called
abscission, in which leaves or fruit are separated from
the rest of the plant at the end of the growing season.
Its exact role in this process is poorly defined. This
process is directly opposite to one effect of auxins,
their ability to prevent the dropping of fruits. When

water is scarce, ABA levels rise inhibiting growth; the

same happens when temperatures are very high or very
low, conditions that are not as conducive to growth as
more moderate temperatures. High ABA levels have also
been correlated with seed dormancy.
20 While grocery shopping, you buy two bunches of unripe
. bananas. You place one bunch under an inverted bowl, and you
leave the other bunch out on the countertop. Which bunch will
ripen first? Explain.
The suggested answer is
Placing one bunch of bananas under an inverted bowl will
serve to trap whatever ethylene may be given off by the
bananas. It will thus be exposed to the other bananas
for a longer period of time. Since one effect of
ethylene is to trigger the ripening of fruit, the
trapped ethylene should enhance the ripening of the
bananas under the bowl which will subsequently produce
even more ethylene. The bananas left on the countertop
are open to the air. When ethylene is produced by any of
these bananas, much of it will diffuse away before
affecting other bananas. Hence these bananas will ripen
more slowly.
21 Where is the gametophyte found in flowering plants?
.
The suggested answer is
The male gametophyte of flowering plants is found inside
the pollen grain. The female gametophyte of flowering
plants is found in the ovule. The female gametophyte is
housed in a layer of diploid protective cells from the
parent cell.
22 What is the difference between a seed and a pollen grain?
.
The suggested answer is
The pollen grain carries the male gamete, the sperm, to
the stigma where it germinates, sends a pollen tube down
into the carpel, and then sends two sperm cells down the
pollen tube to the female carpel and the egg. One sperm
nucleus fertilizes the egg creating a zygote. The other
sperm nucleus combines with two female nuclei to give
rise to the triploid endosperm. The plant ovule with its
fertilized egg and endosperm matures into a seed. The
pollen grain contains the male gametophyte generation,
while the seed contains the sporophyte generation in the
form of the fertilized egg and endosperm.
23 What is double fertilization? What are the two different
. products that result from double fertilization?
The suggested answer is
Double fertilization refers to the fact that in

flowering plants there are two fertilizations for every

embryo created. This occurs only in plants and mainly in
angiosperms. One of the fertilizations -that of the egg
nucleus by one of the sperm from the pollen grainresults in the formation of a zygote. The zygote will
become the plant embryo and ultimately the new plant or
sporophyte of the next generation. The second
fertilization involves the second sperm cell from the
pollen grain contributing its nucleus to two nuclei in
the female gametophyte (the polar nuclei). This creates
an unusual triploid nucleus and the endosperm develops
as a result of this fertilization. The endosperm is a
nutritive tissue that feeds the developing embryo within
the seed.