Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Indicating Instruments: These Instruments make use of a dial and a pointer for showing or indicating
magnitude of unknown quantity.
Ex: Voltmeter, Ammeter etc.
Recording Instruments: These instruments give continuous record of the given electrical quantity
which is being measured over a specific period.
Ex: Seismograph, X-7 Plotter
Integrating Instruments: These instruments measure the total quantity of the electricity delivered
over a period of time.
Ex: Household Energy Meters
Essential Requirements of an Instrument
In case of measuring instruments the effect of unknown quantity is converted into a mechanical
force which is transmitted into a mechanical force which is transmitted to the pointer which moves
over a calibrated scale. The moving system of such instruments is mounted on a pivoted spindle. For
Satisfactory operations of any indicating instrument, following systems must be present in a system.
a) Deflecting System Producing Deflecting torque field (d)
b) Controlling System producing controlling torque field (c)
c) Damping System producing Damping torque field
Analogue Ammeters and Voltmeters are of same class, as there is no fundamental difference
between the two.
The action of all ammeters and voltmeters are electrostatic type of instruments depends
upon deflecting torque produced by an electric current.
In ammeter, torque is produced by a current here we, measure the current itself.
In voltmeter, torque is produced by a current which is produced by a current which is
proportional to voltage, here we measure voltage
Power loss
So Ammeters should have low electrical resistance so they cause small voltage drop & absorb small
power.
Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the ckt whose voltage is to be measured.
Galvanometer
Galvanometer is an instrument used for finding (detecting) pressure of small currents and voltages in
a circuit (or) for measuring their magnitudes.
Suspension Galvanometer / DArsenoval Type Galvanometer
In Olden days for measuring direct current this was used, this was the advanced version of the
moving coil instrument.
Principle of DArsenoval Instrument
A coil of fine wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet. According to
the fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the coil will rotate in the magnetic field, when it
carries an electric current.
The power requirements of the DArsenoval requirements of the DArsenoval movement are
surprisingly small; the typical range is from 25W to 200W.
Accuracy of the instrument is generally on the order of 2% to 5% of full scale reading.
If low frequency alternating current is applied to the movable coil, the deflection of the
pointer would be upscale for one half cycle of input waveform and downscale for the next
half cycle.
At power line frequencies(60Hz) and above the pointer could not follow the rapid variations
in direction and would swing slightly around zero mark, seeking the average value of
alternating current(which equal zero)
The PMMC instrument is therefore unsuitable for ac measurements, unless the current is
rectified before application to the coil.
Torque Equation
Derivation
Let,
L - Length of the coil (m)
D Width of the coil (m)
N Number of Turns in the coil
B Flux density in the air gap (wb/m2)
I Current through the moving coil (A)
K Spring Constant of Suspension (Nm/rad)
Qf - Final Steady State Deflection of Moving Coil (rad)
Force of each side of coil =
Angle between the direction of the magnetic field and the conductor
The field is radial so =90
(or)
( )
( )
DC Ammeters
Resistor Shunt: (Ammeters Shunt)
The basic movement of a dc ammeter is a PMMC DArsenoval Galvanometer. The coil winding of
basic movement is light and can carry very small currents since the construction of an accurate
instrument with a moving coil to carry currents greater than 100A is impractical as it would require
a heavy weighing and bulky coil.
When heavy current are to be measured, the major part of the current is bypassed through
a load resistance called a shunt. Resistance of the shunt can be found from conventional circuit
analysis:
Rm -> Internal resistance of the movement (i.e. coil)
Rsh -> Resistance of Shunt
Im -> Full scale deflection current of the movement
Ish -> Shunt Current
I -> Full scale current of Ammeter
Since the shunt generator is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage drop across shunt and
movement must be same.
Vshunt = Vmovement
Since
The ratio of total current to the current in the movement is called multiplying power of shunt.
The shunt resistance used with DArsenoval Movement consists of coil of resistance wire within the
case of instrument; or it may be external shunt having a very low resistance.
Construction of Shunts
The ckt has four shunts Rsh1,Rsh2,Rsh3 which can be put in parallel with the meter movement to
give different current ranges I1,I2,I3,I4.
Values at different sections of resistance are (R1 R2), (R2 R3), R3.
DC Voltmeter
Multiple Resistors
The value of a multiplier required to extend the voltage range is calculated from :
This multiplier is usually mounted inside the case of the voltmeter for moderate ranges up to
500v
For Higher ranges, the multiplier may be mounted separately outside the case.
Multi-range DC Voltmeter
In a multi-range DC Voltmeter different full-scale voltage ranges may be obtained by the use of
individual multiplier resistors or by potential divider arrangement.
Individual Multipliers
(
(
)
(
(
)
The system has the advantage that all multipliers except the first have standard
resistance values and can be obtained numerically in precision tolerances.
Fig (a) AC input signal is first rectified and then applied to a DC Amplifier and meter
movement.
Fig (b) The AC input signal is first amplified then applied to a full wave rectifier in the meter
ckt.
This approach generally requires an AC amplifier with high open loop gain and large
amounts of negative feedback to overcome the non-linearity of rectifier diodes.
AC Voltmeters are usually average responding type with the meter scale calibrated in terms
of RMS value of a sine wave.
0. 5
0.9
In this circuit the rectifier diode charges the small capacitor to peak of the applied input
voltage and therefore meter will indicate peak voltage.
After the rectification the average value of the voltage is developed across the resistor R
and applied to the meter.
Peak responding, the basic diff between the peak responding voltmeters is the use of
storage capacitors with the rectifying diode. The capacitor charges through the diode to the
peak value of applied voltage & the meter ckt then responds to the capacitors voltage.
The RMS value of voltage wave is related to average value by form factor
( )
0. 0
0.
The average responding value of the voltmeter has a scale marking corresponding to the
RMS value of the applied sinusoidal input waveform.
The unknown ac voltage is amplified and applied and applied to the heating element
of the measuring thermocouple
The application of heat produces an output voltage that upsets the balance of the
bridge
The DC amplifier amplifies the unbalanced voltage, this voltage feedback to the
heating element of the balancing thermocouple, which heats the thermocouple so
that the bridge is balanced again, i.e. the outputs of both the thermocouples are the
same.
At this instant the AC current in the input thermocouple is equal to the DC current in
the heating element of the feedback thermocouple.
This DC current is therefore directly proportional to the effective or RMS value of the
input voltage, and is indicated by the meter in the output circuit of DC amplifier.