1.

McLeod Gauge

McLeod Gauge is a vacuum gauge that uses the same

principle as that of a manometer. By using the pressure
dividing technique, its range can be extended from a
value of 10-4 Torr. The basic principle is called the
multiple compression technique. It is shown in the
figures below. If there are two bulbs A and B connected
with the McLeod and test gauges through capillary
tubings, the pressure on the right hand side of the test
gauge is very small and the capillary connection between
T and bulb B very long, then the flow law can be written
as:
V.dP2/dt = K.(P1-P2)
V- Volume of the bulb
dP2/dt Pressure Gradient in time between the two
elements
K Flow conductance in the capillary.
As P2 is very small when compared to P1, the flow rate
remains practically constant and is proportional to the
pressure. This forms the basis of the calibration.

Construction:
The basic construction is shown in the figure below.

Working Principle:
The gauge is used to compress a small quantity of low
pressure gas to produce a readable large pressure. Bulb
B of the gauge is attached to capillary aa. The mercury
level in the gauge is lowered up to l1 by lowering the
reservoir, thereby allowing a little process fluid to enter
B. By raising the reservoir, the gas is now compressed in
the capillary aa till mercury rises to the zero mark in the
side tube and capillary bb. The capillary bb is required
to avoid any error due to capillary.

The working of McLeod Gauge is based on Boyles

fundamental equation.

where p and V refer to pressure and volume respectively

and subscripts 1 and 2 refer to initial and final
conditions. Conventional McLeod gauge is made of
glass.
It consists of the capillary C, bulb B and the mercury
sump which is connected to the lower end of the glass
tube such that it can be moved up and down.

The

pressure to be measured (the unknown pressure) is

connected to the upper end of the glass part. When the
mercury level in the gauge is below the cut off F, the
unknown pressure fills the gauge including the bulb B
and capillary C. When the mercury sump is moved up,
the level in the gauge rises and when it reaches the cut
off F a known volume of gas at pressure to be measured
is trapped in bulb B and capillary C.
The McLeod gauge is independent of gas composition.
If, however, the gas contains condensable material and
during compression it condenses, the reading of the
gauge is faulty. The gauge is not capable of continuous
reading and the scale is of square law type. For
linearizing the scale at comparatively higher pressures, a
second volume is introduced as shown in the figure
below, where the scale shown is linear.

Advantages:

2.

Peening Gauge

Construction:
The gauge consists of two plate cathodes and a ring
anode. Magnetic poles are kept such that the flux with
lines of force is applied perpendicular to the two
cathodes. The device consists of two cathodes and a
hollow anode in between.
An input voltage greater than 2 Kilovolt is applied
between them. A strong magnetic field is produced due
to the applied voltage and thus the electrons are ejected.
This causes the gauge to operate. At pressures below 102
Torr, the mean free path of the gas is so large that a
collision may not occur at all so that discharge is not
sustained or ionization may not be initiated. This

It is independent of the gas composition.

Used as standard to calibrate other low pressure
gauges.
No need to apply any corrections to its readings.

Limitations:

The gas must obey boyles law

The measuring tube should have smaller
diameter, but capillary effect can produce
significant uncertainity
It cannot give continuous readings.

problem can be eliminated by a collimating magnetic

field.

Working Principle:
This gauge also works on the ionization principle.
Positive ions are produced by the electrons and current
due to these ions gives a measure of the pressure.
Electrons are ejected from a cold cathode of Zirconium,
Thorium by electric discharge. A potential difference of
~2KV is applied across the electrodes.
The travel of electrons is made over a much longer
distance. The secondary electrons are made to travel in
helical paths before reaching the anode. This is
accomplished by a magnetic field. Magnetic poles are
kept such that the flux with lines of force is applied
perpendicular to the two cathodes.

The current is proportional to the pressure. Figure shows

the basics of the Penning gauge. A modification of the
Penning gauge, the magnetron, can measure very low
pressures down to 10 13 Torr. You should have noticed
the similarity between the Penning gauge and the ionpump. A Penning gauge actually does act as a slight
pump and indicates pressures that are slightly lower than
chamber pressures. For this reason the conductance
between the tube and the chamber must be relatively
large.
The emission of electrons from the cathode can be
hampered by the formation of an insulating layer such as
a thick oxide. Periodically therefore the cathode should
be cleaned. The gauges used can be cleaned simply with
a fine emery paper followed by an acetone or alcohol
rinse to remove grit. The gauge is rugged, and can be
exposed to atmosphere without harm. The electronics is
easier to design than that for other gauges.
A high voltage source is needed. The gauge is sensitive
to the composition of the gas in the same fashion as the
thermionic ionization gauge. You must not allow metal
particles to fall into the gauge, especially magnetic
materials.

Advantages:
It can measure vacuum up to 10-6 Torr accurately.

Disadvantages:
Range: 10 3 Torr to 10 13 Torr
Electrons are emitted from a cold cathode(room
temperature) when we apply a large enough voltage. If
we accelerate the electrons with the same field as was
used to extract them, we can have energetic electrons
capable of ionizing the gas in the system. We increase
the mean free path of the electrons by applying a
magnetic field. This increases the rate of ionization per
electron, and we obtain an ion current that is large
enough to measure even without amplification.

This gauge cannot measure vacuum till vacuum is at

least 10-3 Torr since glow cannot be sustained below
this vacuum.

3. Pirani Gauge
Construction:
A basic Pirani gauge consists of a fine wire of tungsten
or platinum of about 0.002 cm in diameter. This wire is
mounted in a tube and then connected to the system
whose vacuum is to be measured. The temperature range
is around (7-400) degree Celsius and the heating current
is between (10-100) mA. A bridge circuit is also used
for greater accuracy. The pirani gauge is connected as
one arm of the bridge circuit. The figure is shown below.
Vacuum measurement is usually taken in three ways.

When the pressure changes, there will be a

change in current. For this, the voltage V has to
be kept constant.

The resistance R2 of the gauge is measured, by

keeping the gauge current constant.

The null balance of the bridge circuit is

maintained by adjusting the voltage or current.
This change is made with the help of a
potentiometer and the change brought will be a
measure of the pressure produced.

Range 100 Torr0.1 mTorr.

A Wheatstone bridge. a measuring element, which is
nothing but a resistance wire, usually platinum or
tungsten wire of in times we use 4 coiled platinum or
tungsten wires. The resistance wire is kept inside an
enclosure, usually made of hard glass and this is
connected to the pressure source. An exactly identical
another element, completely evacuated and then sealed.
So, these two are to the adjutant arms of the Wheatstone
bridge. Now initially we get the null condition. Now,
when the measuring element is connected to the pressure
source, this pressure causes change in temperature of
this resistance. If the resistance changes there will be an
unbalance in the circuit. So, the bridge unbalance current
will be a measure of pressure. So, initially we set, we
initially balance the bridge and then the measuring
element is connected to the pressure source and the
bridge unbalance current is taken as a measure of

Both Pirani and thermocouple gauges work on the same

principle: a wire carrying an electric current will heat up
until it reaches an equilibrium temperature. Joule heat in
the amount i 2R is produced by a current passing through
a wire of resistance R. The wire will increase in
temperature until an equal amount of heat is removed
from the wire. The heat loss from the wire can occur via
convection, conduction, or radiation. At high pressures
convection dominates, and the wire stays cool; the
convection is not very pressure sensitive. In the pressure
range of about 200 Torr to 0.1mTorr, conduction
dominates and the heat transfer is very pressure
sensitive. It is most common to use the gauge to measure
pressure in this range. At low pressures the heat loss is
due to radiation that is pressure insensitive.
As the heat balance changes, the temperature of the wire
changes, and hence the resistance of the wire also
changes. By measuring either the temperature of the
wire or the resistance of the wire we can determine the
pressure.The Pirani gauge measures the resistance
(usually at constant current) while the thermocouple
gauge, Figure, measures the temperature of the wire.
Both readings are quite non-linear with pressure, and the
gauges are calibrated by the manufacturer.
In the constant current mo de of operation the useful
range is 1 Torr to 10 4 Torr. By using a Pirani gauge
and keeping the temperature(resistance) constant, the
higher pressure limit can be raised to about 100Torr. A
few gauges use the convection cooling properties of
gases and claim accurate readings at pressures up to
atmospheric. Continuous readings are possible, and
vapors are measured as well as gases. No vapors are
introduced by the gauge. The gauge can safely be
exposed to atmospheric pressure. The electronics must
be calibrated. The gauge characteristics will change over
time since the wire may become contaminated by gases
in the system. The gauge is sensitive to the type of gas as
is shown in the diagram above. This is due to the effect
of convection especially at higher pressures.

Advantages:

pressure.

Working Principle:

Significantly better resolution in the range above

75 Torr.
The power consumption is drastically reduced
compared to continuously operated Pirani
gauges.
The gauge's thermal influence on the real
measurement is lowered considerably due to the
low temperature threshold of 80C and the ramp
heating in pulsed mode.
The pulsed mode allows for efficient
implementation of modern microprocessor
technology.

Disadvantages:

Increased calibration effort.

Longer heat-up phase.