ECV 5223

STEEL STRUCTURES
Lecturer : Dr Nor Azizi Safiee
norazizi@eng.upm.edu.my

Marks distribution
Assignments

Project and Quizzes

Assignments

2010%%

Test 1

15 %

Test 2

15%

Project

Test 1

10 %

Final exam
10 %
Test 2
Test 1

FinalTest 2
inal

10 %

20 %

40 %

20 %
2040
%

20 %

%
40 %

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Morris L.J. and Plum, D.R. (1996). Structural Steelwork

Design to BS5950. Longman
Nethercot, D.A. (1996). Limit States Design of Structural
Steelwork. 2nd Edition. E&FN Spon, London
Bresler, B., Lin, T.Y. and Scalzi, J.B.(1968). Design of Steel
Structures. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Ambrose J. and Tripeny, P. (2007). Simplified Design of Steel
Structures. New York: Prentice Hall.
Segui, W.T. (2007). Steel design. Cengage Learning.
Graham W.O and Brian D.C. (1989). Structural Steelwork
Connections. Butterworths & Co.

Learning Outcomes
Explaining the principles of materials and design of steel

structures
Analyze the structural steel members and systems
Implement the design of steel structure

Synopsis
This course covers limit state design method, connection
design, elastic and plastic beam design, portal frame design,
multi storey frame design, and fire engineering.

Content/Syllabus
Introduction to steel structures
Design of connection

Elastic Design of continuous construction beam, portal

frame, multi storey

Plastic Design of continuous construction beam, portal
frame, multi storey
Fire Engineering Design
Design project steel structure

Introduction
Structural steelwork can be either a single member or an

assembly of a number of steel sections connected together in

such a way that they perform a specified function.
To fulfill the design requirement, the complete design process
and relationships between the behavior and analysis of steel
structures and their structural design have to be considered.
Steel sections can be produced by hot rolled and cold rolled
The standard cross section are obtained by the hot rolling of
steel billets in a rolling mill while for the complex shapes, are
produced by cold formed from steel sheet.

Typical structural steel sections commonly used as steel members

Structural Steel Material

Steel material was in the form of wrought iron, produced by

heating ore in a blast furnace.

In early nineteenth century, cast iron and wrought iron were used in
various types of bridges.
Steel an alloy of primarily iron and carbon, with fewer impurities
and less carbon than cast iron. In 1855, steel began to displace
wrought iron and cast iron in construction.
structural steel was widely used in construction of bridge, high

rise building, roof truss, electricity transmission tower,

warehouse, factory, offshore structure
In the civil engineering field steel is in competition principally with

reinforced and prestressed concrete, timber and brickwork.

Easy to
fabricate

Great
strength
Why steel ?

High
stiffness

Good
ductility

Item

Comments

Ease of
installation/construction
Speed of installation
process

No formwork, minimum
cranage
Much of the structure can
be prefabricated away from
the site

Modifications at a later
date
Low self-weight
Good dimensional control

Extensions/strengthening
relatively straightforward
Permits large clear spans
Prefabrication in the shop
ensures accurate work

US steel building

Future steel structures

J. Mayers Metropol Parasol,

Properties of Steel
Strength measured in tensile test where a small coupon of

material is pulled in a testing machine until it fractures

The results of a tensile test are normally presented in terms
of a stress-strain curve for material (figure).
The relationship between stress and strain is linear elastic up
to the proportional limit and obeys Hookes law.
As the strain is increased until proportional limit where the
curve tends to depart from linearity, the stress at this point
known as proportionality limit stress, pl
Further straining will result in the stress yielding at a yield stress,

y (material no longer behaves elastically)

The stress then remains constant, eventhough the strain continues
to increase called yield plateau or plastic range (plastic flow of
material and measurement of the ductility)

Properties of Steel
Typical steel possess yield plateau of at least 10 or 12 times the

strain at yield before strain hardening begins.

The initial slope of this part of the curve is termed the strain
hardening modulus, Est.
A maximum value of stress is reached correspond to the
ultimate tensile stress, ult.
Thereafter stress appears to decrease (specimen begins to neck

down) until fracture finally occurs and this stress known as fracture
stress, f.
The behavior of most structural steel to be very similar in
compression and tension, with the compressive yield stress being
5% higher on average than the tensile value.

M,

Typical stress-strain curve for structural mild steel obtained from

a tensile test

Properties of Steel
Ductility the ability to undergo large deformations before

fracturing and measured by percentage of elongation.

This property enables small regions that are very highly
stressed to yield, thereby relieving this concentration of
stress without undue distress to the structure as a whole.
Adequate ductility is also a prerequisite for the use of the
plastic design methods.

Design Requirements
The design of any structure must be judged by whether it

fulfils the required function safely, can be built with economy

and can maintain an acceptable appearance for its specified
lifetime.
It follows that the design of structural steelwork also will be
assessed by these criteria of safety, economy and appearance.
The design of structural steel is based on limit state theory in
accordance with BS5950: Structural Use of Steelwork in
Building.
The designer selects a number of criteria by which to assess
the proper functioning of the structure and then checks
whether they have been satisfied.

Limit State Philosophy

Limit states design provides the basic frame within which the

performance of the structure can be assessed against various

limiting conditions
In formulating procedures nowadays it is customary to do so in a
way which recognizes the inherent variability of loads, materials,
construction practices and approximations made in design
Limit states design philosophy allows a more consistent factor of
safety against failure and more economical use of materials
compared to the working stress approach
There are two levels of limit state, Ultimate Limit State and
Serviceability Limit State as considered in BS5950

Limit State Philosophy

The ultimate limit state may be defined as the point beyond

which the structure would be unsafe and the serviceability

may be defined as the point beyond which the structure
becomes unserviceable.
The two limit states summarized in Table below
The load carrying capacity of each member and connection
as determined by the relevant provisions of the code should
be such that the factored loads would not cause any failure.
Structural integrity is another new requirement introduced
in the BS 5950

Ultimate limit state

Strength (yielding, rupture,
buckling and transformation into
a mechanism)
Stability against overturning or
sway
Fracture due to fatigue
Brittle fracture
Elastic or plastic instability

Serviceability limit state

Excessive
deflection/deformation
Excessive vibration
Repairable damage due to fatigue
Corrosion and durability

Ultimate Limit States

a)

Load factors
The structure being unsafe or on the point of collapse
when it reaches the limit states of strength or stability
Therefore, necessary to ensure that there is an adequate
factor of safety against failure
Factored load should be applied in the most unfavourable
realistic combination for the part or effect under
consideration
To consider this, the specified loads should be multiplied by
the relevant partial factors, f given in Table 2 BS 5950 Part
1.

Ultimate Limit States

a)

Load factors (continue..)

Following load combinations should be checked in the case
of buildings not subject to loads from travelling cranes
Combination

loads

Design load

Dead load and imposed 1.4Gk +1.6Qk

load

Dead load and wind

load
Dead load, imposed
load and wind load

1.0Gk +1.4Wk
1.2Gk +
1.2Qk+1.2Wk

Ultimate Limit States

b) Strength
Strength of members or structures at the ultimate limit state
should be checked using factored loads to calculate the load
effects such as axial load, moment and shear
Comparison should be made between these values and the
resistance of the section.
When load combinations are considered, a factor of 1.0
should be applied to dead load that counteracts the effects of
other loads including dead loads restraining sliding,
overturning or uplift in each of the load combinations

Ultimate Limit States

c) Stability

Resistance to
horizontal
forces

Static
equilibrium

STABILITY

Sway
stiffness

In accordance with the code static equilibrium, resistance to

horizontal forces and sway should be checked

Ultimate Limit States

c) Stability (continue..)
Static equilibrium
The factored loads, considered separately and in combination,
should not cause the structure or any part of it (including the
foundations) to fail by sliding, overturning or uplift at any
stage inclusive of erection and demolition
The combination of dead, imposed and wind loads should be
to have the most severe effect on the stability limit state under
consideration
Variation in dead load probably during construction or other
temporary condition should take into account
Provide sufficient bracing to maintain stability if the members
are incapable of keeping themselves in equilibrium

Ultimate Limit States

c) Stability (continue..)
Resistance to horizontal forces
All structures (including portions between expansion joints)
should have adequate resistance to horizontal forces in order
to provide a practical level of robustness against the effects of
incidental loading.
Resistance to horizontal forces should be provided by using
one or more of the systems which include triangulated
bracing, moment-resisting joints, cantilever columns, shear
walls and specially designed staircase enclosures such as lift
cores
In doing so reversal of load direction should be accommodated

Ultimate Limit States

c) Stability (continue..)
Sway stiffness
All structures (including portions between expansion joints)
should have sufficient sway stiffness so that the vertical loads
acting with lateral displacements of the structure do not result
in excessive secondary forces in the members or connections
If there exists second order (P-) effects to significant
extent, they should be allowed for in the design of the
structure.
Sway stiffness is provided by sufficient bracing to limit sway
deformations and prevent twisting of the structure on plan.

Secondary moment created by the P- effect

Ultimate Limit States

c) Stability (continue..)
Sway stiffness
P- effects will be insignificant in a low to medium rise
structure where reasonably proportioned bracing is provided,
however, does imply that this should be checked even in a
structure of simple construction
In the case of symmetrical frame, with symmetrical vertical
loads, the sway effects should be taken as comprising the
forces and moments in the frame due to horizontal loads.

Ultimate Limit States

d) Fatigue
Fatigue need to be considered for a structure or structural
element that subjected to significant and numerous
fluctuations of stress
Stress changes due to normal fluctuations in wind loading is
not a critical factor and hence need not be considered.
However, situations may arise in building structures that may
require fatigue checks.
Crane supporting structures, platforms supporting plant or
machinery which cause vibration and slender members with
wind induced oscillation fatigue check becomes essential
BS5950 not fully cover workmanship for cases where fatigue is
critical, refer to specialist literature

Ultimate Limit States

e) Brittle fracture
Brittle fracture should be avoided by using a steel quality with
adequate notch toughness taking into account the effects of
minimum service temperature, thickness of the material, steel
grade, loading speed and stress level.
Brittle fracture is prevented in BS5950-Part 1 by limiting the
thickness of steel in particular situations. Design strength is
chosen based on thickness.

Serviceability Limit States

a) Deflection
The deflections of a building or part under serviceability loads
should not impair the strength or efficiency of the structure or
its components, nor cause damage to the finishing.
A check on deflection is an essential part of design and is often
critical for beams and slender structures.
When checking for deflections the most adverse realistic
combination and arrangement of serviceability loads should be
assumed and the structure may be assumed to behave
elastically.
Deflections are usually calculated under unfactored imposed
load only. This assumes that dead load deflections will be built
up during fabrication and erection or that only imposed load
deflections will be of significance to the occupants.

Deflection on beams due to unfactored

imposed load
Cantilevers
Beams carrying plaster or other brittle finish
All other beams

Length/180
Span/360
Span/200

Horizontal deflection of columns other than

portal frames

Top of columns in single storey buildings

In each storey of a building with more than one storey

Height/300
Height of storey/300

Gantry Girders
Vertical
Horizontal

Span/600
Span/500

Suggested deflection limits for typical cases

Serviceability Limit States

b) Vibration and Oscillation
Vibration and oscillation of building structures should be
limited to avoid discomfort to users and damage to contents
No guidance is given in BS 5950 on how to check this
condition and it is recommended to refer on specialist
literature.
Normally used Design guide on the vibration of floors
Publication P076 on the Steel Construction as guidelines

Serviceability Limit States

c) Durability
In order to ensure the durability of the structure under
conditions relevant both to its intended use and to its intended
life, the following factors should be taken into account in
design
i.
The environment of the structure and the degree of
exposure
ii. The shape of the members and the structural detailing
iii. The protective measures, if any
iv. Whether inspection and maintenance are possible
The most important factor that requires attention in durability
issue is corrosion. Corrosion of steel will be worse in the
presence of environmental factors such as chlorides and
sulphites

Code of Practice
Particularly BS 5950 is used in designing steelwork in

building.
Clauses in BS 5950 covers sway stability, avoidance of
disproportionate collapse, resistance to brittle fracture, local
buckling, lateral torsional buckling, shear resistance,
stiffeners, members subject to combined axial force and
bending moment, joints, connections and testing.

Code of Practice
BS 5950 consists of the following parts:

Part 1 : Code of practice for design f rolled and welded sections

Part 2 : specification for materials; fabrication and erection, rolled and
welded sections
Part 3 : Design in composite construction
Part 4 : Code of practice for the design of composite slabs with profiled steel
sheeting
Part 5 : Code of practice for the design of cold-formed thin gauge sections
Part 6 : Code of practice for design of light gauge profiled steel sheeting
Part 7 : Specification for materials fabrication and erection of cold-formed
sections and sheeting

Part 8 : code of practice for fire resistant design

Part 9 : Code of practice for stressed skin design

Scope of BS 5950 Part 1

BS 5950-1 gives recommendations for the design of

structural steelwork using hot rolled sections, flats plates, hot

finished structural hollow sections
The use of this code is primarily intended for building and
allied structures not specifically covered by other standards
The recommendations in the code assume that the standards
of material and construction are as specified in BS 5950-2.

Design Methods
Three basic design methods are recognised in limit state design
philosophy. (Clause 2.1.2 BS 5950)
Simple
design

Continuous
design

Design
methods

Semicontinuous
design