The Essence of Thermodynamics

This is a summary of the most common elements of thermodynamics. It does

NOT contain all of the content of the subject such as unsteady state
processes, systems with multiple inlet and outlets, and so forth.
Sign Convention
&

Q and Q are POSITIVE when heat ENTERS a system and NEGATIVE when heat LEAVES a system.
&

W and W are POSITIVE when heat LEAVES a system and NEGATIVE when heat ENTERS a system.

Basic Equation:
F=ma (Newton Second Law of Motion)
W=(PV) expansion work
KE =
Gravitational PE =
Heat transfer:
Conduction:
Radiation:
-8
2 4
-8
2o 4
=5.67x10 W/m K =0.1714x10 Btu/h ft R
Convection:
Ideal gas equation: PV=nRT
First Law
Energy Rate Balance

dE

cv
Q

dt

cv

1) Closed System (Control mass)

Q W

[ m ( u2 u1 )]system When Kinetic and Potential Energies are Negligible

2) Open System (Control Volume)

& &
&

h2

Q W m h1

&

&

Q W m ( h1

Second Law

S > 0 irreversible; S=0 reversible; S<0 impossible

Entropy Rate Balance

1) Closed System (Control mass)

m(s2

s1 ) System

Q
T

0 and

&

h2 ) 0 For Steady

2) Open System (Control Volume)

2

&
Q

m& s1

s2

& For Steady State Open Systems with one Inlet

&

Outlet

Tb

Common Open System Technologies

2

1) Nozzles and Diffusers: h1 h2 = (V2 V1 )/2gc

&

&

2) Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors: W m ( h1 h2 )

3) Throttles: h1 h2 = 0
4) Heat Exchangers: m&A ( hin hout ) A m&B ( hin hout )B

Thermodynamic Properties
Enthalpy H=U+PV
Heat capacity

1) Solids and Incompressible Liquids

u2 u1 c(T2 T1 )
h2 h1 c(T2 T1 ) v( p2 p1 )
s2

s1

c ln(T2 / T1 ) Absloute Temperatures Must Be Used Here

2) Mixtures of liquids and vapors

Use the tables at the back of the book. Plus using the quality, x:
v v f x(vg v f ) u uf
x(ug uf )
h hf
ssf

x(hg
x(sg

hf ) hf

x(hfg )

sf)

3) Ideal Gases
If specific heats are constant:
u2 u1 c v (T2 T1 ) h2
h1 c p (T2 T1 )
s 2 s1 c v ln(T2 / T1 ) R ln( v 2 / v1 )
and

s 2 s1 c p ln(T2 / T1 ) R ln( p2 / p1 )

If the process is isentropic,

p
2

T1
If specific heats are not constant:

( k 1)/ k
2

Where

, which can be found in the table.

Some Thermodynamic Terms and Processes

&

Reversible (Carnot)
Refrigerator and Air
Conditioner: max = TCold/
(THot TCold)
Heat Pump: COPHP = =
QHot/(QHot QCold)
Reversible (Carnot) Heat
Pump: max = THot/(THot
TCold)

1)
Adia
batic
or
Note that = (QHot
Insul
QCold)/(QHot QCold) = 1
ated
(Q
Isentropic Efficiency
and
Examples:
Q=
0) 2)
Isoth
s Turbine
or Engine
ermal
(T =
const
For an ideal gas, s Turbine
ant,
or T2
= T1)
3) Incompressible (volume is constant, = constant)
or Pump
4) Closed rigid container (total volume and mass
are constant, so v = /m = constant) 5) Polytropic
n
n
n
(pv = constant or p1v1 = p2v2 where n is an
For an ideal gas, s Compressor
empirical constant)
6) Saturated vapor (quality, x = 1)
7) Saturated liquid (quality, x = 0)
8) Reversible (No friction, heat transfer, etc., and & 0
)
9) Isentropic (entropy s = constant, or s2 = s1,
and means reversible and adiabatic) 10
Throttling (enthalpy h = constant, or h2 = h1)

Thermodynamic Cycle and Process Efficiencies

Heat Engine: HE = Wout/Qin = 1 QCold/QHot
Reversible (Carnot) Heat Engine: Rev-HE = 1
TCold/THot (use absolute temperatures)
Refrigerator and Air Conditioner: COPR/AC = = QCold/
(QHot QCold)

hh
1

2s

h1 h2a

where T2s

T1 p2 / p1

k 1 /k

s Nozzle

Vapor power systems

1) Rankine Cycle Isentropic Thermal Efficiency:

Rankine isentropic

where vf is the specific volume of saturated liquid at T3.

2) Rankine Cycle Actual Thermal Efficiency:

Rankine actual

where vf is the specific volume of saturated liquid at T3.

Gas Power Systems

Otto Cold Air Standard Cycle Thermal Efficiency:
Cold

Otto

ASC

Diesel Cold Air Standard Cycle Thermal Efficiency:

where r = v1/v2 = 1/2 is the compression ratio and rc = v3/v2 = 3/2 is the cut-off
ratio of the engine.

Vapor Compression Refrigeration Systems

1) Reversed Rankine Cycle Isentropic Thermal Efficiency is:

Rankine isentropic

where vf is the specific volume of saturated liquid at T3.

( h1 h2 s ) v f p4 p3 h1 h3 v f p4 p3
2) Reversed Rankine Cycle Actual Thermal Efficiency is:

Rankine

where vf is the specific volume of saturated liquid at T3.

Mixtures of Ideal gases

Measures of mixture composition:
a) Mass fraction of gas i = mfi = mi/m where m = mmixture = mi
b) Mole fraction of gas i = yi = ni/n, where n = nmixture = ni
c) Partial pressure ratio of gas i = pi/p, where p = pmixture = pi
d) Partial volume ratio of gas i = i/ , where = mixture = i
Note that yi = pi/p = i/ = mfi(Mm/Mi) where Mi = the molecular mass of gas i
and Mm = Mmixture = yiMi = mmixture/nmixture

Thermodynamic properties of ideal gas mixtures:

(u2 u1)mixture = (cv)mixture(T2 T1)
(h2 h1)mixture = (cp)mixture(T2 T1)
(s2 s1)mixture = (cp)mixtureln(T2/T1) Rmixtureln(p2/p1) where Rmixture =

/Mmixture

Atmospheric air (dry air plus water vapor):

a) Relative humidity = = pv/psat = (partial pressure of water vapor)/(saturation pressure)
b) Humidity ratio = = mv/mda = (mass of water vapor)/(mass of dry air)
Also, = 0.622[pv/(p pv)].