SME Annual Meeting

Mar. 27-Mar.29, 2006, St. Louis, MO

Preprint 06-014
THE REWARDS OF PATIENCE
R. E. Scheffel, Consulting Met. Eng., Castle Rock, CO
porosity. It is not known how well this air was distributed and the author
has no knowledge of any studies in this regard at this site or any other.

ABSTRACT
Most supergene copper heap leach operations today employ
forced-aeration, irrespective of ore grade. Unfortunately, there is little
published quantification of its benefit. There is a natural desire to
strive for the ideal chemical kinetics. The reality, however, is that
physical mechanisms control the commercial extraction rate. This
paper presents the performance of a number of operations, their
operating conditions and physical ore characteristics, which contribute
to non-ideal solution distribution and variable extraction rate.
Regardless whether one uses forced-aeration, commercial experience
to date suggests it is prudent to design for longer leach cycle times to
ensure the production target is met.

CMQB conducted empirical calculations to determine the amount

of air necessary to satisfy the stoichiometric reactions, plus some
excess.
It was also understood this calculation included an
assumption that a significant portion of the pyrite would oxidize. This
3
2
3
2
calculation resulted in an aeration rate of 0.15 m /hm to 0.2 m /hm for
an ore grade of about 1.5 % CuT, all as chalcocite, stacked to 6 m
depth. It is unclear in reviewing actual historic production records at
QB that implementation of this forced-aeration actually resulted in
improved production. Other issues with ore throughput, grade control
and fines content, could easily explain most of the production shortfall
during the first several years of operation. Also, during this time, QB
began addressing the problem faced by most of these operations too
little leach volume and/or time.

INTRODUCTION
A large number of copper supergene, heap leach, SX/EW
operations were developed during the 1990s. Most of the larger ones
were in Chile and Peru, while others were developed in Australia,
Southeast Asia and North America. The leaching of chalcocite prior to
this time was primarily in run-of-mine (ROM) dumps or heaps such as
1
the Inspiration ferric-cure leaching near Miami, AZ and Phelps
Dodges Morenci, AZ ROM leaching. Ranchers Exploration and
Development Corporation operated a mixed oxide-chalcocite in-place
2
leach at the Old Reliable mine near Mammoth, AZ from 1972 to 1981.

Nearly all operations doubled both the total volume of solution

pumped and the leach cycle time that was originally assumed based
on pilot and column testing of less-than-representative ore samples in
order to achieve the designed production rate.
As a result of these experiences and fears of under-performing,
all operators of supergene leach operations started employing forcedaeration, regardless of other important considerations such as ore
grade, particle size, fines content, application rates, etc., all of which
impact the need for oxygen and effect the gaseous porosity that may
naturally exist within the ore bed.

These newer operations employ fine crushing with an

accompanying higher plant and infrastructure capital cost that
demanded a greater level of recovery (>75 % of CuT) than prior ROM
or in-place leach operations. The primary driving force behind this
development was the experience and expertise developed by
Sociedad Minera Pudahuel (SMP) at Lo Aguirre near Santiago, Chile
in the early 1980s. This operation began as an oxide thin-layer leach
along the lines of the original patent, #US 4,017,309, issued to Holmes
and Narver Inc., in 1977. After observing the natural biological activity
in spent oxide residue, while transitioning to more supergene mineral,
SMP began developing their expertise in the biological leaching of
supergene ores.

Unfortunately, the cost/benefit ratio has never, to the authors

knowledge, been quantified for the lower grade operations, i.e. <1.5 %
CuT. For a high-grade operation, the cost of forced-aeration is minimal,
but for lower grade it can take 1 % to 3 % additional extraction to
recover this cost. Moreover, installation and maintenance of the air
distribution system are quite disruptive and the latter does not always
occur, which further compromises the perceived benefit. In fact, the
engineering requirements to uniformly distribute such a small flux rate
applied at the point where air porosity is minimal suggest proper
distribution of the air may be problematic in most cases.

Initial under-performance of production at Girilambone Copper

Company (GCC) in Australia and Compania Minera Quebrada Blanca
(CMQB) in Chile prompted these operations to employ forced-aeration,
as the bio-leaching community recognized that oxygen is a key
component of the chalcocite leaching mechanism. GCC was the first
to experiment with forced-aeration in April 1996, and CMQB followed
shortly thereafter.

Therefore, it is important that as an industry we quantify the actual

benefit of forced-aeration for supergene copper leaching.
CHEMICAL KINETICS vs. WETTING EFFICIENCY
It was recognized at the Bluebird Mine, Miami, AZ in 1972 that
there is a very large difference between what chemical kinetics can
achieve and what wetting efficiency in a non-homogeneous mixture
allows. It is critical to the successful design of a heap leach operation
to understand the relative role of the various rate-controlling
mechanisms of the actual leach conditions.

The benefit of forced-aeration at GCC was determined with small

3
test sections of 25,000 t within a single heap. Different crush sizes,
with and without forced-aeration, were tested on an ore grade of nearly
3.4 % CuT as chalcocite. The results showed dramatic improvement in
both the ferrous/ferric conversion and extraction rate, so GCC
immediately began installing conventional mine ventilation blowers,
aerating the heap via 1 m diameter mine vent ducting with 100 mm
drain coil installed 1 m above the drain layer. The amount of air
3
2
3
2
delivered was 1.5 m /hm to 2 m /hm to a 4 m ore depth -- later
extended to 8 m. This volume of air was sufficient to turn the void
space in the heap over once an hour, assuming proper distribution and

It is well documented that leaching of sulfide minerals is

electrochemical in nature with certain key half-cell reactions involved in
indirect dissolution kinetics. In the case of pure chalcocite (a mineral
4
that can have various intermediate products ), the principal reactions
are:
Cu2S + 2 Fe Cu
+3

+2

+ CuS

(1)

Copyright 2006 by SME

SME Annual Meeting

Mar. 27-Mar.29, 2006, St. Louis, MO
CuS + 2 Fe Cu
+3

+2

+S

(2)

COMPARABLE COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS

The ferric ion is produced, according to equation (3) and

catalyzed by aerobic bacteria;
Fe

+2

+ O2 + 2H Fe + H2O
bacteria
+

+3

Figures 1a and 1b illustrate the typical commercial extraction

profiles for seven different chalcocite dominated heap leaches. The
actual properties are not identified here to protect the confidential
nature of some of the information. Most of the information presented is
from the authors experience, but all these recovery profiles and
associated information can be obtained through a search of public
information and publications provided by the operators.

(3)

Possible secondary reactions , which can impact the acid balance,

or consume a limited supply of oxygen are:
S + 3/2 O2 + H2O H2SO4
bacteria
o

100

(4)

90
80

Fe

+2

+ 2 H + 2 SO

-2
4

70

% CuR Recovery

FeS2 + 3 O2 + H2O
bacteria
(5)

60

Area of Economic
Extraction

50
40
30

and

20

FeS2 + 14 Fe

+ 8 H2O
bacteria

+3

Area of Initial
Commercial Design

10
0
0

30

60

90

120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450 480 510

Days
+2

15 Fe

+ 16 H + 2 SO

-2
4

(6)

Observation of the acid and thermal balance around many

commercial heap leaches suggests that equations (4, 5 and 6) are not
as significant in supergene leaching as some speculate when
reviewing the literature. The believed reason is that most operations
leaching chalcocite add the equivalent of 50 % to 100 % of the net
acid consumed by the gangue in the agglomeration step. Therefore, if
these acid producing reactions were significant, there would be both
excess acid and heat generated within the ore beds, something not
experienced to any great degree in most supergene heap leaches.
When reviewing the literature on bacterial oxidation of sulfides, it is
often stated or implied that pyrite is the source of the ferrous iron
necessary for bacterial activity. The performance of many supergene
heaps suggests this is not necessarily the case. Most of the iron in
supergene heap leaches comes almost exclusively from the readily
acid-soluble iron in the ore. This varies from 0.05 % to 0.4 % for most
operations and is more than sufficient to provide a leach system with
>1.0 g/L FeT, all that is required based on observed commercial
6,7
extraction rates.

#1, 5 m, 0.6 % CuR

#2, 7.5 m, 0.8 % CuR

#3, 9 m, 1.0 % CuR

#4, 9 m, 1.13 % CuR

#5, 3.8 m, 1.35 % CuR

#6, 8 m, 1.33 % CuR

#7, 6 m, 1.7% CuR

#4, 2 x 2 x 6 m, ~1.4 % CuR

#6, 2 x 2 x 6 m, ~1.5 % CuR

Figure 1a. Typical commercial chalcocite recovery plots.

Days to 85% CuR Recovery

600
550
R2 = 0.9543
500
R2 = 0.7795
450
400
350
300
250
200
0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

Grade (% CuR or % CNSCu) x Thickness (ore depth in m)

GT (%CNSCu)

Nearly all supergene heap leach operations add the majority of

the gangue acid requirement in agglomeration. Therefore, the
remaining acid required to leach chalcocite is primarily that provided in
the electrolysis of the copper and exchanged on a mole-for-mole basis
for copper in SX. Therefore, the rate of extraction in most supergene
heap leaches is controlled by the level of free acid in the SX raffinate
and not necessarily by the theoretical chemical kinetics rate, wetting
issues aside.

GT (%CuR)

Linear (GT (%CuR))

Linear (GT (%CNSCu))

Figure 1b. Grade-Thickness vs. Days leach time to

85 % CuR recovery.
The subtleties of each extraction profile are a subject to
themselves. The purpose of presenting this data is to illustrate the
common behavior despite significantly varying operating conditions.

8,9

Recent work with electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and

studies of the impact of fine clay on solution wetting efficiency has
high-lighted many of the issues related to the uniformity of solution
distribution. Recent close-spaced sampling (0.4 m x 0.4 m) and ERT
work identifying insitu water saturation, temperature and redox
potential at one operation shows significant correlation to actual copper
dissolution insitu. These results are very enlightening and are the
10
subject of a companion paper in this session.

All but one of these operations use(d) forced-aeration. One has

tested not adding air, which is discussed below. The performance of
another was quite similar to what is shown here, prior to introducing
forced-aeration.
One advantage of the operations illustrated in Figure 1a is, with
the exception of one case, they are all on/off, single-lift leach
operations, so metallurgical accounting based on the leached residue
confirms the level of extraction shown.

The primary reagent from reactions (1) and (2) is ferric ion.
Without acid in the solution, however, there will be no oxidation of
ferrous iron, even if O2 occurs in excess. Modeling work of Cathles
11
and Schlitt at Kennecott Copper suggests that oxygen will be present
at all times in dumps due to natural barometric pressure changes and
ventilation, provided there is sufficient gaseous porosity. The question
is simply one of the necessary supply relative to all the competing
requirements.

12

Six of the seven cases use(d) the sequential assay procedure

to determine the recoverable copper content, i.e. a reasonable
estimate of the oxide and supergene mineral assemblage. This method
has proven in nearly every case to be an appropriate indication of the
leachable mineralogy. The copper assumed leachable with this assay
method is referred to as % CuR in the plots in this paper. All recovery
profiles are presented as a percentage of the recoverable copper

Copyright 2006 by SME

SME Annual Meeting

Mar. 27-Mar.29, 2006, St. Louis, MO
mineralogy, not the total copper, which could include non-acid soluble
oxide minerals or chalcopyrite.

With the exception of one, all other operations aerate(d) at

3
2
3
2
0.08 m /hm to 0.2 m /hm . All of these, with the exception
of case 2, aerate for most of the total leach cycle. Case 2
has historically aerated for only the first 90 to 100 days.

Three use(d) thermofilm to capture solar heat.

The application rate is highly variable from case to case and

during the life of the leach cycle.

Irrigation rates vary from a low of 3 L/(hm ) to 13 L/(hm ) or

higher.

Ore depth varies from 3.8 m to 10 m.

Six of the seven cases use(d) conventional radial stacking to

place the ore, while the other uses a spreader conveyor.

The level of -100 mesh varies from a mass fraction of 7 % to

20 % from case to case, and within each case, it can vary by
100 % or more.

While these plots appear significantly different, there are a

number of common factors:

They all achieve 80 % to 90 % recovery of the recoverable

copper content, with the required leach time determined by
the crush size, the ore grade and the depth, i.e. the kg of
2
copper stacked per m .
They all grossly under-perform the typical column and crib
test results on which the leach designs were based. See for
example Cases 4 and 6 in Figure 1.

With the exception of two of the operations, they were all

initially designed without forced-aeration for a leach cycle
time of only 210 to 240 days.

In most cases, the column test work, on which the

commercial operation was designed, was conducted on
samples that did not represent the fines (100 to 400 mesh)
content actually encountered.

Even Case 3, which does not use rotary agglomeration,

could achieve as high or higher extraction than the other
operations if it simply extended the leach cycle consistent
with the ore grade and depth.

With respect to the surface area required to achieve the

ultimate extraction, the added leach time is easily economic,
even in the worst case.

Although the metallurgical performance for the operations

summarized in Figure 1 appears quite different, it is important to note:

Figure 1b suggests there might be a significant correlation to the

2
amount of chalcocite that is stacked per m when comparing the leach
days necessary to achieve 85 % CuR recovery.
The above results, all of which are remarkably similar with respect
to the level of soluble copper content, are achieved across extremely
variable operating and ore conditions.
These conditions are
summarized in Tables 1, 2 and 3 in Appendix A.
Table 1 lists the variable ore grade and gangue ore properties for
these cases. Some of the key ore parameters are:

The recoverable ore grade varies from 0.60 % to 1.66 %

CuR. The actual chalcocite grade, adjusted for the acid
soluble content is 0.48 % to 1.15 % Cu.

The alteration intensity and type are highly variable.

The mineral assemblage is also highly variable.

The rates of extraction, in terms of kg of copper dissolved

2
per m of surface area under leach (Figure 2), is similar in all
2
2
cases (from 0.76 kg Cu/(m day) to 0.83 kg Cu/(m day).

This narrow range in the specific rate of extraction is attained

while the total iron, ferrous/ferric ratios, Eh and copper
grade vary widely amongst the operations.

The free acid in the raffinate varies from 4 g/L to 10 g/L.

The total iron varies from 0.5 g/L to 13.0 g/L.

The GCC case (7) presented here is for an ore grade of 1.7
% CuR, which is more comparable to the high end of the
next closest commercial operation -- not the >3 % CuT first
leached when forced-aeration was initially tested and
subsequently installed.

Also, note the very high copper and lower acid concentration
and the range of the total iron and ferric in the GCC case,
as they are considerably higher than the other cases, while
the leach cycle time is no different.

The GCC raffinate contained 250 g/L TDS with over 150 g/L
-2
SO4 , which is nearly double most of the other cases, except
one. Interestingly, the high aeration rate does not appear to
improve the extraction rate over two other cases of similar
chalcocite content. Could it be, however, the high aeration
rate simply contributes to a high level of impurities due to
excessive bacterial activity, or is the gangue just that
reactive?

The GCC case illustrated here is actually a backward leach,

where, within the two-stage leach cycle, raffinate is applied
to the freshest ore and then applied as intermediate solution,
high in copper, but lower in free acid, to the mostly leached
ore. This was effective in reducing acid consumption
substantially.

Table 2 lists the operating conditions for each case. Some of the
key operating variables are:

As noted, all cases except one are single-lift leaches either

in an on/off fashion or as single lifts stacked on top of the
previous lift with the installation of an intermediate liner.

All but two use(d) drip irrigation, which is critical in colder

climates to conserve heat.

The temperature varies greatly from case to case and

seasonally with each case.

Table 3 illustrates the key parameters of the raffinate leach

solution.

Six of the seven cases use(d) rotary agglomeration and all

apply concentrated acid in agglomeration either in rotary
drums or on conveyor belts.

RELATIVE BACTERIAL ACTIVITY

Since the level of bacterial activity should be indicated by the
actual dissolution rate, the plots in Figure 2 are compared for various

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SME Annual Meeting

Mar. 27-Mar.29, 2006, St. Louis, MO
cases to illustrate the instantaneous rate of extraction when leaching is
primarily from chalcocite.
2
100

1.5
% CuR

90

% CuR Recovery

80
70

60

Cu2S Dissolution

50

Rate
40
30
20
10

Case #

(kg Cu/m 2/day)

1
2
4
6

0.83
0.80
0.76
0.77

0.5

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

0
0

30

60

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450 480 510

60

70

Days

Shift A

Shift B

80

90

100

Absolute Delta

Days

#1, 5 m, 0.6 % CuR

#2, 7.5 m, 0.8 % CuR

#4, 9 m, 1.13 % CuR

#6, 8 m, 1.33 % CuR

Figure 3. Daily head grade variation.

Figure 2. Comparative bacterial activity.

In the above plot, a tangent to the extraction curve is drawn at the
point that the acid soluble content is recovered plus 10 % additional to
make sure each case is being compared at a similar point in time in the
leach cycle with respect to available Cu2S.

2.1

% CuT, % CuR

1.9

Interestingly, regardless of the ore grade and depth, the estimated

2
mass of copper dissolved per m (Figure 2) is similar. What does this
mean? One has to conclude, regardless of the highly variable ore
grade, ore depth and solution chemistry, or the amount of air blown
into the heaps, that something is controlling the mass of dissolution to
nearly the same rate. The slowest extraction rate in terms of days
corresponds to the one with the highest ore grade and amount of
2
copper per m (Case 6). Also of interest is that an analysis of total
copper recovery at this operation, prior to the introduction of aeration,
13
was similar to what is shown here after installation of forced-aeration .

1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

%CuT

VARIABLE OPERATING PARAMETERS IMPACT ON WETTING

EFFICIENCY

80

90 100 110 120

%CuR

Figure 4. Shift-by-shift variation, % CuR.

What could cause a similar rate of extraction across such

divergent operating conditions? Could it be the solution wetting
efficiency, which was the conclusion with respect to the Bluebird Mine
heap leach operation in 1972?

Figure 5 illustrates the variation in particle size for this case.

100

One of the problems in scale-up of column tests is simply the

variability in the property-wide ore parameters, over which the operator
has little control. Figures 3 to 9 illustrate the variability in certain
operational parameters observed at one of these operations.

90
80

% Passing

70

Figure 3 summarizes the range of daily total and recoverable

copper grade over a 100-day period at Case 6.
The recoverable ore grade varies from 0.5 % CuR to 2.0 % CuR
within a two day interval resulting in a very heterogeneous leaching
bed with respect to grade.

60
50
40
30
20
10

This data set makes evident the problem with designing to a

single copper grade from a pilot test program. Therefore, the leach
cycle must be designed for nearly the worst case if one wishes to
consistently achieve the most economic extraction.

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

Days

% -12.5 mm

Figure 4 illustrates how the recoverable copper content varies

by shift over a 90-day period at the same operation.

% -100 M

% -400 M

Figure 5. Daily variation in particle size.

The absolute change in recoverable copper content shift-to-shift

is more than 0.5 % CuR. This exceeds the normal chalcocite grade of
many supergene operations.

It is well recognized that the top size significantly impacts the

terminal extraction. The fines, on the other hand, have a double impact
on overall extraction; a) on ore grade variation and b) as the primary
reason for inefficiency of solution flow, solution retention time, etc. With

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SME Annual Meeting

Mar. 27-Mar.29, 2006, St. Louis, MO
the top size varying by 10 % total mass fraction and the fines varying
by nearly 5 % of total mass fraction, one can begin to imagine the
problems with trying to mathematically model such leach systems.

Figure 8 illustrates the variation in moisture in the as-mined feed in

this case.

14

Research by Miller points out that work conducted in soils

science shows a change of only 0.5 % of the fine clay mass fraction
can change the tortuosity path length by an order of magnitude. In turn,
this change in tortuosity impacts solution-ore contact and hence the
rate of metal extraction.

7.0

% H2O

6.0

Figure 6 illustrates the variability by shift of the -100 mesh mass

fraction on a wet sieve basis for this operation over a 90-day period.

5.0

4.0

30
3.0

% Passing

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Days

20

%H2O

10

Figure 8. Daily moisture variation.

If moisture in the feed is varying by greater than 4 % on an
absolute basis, how does one prepare optimum agglomerates?

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Days
Shift A

Shift B

All of the above variations have a significant impact on

homogeneity of the agglomerates and eventual wetting efficiency
which, in the authors opinion, is the primary rate-controlling step in all
the cases presented.

Absolute Delta

Figure 6. Shift-by-shift variation in 100 mesh.

The cumulative impact of all these variables leads to a significant

variance in heap-to-heap performance, as illustrated in Figure 9.
Notice the difference in performance is as high as 20 % absolute
recovery, which imposes a longer than anticipated leach cycle to
guarantee the design recovery criteria.

Historically, a -100 mesh (150 micron) mass fraction in excess of

10 % has been considered as entering problematic territory. In this
case, the absolute variation can be as high as 8 % on a shift-by-shift
basis. In reality, as documented by the soil-sciences community, the
200 mesh (74 micron) mass fraction is the more critical size class from
the point of view of solution retention and flow dynamics.

100
90

Figure 7 illustrates the head grade variation in the +12.5 mm and

-100 mesh size fractions.

80

% CuR Recovery

70

2.1

% CuT

1.9

60
50
40
30

1.7

20

1.5

10

1.3

0
0

1.1

30

60

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450 480 510

Days

0.9
0.7

Figure 9. Typical variation in individual heap performance.

0.5
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 100 110 120

EFFECT OF AIR VENTILATION IN COLUMN TESTS

Days
+1/2"

-100M

With respect to column testing and making sure aeration is being

properly assessed, it is important that columns be sealed at the bottom
to prevent drafting which can supply oxygen at an almost unlimited
rate. The author supervised a column test where 11 % CuR ore grade
was leached at 2 m depth. This column was open at the top and
bottom to atmosphere, to ensure ventilation. Copper PLS grade of 12
g/L to 14 g/L was maintained almost stoichiometric with the supply of
acid, i.e. 15 g/L to 20 g/L. This PLS grade was produced under open+3
cycle leaching with solution containing only 1.5 g/L FeT and ~1 g/L Fe .
Since it takes 1.76 g ferric to produce 1.0 g copper, this means the
ferric/ferrous cycle must have turned over nearly 25 times in less than

Figure 7. Daily head grade variation.

The absolute variation in this instance exceeds the average head
grade of many operations. On a relative basis, a similar variation
would likely be present in many of these operations if it were monitored
on such basis.
15

Further, moisture is reported in the literature as being critical to

good agglomeration. The optimum moisture content can be + 0.5 %.

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SME Annual Meeting

Mar. 27-Mar.29, 2006, St. Louis, MO
2

Figure 13 illustrates the effect of aeration on the high ore grade at

the 48 mm crush size and suggests little difference in column tests with
and without ventilation.

2 m at a flux rate of 6 L/(hm ) to 8 L/(hm ). This is phenomenal

bacterial activity and suggests what is possible in cases where wetting
efficiency, or another key reagent, is not rate-controlling.

% CuR Recovery

As part of an extensive test program to leach very finely

disseminated chalcocite mineralization, the author had the luxury of
testing a variety of leaching conditions. Some column tests were setup
in duplicate with one column sealed at the bottom to prevent the
possibility of drafting. All columns were open at the top to simulate
ore placed in a monolithic lift.
Comparative rates for the operating conditions of ore grade and
crush size are illustrated below.
In Figure 10, low-grade ore at a crush size of 80 % passing 26
mm (p80), does not appear to benefit from ventilation.

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
60

90

120

150

180

210

Days
Air

Figure 12. Medium-grade, 1.0 % CuR, p80 47 mm.

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

Days
No Air

Air

Figure 10. Low-grade, 0.45 % CuR, p80 26 mm

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

Nearly triple the ore-grade at the same crush size, as shown in

Figure 11, suggests an initial restriction on extraction rate, but this is
totally eliminated if the leach time is sufficient.

% CuR Recovery

30

No Air

% CuR Recovery

% CuR Recovery

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

Days
No Air

Air

Figure 13. High-grade, 1.3 % CuR, p80 48 mm.

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Figure 14, however, illustrates the high-grade ore crushed to a

p80 of 12.5 mm.
This column test begins to illustrate the point at which forcedaeration may be of benefit, although sufficient leaching time may well
deal with this situation also.

30

60

90

120

150

180

The severe depression in the initial extraction rate suggests there

could have been a problem with the column loading, which was not
confirmed. If this data is factual, however, it suggests as the crush size
goes down, the gaseous porosity becomes less, and as the ore grade
goes up, the possible benefit of forced-aeration becomes more evident
in column testing.

210

Days
No Air

Air

Figure 11. High-grade, 1.3 % CuR, p80 24 mm.

Figure 12, illustrates the variation on 1 % ore grade at 47 mm
crush size. This column test suggests only a small benefit to ventilation
at the 47 mm crush size at nearly double the ore grade of the previous
comparison in Figure 10.

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EFFECT OF FERRIC CONCENTRATION ON COMMERCIAL

EXTRACTION RATE

120
% CuR Recovery

100

Case 2 started out leaching through multiple lifts up to three 6 m

lifts. Problems with maintaining ore inventory necessary to make the
conversion to the next higher ore lift, as well as associated high copper
inventory retained by heap moisture, forced the operation to leach in
single-lifts. This is the primary reason most operators now favor
single-lift leaching over a multiple-lift leach design.

80
60
40

The conversion to single-lift leaching at this operation, with the

subsequent metallurgical accounting by heap (one month increments
of ore), allows for comparing varying operating conditions. The
average performance of up to six different individual heaps, at three
different levels of ferric and total iron in the feed solution, is illustrated
in Figure 16.

20
0
0

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

Days
No Air

Air
90

80

Figure 14. High-grade, 1.4 % CuR, p80 12.5 mm.

70

% CuR Recovery

EFFECT OF FORCED-AERATION IN A COMMERCIAL HEAP

As a consequence of the then current experience at GCC, circa
1996, Carmen de Andacollo (Andacollo) decided to be prepared to
force-aerate its heaps, but to conduct side-by-side heap trials before
doing so. The bacterial activity at Andacollo appears more aggressive
than other commercial operations for reasons that are still uncertain.
However, it may be as simple as the ore contains fewer fines and the
p80 crush size being 21 mm, the coarsest of all the cases presented
herein.

60

50

FeT = 6.8 gpL

Fe+3 = 5.8 gpL

#2b

FeT = 5.9 gpL

Fe+3 = 4.8 gpL

30

#2c

FeT = 4.9 gpL

Fe+3 = 2.7 gpL

#5

FeT = 1.65 gpL

Fe+3 = 0.9 gpL

20

Cu2 S Dissolution Rate

Case #

(kg Cu/m /day)

2a
5

0.90
0.92

10

The ferric conversion in the PLS has mostly exceeded 80 %,

except some short times when ore high in fines content, i.e. clays, was
being treated and the ferric conversion declined to a level more typical
of most of the other cases.

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

300

330

360

Days

Figure 16. Effect of ferric concentration on extraction rate.

The corresponding performance for a heap typical of Case 6 is
also illustrated as an example where the total iron and ferric iron in the
feed are markedly reduced for an ore grade nearly double that in Case
2.

The side-by-side heap tests suggested slightly improved ferric

conversion, at least occurring early in the leach cycle, but the
extraction is similar in each case at the end of the leach cycle.
Interestingly, the comparative tests on mixed ore grade of about 0.9
% CuR with over 50 % acid soluble copper content showed terminal
extraction based on residue values of about 4 % more recovery
favoring the aerated heap. However, the purely chalcocite ore of
about 1 % CuR showed the final, back-calculated heap recovery as
illustrated in Figure 15.

The instantaneous extraction rate for Case 2 at the highest total

2
iron and ferric concentration in the raffinate is 0.90 kg Cu/m day
2
versus 0.92 kg Cu/m day at the lower total and ferric iron in Case 6.
This suggests bacterial activity, i.e. instantaneous rate of ferric
generation insitu, may be the more important rate-controlling
parameter with respect to leaching supergene minerals, not
necessarily the total level of iron or ferric concentration in the feed
solution.

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

SUMMARY

Most of the commercial operations compared in this paper use(d)

forced-aeration. Fortunately, one case presented herein does not use
forced-aeration and there is one operation that compared aeration
versus no aeration in commercial heaps of similar ore grade. The
result of these comparisons suggests it is highly questionable forcedaeration for ore grade up to 1.0 % to 1.5 % chalcocite provides a
quantifiable advantage to extraction rate or terminal level -- at least for
a leach cycle time necessary to achieve 85 % recovery of the oxide
and supergene mineral content under conditions of non-homogeneous
solution wetting and/or flow. If one wishes to accept lower overall

330

300

270

240

210

180

150

120

90

60

30

The large number of on/off supergene copper leach operations

being operated today provides an excellent opportunity to define the
metallurgical rate and level of recovery of commercial heaps. This
allows one to determine the impact of changes made in both physical
ore properties and operating conditions on extraction rate and ultimate
extraction.
0

% CuR Recovery

#2a
40

Days
No Air

Air

Figure 15. Commercial heap, ~1 % CuR, p80 21 mm.

It is not clear at this operation, for the ore grade, crush size and
fines content, that aeration is necessary or economic.

Copyright 2006 by SME

SME Annual Meeting

Mar. 27-Mar.29, 2006, St. Louis, MO
extraction it is possible forced-aeration can play a role in achieving an
economic advantage over natural conditions.

3.

Comparison of column tests open to atmosphere at the top, but

closed at the bottom to simulate a monolithic heap, tend to indicate no
real benefit of forced-aeration on overall performance, provided the
leach cycle time is sufficient. There is evidence in these column tests,
however, that there may be a combination of ore grade and/or fines
content which favors using forced-aeration. Therefore, the highest
probability of forced-aeration being beneficial may be in cases where
the gaseous porosity is marginal or the ore grade is high, i.e. over 1.5
% chalcocite.

4.

5.
6.

A study of the key physical parameters that impact leach kinetics

at one of the illustrated operations suggests the variances are so great
it may be impractical to expect to achieve ideal chemical kinetic
leaching. In essence, this variability forces us to deal with a strongly
heterogeneous reactor, which makes up-scaling of individual
metallurgical tests difficult.

7.

It is the authors opinion that this variability is a significant reason

why conventional modeling techniques have proved inaccurate. The
usefulness in these modeling techniques should be weighted on the
basis of their ability to predict the behavior of the leaching process at
the industrial scale rather than their ability to reproduce observed
laboratory results. As illustrated by available operational data, model
calibration at the laboratory scale results in non-scalable parameters
due to the non-representative nature of the sample, especially in the
context of the heterogeneity observed at the industrial scale with
respect to grade, particle size, and mineralogy, etc. Although column
tests provide valuable insight on the leaching kinetics, without a
detailed understanding of the flow dynamics responsible for solutionore contact, they tell little about potential performance of an industrial
operation.

9.

8.

10.

11.

12.

Therefore, the future for improving the extraction rate in

commercial heaps relies more on improving our understanding of
wetting efficiency and the distribution of the available key reagents,
acid, O2 and iron, as opposed to focusing on improving just the ferric
concentration (by injection of oxygen) in a non-homogeneous flow
environment.

13.
14.

15.
The one common feature of all the commercial operations,
however, is that all can achieve 80 % to 90 % recovery of the acid and
ferric soluble mineral content. This level of extraction is achieved by
reaching a proper compromise on crush size and ample leach time.
Time rewards the patient.

Lancaster, Thomas and David Walsh (1997), The Development

of the Aeration of Copper Sulphide Ore at Girilambone, IBZBiomine 97 Conference, Sydney, Australia, Australian Mineral
Foundation, 10 pp.
Hiskey, J. Brent and Milton E. Wadsworth (1981),
Electrochemical Processes in the leaching of metal sulfides and
oxides, Process and Fundamental Considerations of Selected
Hydrometallurgical Systems, Martin C. Kuhn, Editor, SME.
Uhrie, John L. (2000), A review of secondary sulfide leaching,
Copper Hydromet Roundtable, Vancouver, BC, 5 pp.
Abouserhal N., Nadim and Jose Ocaranza T. (1998), Lixiviacion
Bacterial en Planta Dos Amigos, Instituto de Ingenieros de Minas
th
de Chile 49 Convencion. Pp. 101-124.
Ibacetea, Dagoberto, Juan Garrido, Hans Hein and Gabriel Araya
(2005), SX Development at Dos Amigos in Northern Chile, ALTA
Conference, Perth, WA, Australia, March 22, 2005, 17 pp.
Guzman, Amado, et. al. (2000), Hydrodynamic Characterization
and Optimization of the Chuquicamata Ripios Mina Sure
Aglomerados Heap Leach Project Part 1, Hydromet 2000,
September 5-8, Tucson, AZ, USA.
Szymanski, J.E. and P. Tsourlos (1993) Inversion of Geophysical
th
Data Sets Arising from Electrical Resistivity Tomography, 55
Meeting European Association of Exploration Geophysics,
Abstracts, 93, Session: p133.
Guzman, A. and R. E. Scheffel (2006), Geochemical Profiling of
a Sulfide Leaching Operation A Case Study, SME Annual
Convention, March 28-31, 2006, St. Louis, MO, USA.
Cathles, L. M. and J. W. Schlitt (1980), A Model of the Dump
Leaching Process that Incorporates Oxygen Balance, Heat
Balance and Two Dimensional Air Flow, Leaching and Recovery
of Copper from As-Mined Materials, W.J. Schlitt, ed. AIME, pp. 927.
Parkison, Gary A. and R B. Bhappu (1995), The Sequential
Copper Analytical Method Geological, Mineralogical, and
Metallurgical Implications, SME Annual Meeting, Denver, CO,
March 6-9, 1995. Pre-Print #95-90, 9 pp.
Personal Site Visit Notes, May 15, 1995. Source: Plant
Superintendent.
Miller, Graeme (2003), Analysis of Commercial Heap Leaching
Data, Cooper 2003, Vol. VI-Hydrometallurgy of Copper (Book2),
Santiago, Chile. Pp 531-545.
Velarde F., Guillermo (2003), The Use of Electrical Conductivity
in Agglomeration and Leaching, Cooper 2003, Vol. VIHydrometallurgy of Copper (Book2), Santiago, Chile. Pp 161-175.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author has had the great pleasure to work with some of the
industrys finest geologists, mining engineers and metallurgists over
the last fourteen years in the pursuit of improving heap leach
performance. The numbers are just too great to list here and some
would surely be missed. My appreciation for your efforts is exceeded
only by my respect for your technical expertise and your humanity.
A special thank you goes to Mark R. Welch (a huge proponent of
forced-aeration from his GCC experience) and Amado Guzman for
assisting in the editing of this paper.
REFERENCES
1.

2.

Bilson, E.A., F.D. Rice, J.O. Houseweart and H. Bardwell (1982).

Inspiration Consolidated Copper Company, Hydrometallurgy at
Inspiration, Arizona Section AIME Hydrometallurgy Div., June 5,
1982.
R.L. Longwell (1974), In Place Leaching of a Mixed Copper
Orebody, Solution Mining Symposium 1974, Ed. F. F. Aplan, W.A.
McKinney and A. D. Pernichele, Proceedings of a Symposium,
rd
103 Annual AIIME Annual Meeting, Dallas, TX, Feb. 25-27, 1974,
pp. 233-242.

Copyright 2006 by SME

SME Annual Meeting

Mar. 27-Mar.29, 2006, St. Louis, MO
Appendix A

Table 1. Ore Properties

ASSAY
Property
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

% CuT
0.70
0.98
1.08
1.15
1.45
1.51
2.18

% ASCu

ORE PROPERTIES
% CuR(Seq)

Principal rock types

ASCu+CNSCu
0.60
Breccia/Granodiorite
0.80
Andesite, Rhyolite
1.00
Andesite, Porphyry
1.13
Andesite
1.35
Andesite
1.33
Qtz Monz,Breccia, Fld. P.
1.66
Qtz-sericite,Volcan. M.S.

0.06
0.20
0.51
0.40
0.23
0.18
0.54

Alteration

Mineralization

mod. to high
lightly altered
mod. to high
little to very high
lightly altered
mod. to high
mod. to high

(All Secondary Cc)

Cc/Cv (mn) to sig
20% Cry/80% Cc, Cv (mn)
Cry/Cc
40% Cry/60% Cc
Dgn(mj)/Cv(mn)
Cry (mr)/Cc, Cv (mn)
Mal,Az/Cc (mj)

% CuT = copper total; %ASCu = acid soluble copper (5%H2SO4 20C); %CNSCu = cyanide soluble copper (10% NaCN 20 to 45C)
Cc = chalcocite; Cv = covellite; Cry = chrysocolla; Dgn = digenite; Mal = malachite; Az =azurite
mj = major; mn = minor

Table 2. Operating Parameters

Property

Aggl.

Depth
m

rotary

rotary

p80
mm

7.5

19

-100 M

Irrig Rate
2

L/(hm )

10-13

9 then
rest/rinse

7-12

6-8

Drip/

Thermo-

Woblr
Dripper

film
no

Aeration
3

m /hm
0.15

PLS
o

Leach

Design

21 - 22

Multiple-Lift, singlestage w/ recycle

Wobbler

no

0.08

15 - 24

Multiple-Lift stacking,
single lift w/0.5mm liner,
two-stage

yes

0.2

18 - 25

On/Off "Dyanamic"
w/Two-stage Leach

belt

9-10

11

8 reduced to
10-15+
4
Dripper

rotary

10-20

6-4

Dripper

yes

0.2

22 - 24

On/Off "Dyanamic"
w/Two-stage Leach

rotary

3.8-4

15

<10

Wobbler/
Dripper

no

none

15 - 24

Single-Lift w/Rest/Rinse
Leach

rotary

12

12-18

Variable 12
to 9 to 3

Dripper

yes

0.15

14 - 23

On/Off "Dyanamic"
w/Two-stage Leach

18 - 22

Multiple-Lift stacking,
single lift w/residue
liner,two-stage,
backward leach

rotary

16

Property

10

Cu+2

Variable 13
reduced to 4 Dripper

no

1.5 - 2.0

Table 3. Raffinate Solution Chemistry

Fe+3
H2SO4
FeT

g/L

g/L

0.3

0.3 - 1

0.3 - 0.9

7-6

0.6 - 1.5

10 - 8

5
6
7

0.2-0.3
1.8 - 1.5
0.5 -10

7-8
4 - 9 (7.3)
4 - 10

0.5-1.2
1.5 - 4 (2.9)
2 - 13

Eh
mV(H2)

g/L

g/L

7-8

5-6

2.5 - 3

~650

5-6

1.5 - 7

1.3 - 6

700-750

1.7

0.8

660

3-4

2-3

700

0.2 - 0.7
0.5 - 2.4(1.1)
1-9

680-740
660
550-680

Copyright 2006 by SME