Chemical reactions

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Chemical Reactions
Science of Everyday Things | 2002
COPYRIGHT 2002 The Gale Group Inc.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
CONCEPT
If chemistry were compared to a sport, then the study of atomic and molecular pr
operties, along with learning about the elements and how they relate on the peri
odic table, would be like going to practice. Learning about chemical reactions,
which includes observing them and sometimes producing them in a laboratory situa
tion, is like stepping out onto the field for the game itself. Just as every spo
rt has its "vocabulary" the concepts of offense and defense, as well as various ru
les and strategies the study of chemical reactions involves a large set of terms.
Some aspects of reactions may seem rather abstract, but the effects are not. Eve
ry day, we witness evidence of chemical reactions for instance, when a fire burns,
or metal rusts. To an even greater extent, we are surrounded by the products of
chemical reactions: the colors in the clothes we wear, or artificial materials
such as polymers, used in everything from nylon running jackets to plastic milk
containers.
HOW IT WORKS
What Is a Chemical Reaction?
If liquid water is boiled, it is still water; likewise frozen water, or ice, is
still water. Melting, boiling, or freezing simply by the application of a change
in temperature are examples of physical changes, because they do not affect the
internal composition of the item or items involved. A chemical change, on the o
ther hand, occurs when the actual composition changes that is, when one substance
is transformed into another. Water can be chemically changed, for instance, when
an electric current is run through a sample, separating it into oxygen and hydr
ogen gas.
Chemical change requires a chemical reaction, a process whereby the chemical pro
perties of a substance are altered by a rearrangement of the atoms in the substa
nce. Of course we cannot see atoms with the naked eye, but fortunately, there ar
e a number of clues that tell us when a chemical reaction has occurred. In many
chemical reactions, for instance, the substance may experience a change of state
or phase as for instance when liquid water turns into gaseous oxygen and hydrogen
as a result of electrolysis.
HOW DO WE KNOW WHEN A CHEMICAL REACTION HAS OCCURRED?
Changes of state may of course be merely physical as for example when liquid water
is boiled to form a vapor. (These and other examples of physical changes result
ing from temperature changes are discussed in the essays on Properties of Matter
; Temperature and Heat.) The vapor produced by boiling water, as noted above, is
still water; on the other hand, when liquid water is turned into the elemental
gases hydrogen and oxygen, a more profound change has occurred.
Likewise the addition of liquid potassium chromate (K2CrO4) to a solution of bar
ium nitrate (Ba[NO3]2 forms solid barium chromate (BaCrO4). In the reaction desc
ribed, a solution is also formed, but the fact remains that the mixture of two s
olids has resulted in the formation of a solid in a different solution. Again, t
his is a far more complex phenomenon than the mere freezing of water to form ice
: here the fundamental properties of the materials involved have changed.

The physical change of water to ice or steam, of course, involves changes in tem
perature; likewise, chemical changes are often accompanied by changes in tempera
ture, the crucial difference being that these changes are the result of alterati
ons in the chemical properties of the substances involved. Such is the case, for
instance, when wood burns in the presence of oxygen: once wood is turned to ash
, it has become an entirely different mixture than it was before. Obviously, the
ashes cannot be simply frozen to turn them back into wood again. This is an exa
mple of an irreversible chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions may also involve changes in color. In specific proportions an
d under the right conditions, carbon which is black can be combined with colorless h
ydrogen and oxygen to produce white sugar. This suggests another kind of change:
a change in taste. (Of course, not every product of a chemical reaction should
be tasted some of the compounds produced may be toxic, or at the very least, extre
mely unpleasant to the taste buds.) Smell, too, can change. Sulfur is odorless i
n its elemental form, but when combined with hydrogen to form hydrogen sulfide (
H2S), it becomes an evil-smelling, highly toxic gas.
The bubbling of a substance is yet another clue that a chemical reaction has occ
urred. Though water bubbles when it boils, this is merely because heat has been
added to the water, increasing the kinetic energy of its molecules. But when hyd
rogen peroxide bubbles when exposed to oxygen, no heat has been added. As with m
any of the characteristics of a chemical reaction described above, bubbling does
not always occur when two chemicals react; however, when one of these clues is
present, it tells us that a chemical reaction may have taken place.
REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS
Chemical Equations
In every chemical reaction, there are participants known as reactants, which, by
chemically reacting to one another, result in the creation of a product or prod
ucts. As stated earlier, a chemical reaction involves changes in the arrangement
of atoms. The atoms in the reactants (or, if the reactant is a compound, the at
oms in its molecules) are rearranged. The atomic or molecular structure of the p
roduct is different from that of either reactant.
Note, however, that the number of atoms does not change. Atoms themselves are ne
ither created nor destroyed, and in a chemical reaction, they merely change part
ners, or lose partners altogether as they return to their elemental form. This i
s a critical principle in chemistry, one that proves that medieval alchemists' d
ream of turning lead into gold was based on a fallacy. Lead and gold are both el
ements, meaning that each has different atoms. To imagine a chemical reaction in
which one becomes the other is like saying "one plus one equals one."
SYMBOLS IN A CHEMICAL EQUATION.
In a mathematical equation, the sums of the numbers on one side of the equals si
gn must be the same as the sum of the numbers on the other side. The same is tru
e of a chemical equation, a representation of a chemical reaction in which the c
hemical symbols on the left stand for the reactants, and those on the right are
the product or products. Instead of an equals sign separating them, an arrow, po
inting to the right to indicate the direction of the reaction, is used.
Chemical equations usually include notation indicating the state or phase of mat
ter for the reactants and products. These symbols are as follows:
(s) : solid
(l) : liquid
(g) : gas
(aq) : dissolved in water (an aqueous solution)
The fourth symbol, of course, does not indicate a phase of matter per se (though

obviously it appears to be a liquid); but as we shall see, aqueous solutions pl

ay a role in so many chemical reactions that these have their own symbol. At any
rate, using this notation, we begin to symbolize the reaction of hydrogen and o
xygen to form water thus: H(g) + O(g) ?H2O(l).
This equation as written, however, needs to be modified in several ways. First o
f all, neither hydrogen nor oxygen is monatomic. In other words, in their elemen
tal form, neither appears as a single atom; rather, these form diatomic (two-ato
m) molecules. Therefore, the equation must be rewritten as H2(g) + O2(g) ?H2O(l)
. But this is still not correct, as a little rudimentary analysis will show.
Balancing Chemical Equations
When checking a chemical equation, one should always break it down into its cons
tituent elements, to determine whether all the atoms on the left side reappear o
n the right side; otherwise, the result may be an incorrect equation, along the
lines of "1 + 1 = 1." That is exactly what has happened here. On the left side,
we have two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms; on the right side, however, the
re is only one oxygen atom to go with the two hydrogens.
Obviously, this equation needs to be corrected to account for the second oxygen
atom, and the best way to do that is to show a second water molecule on the righ
t side. This will be represented by a 2 before the H2O, indicating that two wate
r molecules now have been created. The 2, or any other number used for showing m
ore than one of a particular chemical species in a chemical equation, is called
a coefficient. Now we have H2(g) + O2(g) ?2H2O(l).
Is this right? Once again, it is time to analyze the equation, to see if the num
ber of atoms on the left equals the number on the right. Such analysis can be do
ne in a number of ways: for instance, by symbolizing each chemical species as a
circle with chemical symbols for each element in it. Thus a single water molecul
e would be shown as a circle containing two H's and one O.
Whatever the method used, analysis will reveal that the problem of the oxygen im
balance has been solved: now there are two oxygens on the left, and two on the r
ight. But solving that problem has created another, because now there are four h
ydrogen atoms on the right, as compared with two on the left. Obviously, another
coefficient of 2 is needed, this time in front of the hydrogen molecule on the
left. The changed equation is thus written as: 2H2(g) + O2(g) ? 2H2O(l). Now, fi
nally, the equation is correct.
THE PROCESS OF BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS.
What we have done is to balance an unbalanced equation. An unbalanced equation i
s one in which the numbers of atoms on the left are not the same as the number o
f atoms on the right. Though an unbalanced equation is incorrect, it is sometime
s a necessary step in the process of finding the balanced equation one in which th
e number of atoms in the reactants and those in the product are equal.
In writing and balancing a chemical equation, the first step is to ascertain the
identities, by formula, of the chemical species involved, as well as their stat
es of matter. After identifying the reactants and product, the next step is to w
rite an unbalanced equation. After that, the unbalanced equation should be subje
cted to analysis, as demonstrated above.
The example used, of course, involves a fairly simple substance, but often, much
more complex molecules will be part of the equation. In performing analysis to
balance the equation, it is best to start with the most complex molecule, and de
termine whether the same numbers and proportions of elements appear in the produ
ct or products. After the most complicated molecule has been dealt with, the sec
ond-most complex can then be addressed, and so on.

Assuming the numbers of atoms in the reactant and product do not match, it will
be necessary to place coefficients before one or more chemical species. After th
is has been done, the equation should again be checked, because as we have seen,
the use of a coefficient to straighten out one discrepancy may create another.
Note that only coefficients can be changed; the formulas of the species themselv
es (assuming they were correct to begin with) should not be changed.
After the equation has been fully balanced, one final step is necessary. The coe
fficients must be checked to ensure that the smallest integers possible have bee
n used. Suppose, in the above exercise, we had ended up with an equation that lo
oked like this: 12H2(g) + 6O2(g) ?12H2O(l). This is correct, but not very "clean
." Just as a fraction such as 12/24 needs to be reduced to its simplest form, 1/
2, the same is true of a chemical equation. The coefficients should thus always
be the smallest number that can be used to yield a correct result.
Types of Chemical Reactions
Note that in chemical equations, one of the symbols used is (aq), which indicate
s a chemical species that has been dissolved in water that is, an aqueous solution
. The fact that this has its own special symbol indicates that aqueous solutions
are an important part of chemistry. Examples of reactions in aqueous solutions
are discussed, for instance, in the essays on Acid-Base Reactions; Chemical Equi
librium; Solutions.
Another extremely important type of reaction is an oxidation-reduction reaction.
Sometimes called a redox reaction, an oxidation-reduction reaction occurs durin
g the transfer of electrons. The rusting of iron is an example of an oxidation-r
eduction reaction; so too is combustion. Indeed, combustion reactions in which oxy
gen produces energy so rapidly that a flame or even an explosion results are an im
portant subset of oxidation-reduction reactions.
REACTIONS THAT FORM WATER, SOLIDS, OR GASES.
Another type of reaction is an acid-base reaction, in which an acid is mixed wit
h a base, resulting in the formation of water along with a salt.
Other reactions form gases, as for instance when water is separated into hydroge
n and oxygen. Similarly, heating calcium carbonate (lime-stone) to make calcium
oxide or lime for cement also yields gaseous carbon dioxide: CaCO3(s) + heat ?Ca
O(s) + CO2(g).
There are also reactions that form a solid, such as the one mentioned much earli
er, in which solid BaCrO4(s) is formed. Such reactions are called precipitation
reactions. But this is also a reaction in an aqueous solution, and there is anot
her product: 2KNO3(aq), or potassium nitrate dissolved in water.
SINGLE AND DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT.
The reaction referred to in the preceding paragraph also happens to be an exampl
e of another type of reaction, because two anions (negatively charged ions) have
been exchanged. Initially K+ and CrO42- were together, and these reacted with a
compound in which Ba2+ and NO3- were combined. The anions changed places, an in
stance of a double-displacement reaction, which is symbolized thus: AB + CD ?AD
+ CB.
It is also possible to have a single-displacement reaction, in which an element
reacts with a compound, and one of the elements in the compound is released as a
free element. This can be represented symbolically as A + BC ?B + AC. Single-di
splacement reactions often occur with metals and with halogens. For instance, a
metal(A) reacts with an acid (BC) to produce hydrogen (B) and a salt (AC).
COMBINATION AND DECOMPOSITION.
A synthesis, or combination, reaction is one in which a compound is formed from

simpler materials whether those materials be elements or simple compounds. A basic

example of this is the reaction described earlier in relation to chemical equat
ions, when hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water. On the other hand, some ex
tremely complex substances, such as the polymers in plastics and synthetic fabri
cs such as nylon, also involve synthesis reactions.
When iron rusts (in other words, it oxidizes in the presence of air), this is bo
th an oxidation-reduction and a synthesis reaction. This also represents one of
many instances in which the language of science is quite different from everyday
language. If a piece of iron say, a railing on a balcony rusts due to the fact that
the paint has peeled off, it would seem from an unscientific standpoint that th
e iron has "decomposed." However, rust (or rather, metal oxide) is a more comple
x substance than the iron, so this is actually a synthesis or combination reacti
on.
A true decomposition reaction occurs when a compound is broken down into simpler
compounds, or even into elements. When water is subjected to electrolysis such
that the hydrogen and oxygen are separated, this is a decomposition reaction. Th
e fermentation of grapes to make wine is also a form of decomposition.
And then, of course, there are the processes that normally come to mind when we
think of "decomposition": the decay or rotting of a formerly living thing. This
could also include the decay of something, such as an item of food, made from a
formerly living thing. In such instances, an organic substance is eventually bro
ken down through a number of processes, most notably the activity of bacteria, u
ntil it ultimately becomes carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and other elements that are
returned to the environment.
SOME OTHER PARAMETERS.
Obviously, there are numerous ways to classify chemical reactions. Just to compl
icate things a little more, they can also be identified as to whether they produ
ce heat (exothermic) or absorb heat (endothermic). Combustion is clearly an exam
ple of an exothermic reaction, while an endothermic reaction can be exemplified
by the process that takes place in a cold pack. Used for instance to prevent swe
lling on an injured ankle, a cold pack contains an ampule that absorbs heat when
broken.
Still another way to identify chemical reactions is in terms of the phases of ma
tter involved. We have already seen that some reactions form gases, some solids,
and some yield water as one of the products. If reactants in one phase of matte
r produce a substance or substances in the same phase (liquid, solid, or gas), t
his is called a homogeneous reaction. On the other hand, if the reactants are in
different phases of matter, or if they produce a substance or substances that a
re in a different phase, this is called a heterogeneous reaction.
An example of a homogeneous reaction occurs when gaseous nitrogen combines with
oxygen, also a gas, to produce nitrous oxide, or "laughing gas." Similarly, nitr
ogen and hydrogen combine to form ammonia, also a gas. But when hydrogen and oxy
gen form water, this is a heterogeneous reaction. Likewise, when a metal undergo
es an oxidation-reduction reaction, a gas and a solid react, resulting in a chan
ged form of the metal, along with the production of new gases.
Finally, a chemical reaction can be either reversible or irreversible. Much earl
ier, we described how wood experiences combustion, resulting in the production o
f ash. This is clearly an example of an irreversible reaction. The atoms in the
wood and the air that oxidized it have not been destroyed, but it would be impos
sible to put the ash back together to make a piece of wood. By contrast, the for
mation of water by hydrogen and oxygen is reversible by means of electrolysis.
KEEPING IT ALL STRAIGHT.

The different classifications of reactions discussed above are clearly not mutua
lly exclusive; they simply identify specific aspects of the same thing. This is
rather like the many physical characteristics that describe a person: gender, he
ight, weight, eye color, hair color, race, and so on. Just because someone is bl
onde, for instance, does not mean that the person cannot also be brown-eyed; the
se are two different parameters that are more or less independent.
On the other hand, there is some relation between these parameters in specific i
nstances: for example, females over six feet tall are rare, simply because women
tend to be shorter than men. But there are women who are six feet tall, or even
considerably taller. In the same way, it is unlikely that a reaction in an aque
ous solution will be a combustion reaction yet it does happen, as for instance whe
n potassium reacts with water.
Studying Chemical Reactions
Several aspects or subdisciplines of chemistry are brought to bear in the study
of chemical reactions. One is stoichiometry (stoy-kee-AH-muh-tree), which is con
cerned with the relationships among the amounts of reactants and products in a c
hemical reaction. The balancing of the chemical equation for water earlier in th
is essay is an example of basic stoichiometry.
Chemical thermodynamics is the area of chemistry that addresses the amounts of h
eat and other forms of energy associated with chemical reactions. Thermodynamics
is also a branch of physics, but in that realm, it is concerned purely with phy
sical processes involving heat and energy. Likewise physicists study kinetics, a
ssociated with the movement of objects. Chemical kinetics, on the other hand, in
volves the study of the collisions between molecules that produce a chemical rea
ction, and is specifically concerned with the rates and mechanisms of reaction.
SPEEDING UP A CHEMICAL REACTION.
Essentially, a chemical reaction is the result of collisions between molecules.
According to this collision model, if the collision is strong enough, it can bre
ak the chemical bonds in the reactants, resulting in a rearrangement of the atom
s to form products. The more the molecules collide, the faster the reaction. Inc
rease in the numbers of collisions can be produced in two ways: either the conce
ntrations of the reactants are increased, or the temperature is increased. In ei
ther case, more molecules are colliding.
Increases of concentration and temperature can be applied together to produce an
even faster reaction, but rates of reaction can also be increased by use of a c
atalyst, a substance that speeds up the reaction without participating in it eit
her as a reactant or product. Catalysts are thus not consumed in the reaction. O
ne very important example of a catalyst is an enzyme, which speeds up complex re
actions in the human body. At ordinary body temperatures, these reactions are to
o slow, but the enzyme hastens them along. Thus human life can be said to depend
on chemical reactions aided by a wondrous form of catalyst.