tymology[edit]

The term tuna ultimately derives from Thunnus, the Middle Latin form of
the Ancient Greek: (thnnos) "tunny-fish" which is in turn derived from (thn), "rush,
dart along".[4][5]
However, the immediate source for the word tuna in English is American Spanish < Spanish atn <
Andalusian Arabic at-tn, assimilated from al-tn [ Modern Arabic ]: 'tuna fish' < GrecoLatin thunnus mentioned above.[6]

Taxonomy[edit]
The Thunnini tribe is a monophyletic clade comprising fifteen species in five genera:

family Scombridae

tribe Thunnini: the tunas

genus Allothunnus: slender tunas

genus Auxis: frigate tunas

genus Euthynnus: little tunas

genus Katsuwonus: skipjack tunas

genus Thunnus: albacores, true tunas

subgenus Thunnus (Thunnus): bluefin group

subgenus Thunnus (Neothunnus): yellowfin group

The cladogram is a tool for visualizing and comparing the evolutionary relationships
between taxons, and is read left-to-right as if on a timeline. The following cladogram illustrates
the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. For example, the
cladogram illustrates that the skipjack tunas are more closely related to the true tunas than are
the slender tunas (the most primitive of the tunas), and that the next nearest relatives of the
tunas are the bonitos of the Sardini tribe.[1]
The Tunas: Thunnini tribe,

within the Family Scombridae

family Scombri
dae

subfamil
y

Gasterochismatinae

subfamil Scombrina
y
e

Cladogram: Tunas are classified into the

tribe Thunnini (bottom-center in the
above diagram) one of four tribes in
the family Scombridae.[1]

True tuna species[edit]

Relative sizes of various tunas, with the Atlantic bluefin tuna (top) at about 8 ft (2.4 m) in this sample

The "true" tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus. Until recently, it was thought that
there were sevenThunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin
tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on both
molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species. [7][8]
The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera: Thunnus (Thunnus) (the bluefin
group), and Thunnus (Neothunnus) (the yellowfin group).

Thunnus, the true tunas

Com
mon
name

Scientific
name

Maxim
um
length

Com
mon
lengt
h

Maxim
um
weight

Maxim
um
age

Trop
hic
level

Sour
ce

IUCN
status

Thunnus (Thunnus) the bluefin group

Albaco
re
tuna

T. alalunga
(Bonnaterre,
1788)

1.4 m 1.0 m
(4.6 ft) (3.3 ft)

60.3 kg
(133 lb
)

913
yrs

4.31

[9][10]

Near
threatened[10]

South
T. maccoyii
ern
(Castelnau,
bluefin 1872)
tuna

2.45 m 1.6 m
(8.0 ft) (5.2 ft)

260 kg
(570 lb
)

2040
yrs

3.93

Bigeye T. obesus
(Lowe, 1839)
tuna

2.5 m 1.8 m
(8.2 ft) (5.9 ft)

210 kg
(460 lb
)

516
yrs

4.49

Pacific T. orientalis
bluefin (Temminck & Sc
hlegel, 1844)
tuna

3.0 m 2.0 m
(9.8 ft) (6.6 ft)

450 kg
(990 lb
)

1526
yrs

4.21

684 kg
4.6 m 2.0 m
(1,508 l
(15 ft) (6.6 ft)
b)

3550
yrs

4.43

Atlanti
T. thynnus
c
(Linnaeus,
bluefin 1758)
tuna

[11][3]

Critically
endangered[3]

[12][13]

Vulnerabl
e[13]

[14][15]

Vulnerabl
e[15]

[16][17]

Endanger
ed[17]

Thunnus (Neothunnus) the yellowfin group

Blackfi
n tuna

T.
atlanticus
(Lesson, 1831)

Longta T. tonggol
il tuna (Bleeker, 1851)

Yellow
fin
tuna

T.
albacares
(Bonnaterre,
1788)

1.1 m 0.7 m
(3.6 ft) (2.3 ft)

22.4 kg
(49 lb)

1.45 m 0.7 m
(4.8 ft) (2.3 ft)

35.9 kg
(79 lb)

18
years

4.50

2.4 m 1.5 m
(7.9 ft) (4.9 ft)

200 kg
(440 lb
)

59 yrs

4.34

4.13

[18]

Least
concern[19]

[20][21]

Data
deficient[21]

[22][23]

Near
threatened[23]

Other tuna species[edit]

The Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They
are:

Other tuna species

Comm
on
name

Scientific
name

Maxim
um
length

Slender
tuna

Allothunnus fal
lai

1.05 m
(3.4 ft)

Bullet
tuna

Frigate
tuna

(Serventy, 1948)

Auxis rochei
(Risso, 1810)

Auxis thazard
(Lacpde, 1800)

Macker
el tuna,
Kawaka
wa

Euthynnus af
nis

Little
tunny

Euthynnus
alletteratus

(Cantor, 1849)

0.5 m
(1.6 ft)

0.65 m
(2.1 ft)

1.0 m
(3.3 ft)

Comm
Maxim
on
um
lengt
weight
h

0.86
m
(2.8 ft)

13.7 kg
(30 lb)

0.35
m
(1.1 ft)

1.8 kg
(4.0 lb)

0.35
m
(1.1 ft)

1.7 kg
(3.7 lb)

0.6 m
(2.0 ft)

13.6 kg
(30 lb)

Maxim
um
age

Trop
hic
level

Sour
ce

3.74

[24]

IUCN
status

Le
ast
concern[25
]

5 years

4.13

[26][27]

Le
ast
concern[27
]

5 years

4.34

[28]

Le
ast
concern[29
]

6 years

4.50

[30][31]

Le
ast
concern[31
]

(Rafinesque, 1810)

1.2 m
(3.9 ft)

0.8 m
(2.6 ft)

16.5 kg
(36 lb)

10
years

4.13

[32]

Le
ast
concern[33
]

Black
skipjac
k tuna

Euthynnus
lineatus
(Kishinouye, 1920)

0.84 m
(2.8 ft)

0.6 m
(2.0 ft)

11.8 kg
(26 lb)

3.83

[34][35]

Le
ast
concern[35

Skipjac
k tuna

Katsuwonus p
elamis
(Linnaeus, 1758)

1.1 m
(3.6 ft)

0.8 m
(2.6 ft)

34.5 kg
(76 lb)

612
yrs

3.75

[36][37]

Le
ast
concern[37
]

Biology[edit]
See also: Thunnus

Bigeye tuna Thunnus obesusshowing finlets and keels. Finlets are found between the last dorsal
and/or anal fin and the caudal fin. They are rayless and non-retractable.
Drawing by Dr Tony Ayling

Description[edit]
The tuna is a sleek and streamlined fish, adapted for speed. It has two closely
spaced dorsal fins on its back; The first is "depressible" it can be laid down, flush, in a
groove that runs along its back. Seven to 10 yellow finlets run from the dorsal fins to the
tail, which is lunate curved like a crescent moon and tapered to pointy tips.
The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, with three stabilizing
horizontal keels on each side. The tuna's dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue,
while the ventral side, or underside, is silvery or whitish, for camouflage.[38]

Physiology[edit]

Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world,
generally in tropical and temperate waters at latitudes ranging between about 45
north and south of the equator.[39] All tunas are able to maintain the temperature of
certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example,
bluefin can maintain a core body temperature of 2533 C (7791 F), in water as cold
as 6 C (43 F). However, unlike "typical" endothermic creatures such as mammals and
birds, tuna do not maintain temperature within a relatively narrow range. [40][41]
Tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through
normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it
receives cooled blood, and coronary circulation is directly from the gills.[42] Therete
mirabile ("wonderful net"), the intertwining of veins and arteries in the body's periphery,
allows nearly all of the metabolic heat from venous blood to be "re-claimed" and
transferred to the arterial blood via a counter-current exchange system, thus mitigating
the effects of surface cooling.[43] This allows the tuna to elevate the temperatures of the
highly-aerobic tissues of the skeletal muscles, eyes and brain,[40][42] which supports faster
swimming speeds and reduced energy expenditure, and which enables them to survive
in cooler waters over a wider range of ocean environments than those of other fish. [41]
Also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink
to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color frommyoglobin, an oxygenbinding molecule, which tuna express in quantities far higher than most other fish. The
oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles. [40]
For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental,
because it limits their maximum swimming speed.[44] Even if they have the power to swim
faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles
on their tail are too painful. Cavitation also slows tuna, but for a different reason. Unlike
dolphins, these fish do not feel the bubbles, because they have bony fins without nerve
endings. Nevertheless, they cannot swim faster because the cavitation bubbles create a
vapor film around their fins that limits their speed. Lesions have been found on tuna that
are consistent with cavitation damage.[44]

Fishing industry[edit]

Maximum reported sizes of tuna species

Commercial fishing[edit]
Tuna is an important commercial fish. The International Seafood Sustainability
Foundation (ISSF) compiled a detailed scientific report on the state of global tuna stocks
in 2009, which includes regular updates. According to the ISSF, the most important
species for commercial and recreational tuna fisheries are yellowfin (Thunnus
albacares), bigeye (T. obesus), bluefin (T. thynnus, T. orientalis, and T. macoyii),
albacore (T. alalunga), and skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis).[39]
The report further states:
Between 1940 and the mid-1960s, the annual world catch of the five principal market
species of tunas rose from about 300 thousand tons to about 1 million tons, most of it
taken by hook and line. With the development of purse-seine nets, now the predominant
gear, catches have risen to more than 4 million tons annually during the last few years.
Of these catches, about 68 percent are from the Pacific Ocean, 22 percent from the
Indian Ocean, and the remaining 10 percent from the Atlantic Ocean and the
Mediterranean Sea. Skipjack makes up about 60 percent of the catch, followed by
yellowfin (24 percent), bigeye (10 percent), albacore (5 percent), and bluefin the
remainder. Purse-seines take about 62 percent of the world production, longline about
14 percent, pole and line about 11 percent, and a variety of other gears the remainder 3.
[39]

The Australian government alleged in 2006 that Japan had illegally overfished southern
bluefin by taking 12,000 to 20,000 tonnes per year instead of the agreed upon 6,000
tonnes; the value of such overfishing would be as much as US$2 billion. [45] Such
overfishing has severely damaged bluefin stocks.[46]According to the WWF, "Japan's
huge appetite for tuna will take the most sought-after stocks to the brink of

commercial extinction unless fisheries agree on more rigid quotas".[47] Japan's Fisheries
Research Agency counters that Australian and New Zealand tuna fishing companies
under-report their total catches of southern bluefin tuna and ignore internationally
mandated total allowable catch totals.[48]
In recent years, opening day fish auctions at Tokyo's Tsukiji fish market have seen
record-setting prices for bluefin tuna, reflecting market demand. In each of 2010, 2011,
2012 and 2013, new record prices have been set for a single fish the current record is
155.4 million japanese yen (US $1.76 million) for a 221 kg (487 lb) bluefin, or a unit
price of JP 703,167/kg (US$3,603/lb). The opening auction price for 2014 plummeted
to less than 5% of the previous year's price, which had drawn complaints for climbing
"way out of line".[49] A summary of record-setting auctions are shown in the following
table (highlighted values indicate new world records):

Record bluefin tuna auctions at Tokyo's Tsukiji fish market

(highlighted field indicates new record price for a single fish)

Total sale
Year

2001

2010

2011

2012

Unit price

Source

Total
weight

202 kg
(445 lb)

232 kg
(511 lb)

342 kg
(754 lb)

269 kg

( JP )

( US $ )

( / kg )

( $ / lb )

20.2 million

$173,600

100,000 / kg

$386 / lb

[50]

16.28 million

$175,000

70,172 / kg

$343 / lb

[51]

32.49 million

$396,000

95,000 / kg

$528 / lb

[50]

56.49 million

$736,000

210,000 / kg

$1,247 / lb

[52]

(593 lb)

2013

221 kg
(487 lb)

155.4 million

$1.76 million

703,167 / kg

$3,603 / lb

In November 2011, a different record was set when a fisherman

in Massachusetts caught an 881-pound tuna. It was captured inadvertently using a
dragnet. Due to the laws and restrictions on tuna fishing in the United States, federal
authorities impounded the fish because it was not caught with a rod and reel. Because
of the tuna's deteriorated condition as a result of the trawl net, the fish sold for just under
$5,000.[54]

Tuna being weighed on Greek quay-side

Tuna at Tsukiji fish market, Tokyo

[53]

Tuna cut in half for processing at Tsukuji fish market

Fishing methods[edit]
External video
Tuna pole and line fishing BBC Two

Besides for edible purposes, many species of tuna are caught frequently as a game
fish, often for recreation or for contests in which money is awarded depending on how
heavy the fish weighs in at. Larger specimens are notorious for putting up a fight while
hooked, and have been known to injure people who try to catch them, as well as
damage their equipment.

Andalusian method of Almadraba, uses a maze of nets. In Sicily, the same method
is called Tonnara.

Fish farming (Cage system)[55]

Tuna ranching

Longline fishing

Purse seines

Pole and line

Harpoon gun

Big game fishing

Fish aggregating device

Association with whaling[edit]

In 2005 Nauru, defending its vote from Australian criticism at that year's meeting of
the International Whaling Commission, argued that some whale species have the
potential to devastate Nauru's tuna stocks, and that Nauru's food security and economy
relies heavily on fishing.[56] Despite this, Nauru does not permit whaling in its own waters
and does not allow other fishing vessels to take or intentionally interact with marine
mammals in its Exclusive Economic Zone. In 2010 and 2011 Nauru supported Australian
proposals[57] for a western Pacific-wide ban on tuna purse-seining in the vicinity of marine
mammals a measure which was agreed by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries
Commission at its eighth meeting in March 2012.

Association with dolphins[edit]

Dolphins swim beside several tuna species. These include yellowfin tuna in the eastern
Pacific Ocean, but not albacore. Tuna schools are believed to associate themselves
with dolphins for protection against sharks, which are tuna predators.[58]
Commercial fishing vessels used to exploit this association by searching for dolphin
pods. Vessels would encircle the pod with nets to catch the tuna beneath, [59] however the
nets were prone to entangling dolphins, injuring or killing them. Public outcry and new
government regulations, which are now monitored by NOAA have led to more "dolphin
friendly" methods, now generally involving lines rather than nets. However, there are
neither universal independent inspection programs nor verification of "dolphin safeness",
so these protections are not absolute. According to Consumers Union, the resulting lack
of accountability means claims of tuna that is "dolphin safe" should be given little
credence.
Fishery practices have changed to be dolphin friendly, which has caused
greater bycatch including sharks, turtles and other oceanic fish. Fishermen no longer
follow dolphins, but concentrate their fisheries around floating objects such as fish
aggregation devices, also known as FADs, which attract large populations of other
organisms. Measures taken thus far to satisfy the public demand to protect dolphins can
be potentially damaging to other species as well. [60]

Aquaculture[edit]
Increasing quantities of high-grade tuna are reared in net pens and fed bait fish. In
Australia, former fishermen raise southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccoyii, and another

bluefin species.[55] Farming its close relative, the Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus,
is beginning in the Mediterranean, North America and Japan. Hawaii approved permits
for the first U.S. offshore farming of bigeye tuna in water 1,300 feet (400 m) deep in
2009.[61]
Japan is the biggest tuna consuming nation and is also the leader in tuna farming
research.[62] Japan first successfully farm-hatched and raised bluefin tuna in 1979. In
2002, it succeeded in completing the reproduction cycle and in 2007, completed a third
generation.[63][64][65] The farm breed is known as Kindai tuna. Kindai is the contraction of
Kinki University in Japanese (Kinki daigaku).[66] In 2009, Clean Seas, an Australian
company which has been receiving assistance from Kinki University[67][68][69] managed to
breed Southern Bluefin Tuna in captivity and was awarded the second place in World's
Best Invention of 2009 byTime magazine.[70][71]

As food[edit]
Tuna are widely regarded as a delicacy in most areas where they are shipped, being
prepared in a variety of ways for the sake of achieving specific flavors or textures. When
served as a steak, the meat of most species is known for its thickness and somewhat
tough texture. Some species (such as the bluefin) are also known for the sheer amount
of blood they expel while being gutted.

It has been suggested that Tuna salad be merged into this section. (Discus
since March 2015.

Canned[edit]

Canned tuna on sale at a supermarket

Canned tuna was first produced in Australia in 1903, quickly becoming popular.[72] Tuna
is canned in edible oils, inbrine, in water, and in various sauces. Tuna may be
processed to be "chunked" or "flaked". In the United States, 52% of canned tuna is used

for sandwiches; 22% for salads; and 15% for casseroles and dried and pre-packaged
meal kits such as General Mills's Tuna Helper line.[73]
In the United States, only Albacore can legally be sold in canned form as "white meat
tuna";[74] in other countries, yellowfin is also acceptable. While in the early 1980s canned
tuna in Australia was most likely Southern bluefin, as of 2003 it was usually yellowfin,
skipjack, or tongol (labelled "northern bluefin"). [72]
As tunas are often caught far from where they are processed, poor interim conservation
can lead to spoilage. Tuna is typically gutted by hand, and later pre-cooked for
prescribed times of 45 minutes to three hours. The fish are then cleaned and filleted,
canned, and sealed, with the dark lateral blood meat often separately canned for pet
food. The sealed can is then heated under pressure (called retort cooking) for 2 to 4
hours.[75] This process kills any bacteria, but retains the histamine that can produce
rancid flavors. The international standard sets the maximum histamine level at 200
milligrams per kilogram. An Australian study of 53 varieties of unflavored canned tuna
found none to exceed the safe histamine level, although some had "off" flavors. [72]
Australian standards once required cans of tuna to contain at least 51% tuna, but these
regulations were dropped in 2003.[76][77] The remaining weight is usually oil or water. In
the US, the FDA regulates canned tuna (see part c).[78]

Sushi

Tuna salad

Tuna steak served in a French bistro

Tekkadon

Katsuobushi shavings

Mojama

Nutrition and health[edit]

Tuna, light, canned in oil, drained solids
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy

830 kJ (200 kcal)

Carbohydrates

0g

Fat

8g

Protein

29 g

Vitamins
Vitamin A equiv.

(3%)
23 g

Choline

(6%)
29 mg

Vitamin D

(45%)
269 IU

Minerals
Calcium

(1%)
13 mg

Iron

(11%)
1.4 mg

Magnesium

(9%)

31 mg
Phosphorus

(44%)
311 mg

Potassium

(4%)
207 mg

Zinc

(9%)
0.9 mg

Other constituents
Water

60 g

Units

g = micrograms mg = milligrams

IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated
usingUS recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Tuna can be a good source of omega-3 fatty acids. It can contain 300 milligrams
(0.011 oz) per serving.[79]However, the level of omega-3 oils found in canned tuna is
highly variable, since some common manufacturing methods destroy much of the
omega-3 oils in the fish.[80] Tuna is also a good source of protein.

Mercury levels[edit]
See also: Mercury in fish
Mercury content in tuna can vary widely. For instance, testing by Rutgers University
reportedly found that a can of StarKist had 10 times more mercury than another can of

similarly identified tuna. This has prompted a Rutgers University scientist whose staff
conducted the mercury analysis to say, "That's one of the reasons pregnant women
have to be really careful ... If you happen to get a couple or three cans in the high range
at a critical period when you are pregnant, it would not be good." Among those calling
for improved warnings about mercury in tuna is the American Medical Association,
which adopted a policy that physicians should help make their patients more aware of
the potential risks.[81]