BJTs

Emitter-Base
Junction

iC

iE
n

iB

Collector-Base
Junction

Emitter

Base
Collector
Active Base Region
Figure 5.1(a) - Simplified cross-section of an npn transistor with currents that occur during
"normal" operation

+
p

iC

p
i

p
p

Active Transistor
Region

+
p

Figure 5.1(b) - Cross-section of an integrated npn bipolar junction transistor

iC
Collector (C)
n

vBC

iC

Collector

iB

iB
p
Base (B)

Base

iE

BE

Emitter

(a)

Emitter (E)

iE

(b)

Figu r e 5 . 2 - (a) Id e alize d n p n tr a n s is tor s tr u ct u r e for a ge n e r a l b ia s c on d ition

(b ) Cir cu it s ym b ol for th e n p n tr a n s is tor

Forward Characteristics
C

iC

n
iF

Collector

iF
iB
B

BE

iF
F

iF
F

Base

Emitter

iE
E
Figure 5.3 - npn transistor with vBE applied and vBC = 0.

Reverse Characteristics
C

iC

Collector

BC

iB

B
p

iR
R
iR

Base

Emitter

iE
E

Figu re 5 .4 - Tra n s is tor with vBC a p p lied a n d vBE = 0 .

Table 5.1
Common-Emitter and Common-Base
Current Gain Comparison
F or R
0.1
0.5
0.9
0.95
0.99
0.998

F
R
or R
1 F
1 R

0.11
1
9
19
99
499

ENGR 311 Electronic Devices and Circuits

October 26, 2000

Transistor Model: Current Amplifier

A Summary For Clarification (assume npn for the following general rules/properties for pnp reverse
polarities)
Rules / Properties
1 The collector must be positive than the emitter.
2 The base-emitter and base-collector circuits behave like diodes. Normally the base-emitter diode is
conducting and the base-collector diode is reverse-biased
3 When 1 and 2 are obeyed Ic is proportional to Ib (Ic = beta . Ib)
Both Ib and Ic follow to the emitter.
Note: the collector current is not due to forward conduction of the base-collector diode; that diode is reversebiased. Just think of it as transistor action.
Property 3 gives the transistor its usefulness: a small current flowing into the base controls a much larger
current flowing into the collector.
Note the effect of property 2. This means you cant go sticking a voltage across the base-emitter terminals,
because an enormous current will flow if the base is more positive than the emitter by more than about 0.6 to
0.8 volt. This rule also implies that an operating transistor has Vb = ~ Ve + 0.6 (Vb = Ve + Vbe) (for an npn).
Let me emphasize again that you should not try to think of the collector current as diode conduction. It isnt,
because the collector-base diode normally has voltages applied across it in a reverse direction. Furthermore,
collector current varies very little with collector voltage (it behaves like a not-too-great current source), unlike
forward diode conduction, where the current rises very rapidly with applied voltage.
Current flow
The forward bias on the base-emitter junction will cause current flow across this junction. Current will consist
of two components: electrons injected from the emitter into the base, and holes from the base into the emitter.
The electrons injected from the emitter into the base are minority carriers in the p-type base region. Because
the base is usually very thin the excess minority carriers (electron) concentration in the base will have an
almost straight-line profile. The electrons will reach the boundary of the collector-base depletion region.
Because the collector is more positive than the base these electrons will be swept across the CB junction region
into the collector. They are then collected to constitute the collector current. By convention the direction of ic
will be opposite to that of the electron flow; thus ic will flow into the collector terminal.

Ic Vce Characteristic for an npn Transistor

Ic- Vbe Characteristics

Biasing
For common emitter amplifier

ENGR 311 - BJTs Exercises - October 29, 2001

Examples
Example 1 - Beta = 100, vBE = 0.7V at
iC = 1mA. Design circuit so that a
current of 2mA flows through the
collector and a voltage of +5V appears at
the collector.

Example 2 - In the circuit below vC =

-0.7V. If Beta = 50, find IE, IB, IC and
VC.

Solution

Example 3 In the circuit below, Vb =

1V, VE = 1.7V. What are alfa and beta
for this transistor? What voltage VC do
you expect at the collector.

Example 4 - Beta = 100 Determine all

node voltages and branch currents.

Example 5
Determine the voltages at all nodes and current through all branches.
Assume beta 1 and beta2 = 200. Assume Q1 is in the active mode.

ENGR 311 - Graphical Representation of Transistor Characteristics - October 31, 2001

Conceptual circuit for measuring the iC-vCE characteristics of the BJT. (b) The iC-vCE characteristics of a practical BJT.

The iC-vCB characteristics for an npn transistor in the active mode

Determine the voltages at all nodes and the currents at all branches in the circuit below.

Solution

The Transistor As An Amplifier DC Conditions

(a) Conceptual circuit to illustrate the operation of the transistor of an amplifier. (b) The circuit of
(a) with the signal source vbe eliminated for dc (bias) analysis.

The Collector Current and The Transconductance

The Base Current and the Input Resistance at the Base

Transistor as An Amplifier - Small Signal Approximation

Transconductance (gm), Input Resistance at the Base (r), Input Resistance at the Emitter (re), Voltage Gain

Exercise 4.22 and 4.23

Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits Models

Amplifier Circuit Without DC Sources

Hybrid-

The T Model

Application of the Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits

1
2

Example 4.9

DC Analysis

Small-Signal Analysis

Example 4.11
Determine voltage gain in the circuit below

DC Analysis

Small-Signal Model

Small-Signal Analysis Directly on Circuit

Graphical Analysis

Graphical determination of the signal components vbe, ib, ic, and vce when a signal component vi is
superimposed on the dc voltage VBB.

Biasing The BJT For Discrete-Circuit Design

Basic Single-Stage BJT Amplifier Configurations

Minority-Carrier Transport In the Base Region

+
iB

BE

IF
F

BC

REC

IR
R

P
(p , n bo)

bo

iT
(a)

Emitter

Base

Collector

Space Charge Regions

n( x)
n(0)

i q A Dn
T

dn
dx

n(W)

(b)
0

F igu re 5.15 - (a ) Cu rren t s in t h e ba s e region of a n pn t ra n s is t or

(b) Min orit y ca rrier con cen t ra t ion in t h e ba s e of t h e n pn t ra n s is t or

iT = qADn. dn/dx = -qADnn. (nbo/Wb). [exp(vbe/Vt) exp(vbc/Vt)]

Is = qADn.(nbo/Wb) = (qADn.ni^2 )/Nab.Wb
nbo = equilibrium electron density
A = cross-sectional area of the base region
Wb = base width
Dn = diffusity (cm^2/s)
Nab = doping concentration in base of transistor
ni = intrinsic-carrier concentration (10^10.cm^3)
nbo = ni^2 / Nab

Base Transit Time

To turn the BJT minority-carrier charge must be introduced into the base to establish the gradient.
The forward transit time tau-f represents the time constant associated with storing the required charge Q in the
base region and is defined by
Q/IT

Diffusion Capacitance
For the base-emitter voltage and hence the collector current in the BJT to change, the charge stored in the base
region also must change.
n( x)
n(0)

Q
n(W) = n bo

n bo

x
0

Figu r e 5 . 1 6 (a) - E xce s s m in or ity ch a r ge Q s tor e d in th e b ip ola r b a s e r e gion

n( x)
n(0, V BE2)

n(0, V BE1)

Q
n bo

n(W) = n

bo

x
0

F igu re 5.16(b) - S t ored ch a rge Q ch a n ges a s vBE ch a n ges

This change in charge with vbe can be modeled by a capacitance CD

CD = (Ic/VT). f

Frequency Dependence of the Common-Emitter Current Gain

iB
C

iC
B

i = i

iB

BE

v
BE
i = I S exp (
)
C
VT

F B

i = ( + 1) i B
E
F

Figure 5.20 - Simplified model for the npn transistor for the forward-active region

iB

iC
C

B
+
-

0.7 V

i = i

BE

F B

iE
E

Figure 5.21 - Further simplification of the npn model for the forward-active region

Beta-cutoff Frequency
10 3

C om m on-E m itter C urrent G ain

10 2

10 1

10

10 -1

10 4

10 5

10 6

10 7

10 8

10 9

Frequency (Hz)
Figure 5.22 - Common-e mitte r curre nt ga in vs . fre que ncy

Transconductance
Relates changes in ic to changes in vbe
gm = dic/dvbe (@Q-point)
gm = Ic /VT
CD = gm.f
The Early Effect (James Early form Bell Labs)
Experimentally demonstrated that when the output curves are extrapolated back to a point of zero collector
current, the curves all intersect at a constant voltage point vce = -VA

I = 100 uA
B

4.0mA

C
o
l
l
e
c
t
o
r 2.0mA

I = 80 uA
B

I = 60 uA
B

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

I = 40 uA
B

I = 20 uA
B
0A
-V

-15V

-10V

-5V

0V

5V

10V

15V

Collector-Emitter Voltage
Figu r e - 5 . 3 0 Tr a n s is tor ou tp u t c h a r a c te r is tic s id e n tifyin g th e e a r ly volta ge VA

Modeling the Early Effect

ic
Betaf
ib

Tolerances in Bias Circuits

Worst Case Analysis
V = +12 V

IC

CC

22k
R

R
C

EQ

22k

IB

36 k

12 k
VEQ

Q1

4V

18 k
16 k

CC

16 k
R

+12 V

Study the operation of the transistor considering tolerances (worst case anaysis) in the circuit. Assume that the
12V power supply has a 5% tolerance and the resistors have 10% tolerance. Assume also that the voltage drop
in REQ can be neglected, and beta is large.
VEQ (max, min)
IC (max, min)
VCE (max, min)

Monte Carlo Analysis

Perform Monte Carlo Analysis on previous circuit assuming the random values to
Vcc, R1, R2, Rc, Re, and beta. (Use Excel and/or Pspice).
Calculate
VEQ
REQ
IB
IC
IE
VC = VCC IC.RC IE.RE

Electronic Devices and Circuits 11/5/00

Monte Carlo Analysis Using Pspice

Probe Output
Ic(Q), Ib(Q), Vce