METALSANDTHEIRREACTIONS

Throughouthumanhistory,culturaldevelopmentshavebeencloselyassociatedwiththediscoveryofmaterialsandthe
abilitytousetheminavarietyofways.Thediscoveryofdifferentmetals,andthetechniquesneededtoextractthemand
shapethemintoweaponsandtools,hashadaprofoundeffectonthehistoryofcivilisation.Today,duetoadvancesin
chemistryandtechnology,manymoremetalsareavailableforourusethaninancienttimesandtheyplayimportantrolesin
ourlives.Weusethemintheconstructionofbuildings,cars,trains,kitchenutensils,electricalwires,foodcansand
computers,tonamejustafew.Theuseswemakeofmetalsdependontheirproperties,theiravailabilityandtheeaseand
costoftheirextraction.
HistoryofMetals
TheEarthprovidesuswithanabundanceofresourcestomeetourneeds.Inprehistorictimes,beforetherewasanywritten
record,earlyhumansmademostoftheirtoolsandweaponsfromstone,boneandwood.ThisperiodiscalledtheStoneAge.
Duringthistime,peopleledanomadicexistenceandmetalswereunknown.
Earlymetalextractions
Thefirstmetalstobeusedwerethosethatareleastreactivesilver,goldandcopper.Thesewereprobablyfoundas
nuggetsofmetalandtheywereusedforjewelleryandornaments.Samplesfoundinancienttombsindicatethatcopperand
goldwereinusebyabout8000BCandsilverbyabout4000BC.Theuseofmetalscoincidedwithsettlementinmanyparts
oftheworld.Insettledsocieties,specialistcraftskillscoulddevelopandpeoplegraduallybecameskilledpotters,weavers,
stonemasonsandmetalsmiths.
Copperisthoughttohavebeenthefirstmetalextractedfromanore.Thisprobablyhappenedfirstaround6000BC,the
beginningoftheAgeofCopper.Copperwasextractedbyheatingtheorewithcharcoal,mostlikelyinpotterykilns.The
temperatureneededtofireclayishighenoughtomeltthecopperoreandthelowoxygen,highcarbonenvironmentinthe
kilnwouldconvertthecopperoretocopper.Thisprocessofheatinganoreinthepresenceofcarboniscalledsmelting.The
orewouldhavebeengroundbyhandbeforebeingplacedinafurnacesuchasthatshowninFigure3.2.
Civilisationsinancienttimesdevelopedthetechnologicalskillstoenablethemtosmeltcopperfromitsoresandworkthe
coppertoproduceweaponsandtools.Copperreplacedstoneforsomepurposes,especiallywhenitwasfoundthatitcould
behardenedbyhammering.However,itwastoosofttoreplacemoststonetoolsanditalsohadthedisadvantageofbeing
difficulttoworkduetoitshighmeltingpoint.
By3000BCbronze,analloyofcopperandtin,hadreplacedcopperandtheBronzeAgehadbegun.Ofcourse,thisdidnot
happensimultaneouslyallovertheworld.WhiletheBronzeAgehadstartedinsomepartsofAsiaandEgypt,Americaand
EuropewerestillintheCopperAgeandsomepartsofAfricaandthePacificregionwerestillintheStoneAge.
Bronzemayhavebeenfirstdiscoveredaccidentallywhenorescontainingbothmetalswereheatedtogether.Onceits
advantageswererealised,peoplebegantomixthemdeliberately.Bronzewasbetterfortoolsandweaponsasitwasharder
andhadalowermeltingpointthanpurecopper,makingiteasiertoshapeandsharpentoproduceabettercuttingedge.It
wasalsolessbrittlethanstone.
By2500BCtinandcopperwerebeingminedonalargescaleandtheuseofmetalswaswidespread.
TheRomansworkedcopperminesinSpainandusedthecopperforsuchpurposesaswaterpiping.Copper'sresistanceto
corrosionanditsabilitytobehammeredintosheetsledtotheuseofcopperincookingpotsandevenasroofingmaterial.

Figure3.2Anancientcopperkiln(a)Thekilnislinedwithstonesandclaywithairblowninfromgoatskinbellows(b)Slag
floatingoncopperisremoved(c)Coppersolidifiesinthekiln
Someothermetalswereknownandusedinancienttimes.Twooftheseareleadandzinc.Leadwasextractedabout5000
BC,probablybeingfirstdiscoveredintheashesoffiresthathadbeenburningoverleadbearingrocks.Thiscouldhave
producedtheleadbeadswornasjewelleryaroundthattime.Someauthoritiesbelievethatleadwasdiscoveredaboutthe
sametimeascopperandmaybeevenearlierinsomeareas.TheRomansusedleadforcoins,plumbingandsomeornaments
anditwasusedtoglazepottery.Laterleadwasusedforroofingandleadoxidewasaddedtoglasstomakecrystalglass.
LeadwasthefirstmetalminedinAustralia,andwearestilloneoftheworld'slargestproducers.Todaythemainuseoflead
isincarbatteries,althoughitshighdensityandresistancetocorrosionalsomakeitusefulasanoisebarrierandfor
protectionagainstXraysandnuclearradiation.Computerandtelevisionscreenshaveleadaddedtotheglassforthis
reason.Manyofitsusesasadditivesinpetrolandpaintshavebeenphasedoutbecauseitisnowknowntobetoxic.
Zincwasusedtomakebrass(acopper/zincalloy)about150()BCinEgypt.Initiallytheadditionofzincmayonlyhave
beenaccidental,duetoitsnaturalpresenceinthecopperoreusedasthesourceofcopper.Themorezincadded,theharder
andstrongerthecopperalloybecomes.RockscontainingzincwereminedinIndiaabout500BC.However,zincmetalwas
notproducedcommerciallyuntilrelativelyrecenttimes.Todayithasmanyuses,althoughitsmainapplicationistocoat
ironandsteel.Whencoatedwithzinc,orazinc/aluminiumalloy,ironandsteelaresaidtobegalvanised.Australiauses
morecoatedsteelperpersonthananyothercountry.
lronisthemostabundantmetalbutitwasnotuseduntilaftercopperbecauseitismoredifficulttosmelt.Ironwasusedby
theEgyptiansabout4000BC,butthiscamemainlyfrommeteorfragments.Asironismorereactive,andthusharderto
extractfromitsores,itwasnotsmelteduntilaround1500BC,beginningtheIronAge.Thetechnologytoachievethe
highertemperaturesneededtoextractironwasprobablyfirstdevelopedinAsia,spreadingfromtheretotheMiddleEast

andEurope.Itdidnotchangemuchuntil200yearsago.Anopenfirecannotachievethehightemperaturesneeded,soa
furnacemustbebuiltandairpumpedin.Thefurnacewasprobablymadeofstonesandlinedwithclay.Amixtureof
charcoal,crushedcopperoreandironorewasaddedandignited.Thecharcoalprobablylinedthefurnaceandcoveredthe
top.Airwouldhavebeenblowninbypipesorpumpedinbybellows,operatedbyhandorfoot.Blowinginairincreasedthe
temperatureofcombustion,makingithotenoughtoconverttheironoxidetoiron.Thecopperorewasaddedtoactasa
flux,asubstancethatwouldcombinewithwasterockandformslag.Aftersmelting,thelessdenseslagwouldbefloating
ontopsoitcouldberunoff,leavingrelativelypureironatthebaseofthekiln.
Earlyattemptstosmeltironproducedanimpureform,whichstillcontainedsomeslag.Thisironwasnotashardasbronze,
andbronzehadtheaddedadvantagethatitdidnotrust,sobronzewaspreferred.Ironwasknownforalongtimebeforeit
becameusedextensively.By1200BC,blacksmithswereheatingironwithcharcoal(carbon)andthenquenchingitwith
coldwatertomakethefirststeelalloys.Thesewereheatedredhottoburnoffsomeofthecarbonandhammeredtopush
outtheimpurities,thusproducingaharder,lessbrittleproduct.Thedevelopmentoftheseimprovedtechniques,andthe
realisationthatironwasmuchmoreplentifulthancopperandthuscheaper,meantthatbyabout1000BCironhadcome
intogeneraluseandreplacedbronzefortoolsandweapons.Today,ironisstillthemostwidelyusedandusefulmetalinthe
world.
Relativelyactivemetals,suchasaluminium,whichformmorestablecompoundsaremoredifficultandrequiremoreenergy
toextract.Theycouldnotbeuseduntilthemoderneraastechnologiesinvolvingelectricityhadfirsttobedeveloped.
Aluminiumwasnotproduceduntilthemid1800sandatthatstageitwasexpensiveandnotindemand,beingusedmainly
forjewelleryandmedicalinstruments.Theinventionofthegenerator(dynamo)in1867,whichallowedforcheaper
productionofelectricity,andthedevelopmentin1886ofbetterelectrolytictechniquesusingmoltencryoliteallowedmore
aluminiumtobeproducedatacheaperprice.
Moderneraandfuturedevelopments
Manymetalsareusedextensivelytoday,theirusesdependingontheiravailability,costandtheirphysicalandchemical
properties(Chapter1).Earlymetalssuchascopper,silverandgoldarestillusedextensivelyandtheirusesarebeing
extended.
Copper'smainuseisinelectricalappliancesandwiring,althoughitalsohasmanyapplicationsintheareasofconstruction,
engineeringandtransport.Propertiesthatcontributetoitsusefulnessincludeitsgoodconductivityofheatandelectricity,
resistancetocorrosionandpleasingappearance.Itstoxicitytomarineorganisms,combinedwithitsresistancetocorrosion,
hasmadeitverygoodasasheathingmaterialforshiphullsandoffshoreplatforms.Inthefutureitmaybeusedmore
extensivelyinsuperconductors,computerchipsandelectricvehicles.Silveristhebestconductorofelectricity,soitis
widelyutilisedinelectriccircuits.Italsohasotheruses,forinstance,atypeofglassbeingdevelopedusessilversaltsto
absorbUVlight.However,availabilityofsilverislimitedbytheshortsupplyofsilverore.Goldisusednotonlyin
jewelleryandfordecorativepurposes,butalsoinsuchapplicationsasmicrochips,electronicsandforcoatingastronauts'
visors.
Thenumberofmetalsavailableforustousehasincreasedduringthelast200yearsbecauseofthedevelopmentof
chemistryandnewextractiontechniques.Onlyinmoderntimeshaveindustrialskillsbeendevelopedtoisolateandrefine
metalssuchasaluminium,manganese,magnesiumandtitanium.Althoughthesemetalshaveonlybecomecommercially
availableinrelativelyrecenttimes,theyarealreadybeingusedextensivelyandwillhavemanymoreapplicationsinthe
future.
Aluminiumiswellknownandhasmanyapplications.Itsusefulproperties,suchaslowdensity,strength,availabilityand
easeofrecycling,mayleadtoitsincreasedimportanceinthefuture,extendingitsusesintransport,packaging,construction,
electriccablesandasasolidfuelinpowderedform.Magnesiumisusedinmanyindustriesincludingtheproductionof
cement,rayon,fertiliserandglass.Itisalsoalloyedwithaluminiumtomakeitstrongerandmoreresistanttocorrosionso
thatitissuitableforconstructionofcars,planes,sportinggoodsandladders.Manganeseisusedinthemanufactureof
batteries,glassanddrycellbatteriesaswellasanadditiveinsteel.Titanium,presentasoxidesinbeachsands,isastrong,
light,silverymetalwithmanyusesrangingfromconstructionofaeroplanesandsurgicalimplantstopaintpigment
manufacture.

Alloysandtheiruses
Metalscanbeusedintheirpureform,forexamplealuminium(aluminiumfoil)andcopper(electricitywires).However,
metalsareincreasinglybeingusedasalloysratherthanaspuremetals.Thisallowstheproductionofasubstancewiththe
exactpropertiesrequiredforaparticularuse.
Analloyisamixturecontainingametalandoneormoreotherelements.Usuallytheotherelementsaremetals;however,
nonmetalscanbeused,suchasincarbonsteel.Thesubstancestobealloyedaremelted,mixedandallowedtocool.Alloys,
beingmixtures,canvaryincompositiontheydonothaveconstantcompositionorproperties.Forexample,solderisan
alloyoftinandleadbutthetincontentvariesfrom30to60percentdependingonthepropertiesrequiredforthesolder.
Electrician'ssolderhasmoretinandsetsfaster.Plumber'ssolderhaslesstinandthisallowstimewhileitissettingwhenit
canbeworkedtoallowtheadjustmentofpipes.
Addingsmallamountsofametaltoanothermetalcanchangeitsproperties.Forexample,addingchromiumtoiron
producesstainlesssteel,whichresistsrusting;addingnickeltoironmakesitharder;andaddingsiliconmakesironeasily
magnetisedanddemagnetisedandthussuitabletouseaselectromagnets.Addingametalwithdifferentsizedparticles
makesastrongeralloylayerscannotslideovereachotheraseasilyiftheyaredifferentsizes(Figure3.6).

Figure3.6Alloyscontainingdifferentsizedatoms(a)Atomsofaboutthesamesizecansubstituteforexistingatoms(b)
Atomsthataremuchsmallercanfitbetweenexistingatoms.
ExamplesofsomealloysandtheirusesareshowninTable3.1.
Table3.1Compositionandusesofalloys
Nameofalloy
Approximatecomposition
Propertiesofalloy
Stainlesssteel
7080%iron
ResistanttocorrosionHard,
1018%chromium
resistsabrasionShiny
18%nickel
Tungstensteel
7075%iron
Hard,evenwhenheated
(highspeedsteel)
1525%tungsten
5%chromium
Alnico
62%iron
Improvesmagneticproperties
21%nickel
12%aluminium
5%cobalt
Zincaluminium
45%zinc
Resistscorrosion
55%aluminium
Zincaluminium
96%zinc
Canbepressurediecastinsteel
4%aluminium
mouldstomakeaccurate
complexshapeswithhigh
strength
Brass
6070%copper
StrongEasilyworkedResists
3040%zinc
corrosion,includingeffectsof
saltwaterCanbepolished

Uses
Cutlery
Building
Toolsforcuttingand
grindingblades,drillbits
Permanentmagnets

Coatingonsteelforroofs
Wallcladding
Carburettors
Doorhandles
Zippers
Boats
Musicalinstruments
Decorativeuses,Screwsand
bolts
Coins50c,20c,10cand5c
coins

Cupronickel

75%copper
25%nickel

ResistscorrosionShiny,silvery
appearance

Bronze

95%copper
5%tin

Aluminiumbronze

92%copper
6%aluminium
2%nickel
50%nickel
50%titanium
4070%lead
3060%tin

DurableLowermeltingpoint
thancopperEasytocastHarder
thanpurecopper
Goldcolour
Relativelylowdensity

Statues
Medals
Shippropellers
$1and$2coins

Shapememory

Heatsensitiveswitches
Keepingarteriesopen
Joinsmetals,especiallyin
electronicsandplumbing

Nitinol
Solder

Relativelylowmeltingpointof
leadAdherestoothermetals
whenmolten

ModernExtractions,RecyclingandEconomicIssues
Somemetalsareextractedfromtheiroresbymodificationsofstandardtechniquesusedtoseparatemixtures.Thusgoldcan
beseparatedfromquartzbyfirstcrushingthequartzandthenusinggoldpanningorothertechniquestoseparatethetwo
usingthedifferenceindensity.Ifthemetalsoccurasacompound,thenthemetalisextractedbythechemical
decompositionofthatcompound.TheextractionofametalfromitsoregenerallyinvolvesthestagesshowninFigure3.8.
Mining
Separationofmineralfromtherestoftheore(gangue)
Extractionofthemetalfromthemineral

Purificationofthemetaland/oralloyproduction
Figure3.8Extractingmetalsfromtheirores
Extractionofcopper
Copperores
YoumayrememberfromyourearlierstudiesinSciencethat:

Arockisamixtureofmineralgrainsorcrystalssolidifiedtogether.

Amineralisanaturallyformedmaterialwithadefinitechemicalcompositionanddistinctivephysicalproperties,
suchashardnessandcolour.Itisacrystallinesolid,withadefinitecomposition,thatoccursintheEarth'scrust.

Anoreisarockthatcontainsenoughofoneormoremineralstomakeitprofitabletomine.

Themaincopperores(Australiaandworldwide)containchalcopyrites(CuFeS2)andothersulfidessuchascopper(II)
sulfide(CuS)andcopper(l)sulfide(Cu2S).Thesesulfidesprovidemostofthecopperproducedaroundtheworldand
occupydeeperpartsofdepositsthathavenotbeenexposedtoweathering.NeartheEarth'ssurface,sulfidesarealteredby
chemicalreactionswithairandwatertothenativemetal,oxidesandcarbonates,especiallymalachite(Cu2(OH)2CO3)and
azurite(Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2)withsomecuprite(Cu2O)andtenorite(CuO).
MiningsitesinAustralia
MtIsa(Queensland)andOlympicDam(SouthAustralia)containover90%ofAustralia'sidentifiedeconomicresourcesof
copper(Figure3.9).MtIsaisoneofthelargestundergroundminesintheworld,producingabout39000tonnesofcopper,
silver,lead,andzincoresannually.OlympicDamproducesorescontainingcopper,gold,silveranduraniumoxide.Copper
oreismined,smeltedandelectrolyticallyrefinedatOlympicDam.
Figure3.9MajorcopperminesinAustralia

CopperisalsoproducedinAustraliaatsitessuchasMountMorgan(Queensland),MountLyell(Tasmania)andTennant
Creek(NorthernTerritory).Thesemineswereoriginallyestablishedasgoldmines.However,profitsfromgolddeclinedas
deeperoreswerereached,sominingswitchedtocopper.

Separationprocesses
Crushingandgrincling
Coppermineralsarepresentinrockasfinegrains,sotoseparatethemouttherockmustfirstbecrushedtoparticlesless
than10mmindiameter.Itisthentakenbyconveyortotherollandballmil1whereitisgroundtoafinepowder.
Concentration
Orescontainusefulminerals,suchascoppersulfide,asparticlesmixedwithuselessrockmaterial.Themineralhastobe
separatedoutfromthewasterock,calledgangue,beforethemetalcanbeobtainedfromit.Frothflotationisamethodused
toseparatethecomponentsofamixturewhentheyvaryintheir
abilitytoclingtobubbles.Frothflotationisusedinminingtoseparatesulfideandphosphateoremineralsfromgangueand
fromeachother.Itisalsobeingusedincoalmining.
Figure3.10FrothflototionTherotatingimpellerandaircausethedetergenttoformbubbles.Theoreparticlessticktothe
bubblesandrisetothetop,leavingtherockparticlesatthebottom.

Inthisprocess,crudeoreiscrushedandgroundtoapowdersotheusefulparticlescanbeseparatedout.Thecrushedoreis
mixedwithwaterandfrothingreagentsandfedintobanksofflotationcellsortanks(Figure3.10).Airisblowninthrough
themixturesothatitformsathickfroth.Particlesofthemetalmineral,forexample,coppersulfide,clingtotheairbubbles
andrisetothesurfacewiththefrothbubbles.Thefrothisskimmedoff.Thisgoesthroughmorecellswherethewaterand
chemicalsareremoved,leavingconcentratedmineral,whichiscalledametalconcentrate.Themetalmineralhasbeen
concentratedbytheremovalofunwantedrock.
Theuselessrock(gangue)doesnotclingtothebubbles;itsinkstothebottomofthetankandisremoved.Gangueisoften
storedinadam,calledatailingsdam,orreturnedundergroundtofillinusedmines.
Extraction
Thecoppermineralconcentratemustthenbetreatedchemicallytoextractcopperfromthecompoundsinwhichitoccurs.
InamodernAustralianmethod,themineralconcentrate(CuFeS2)isfirstmixedwithsand(SiO2)andcoal(forheat)and
placedintoafurnace(Figure3.11).Oxygenisthenblowninthroughalanceandtheintenseheatgeneratedcausestheoreto
besmelted,separatingtheironandcopper.TheSiO2reactswiththeironoxideformedtoproduceFeSiO3(slag)which
floatsonthecopper(I)sulfideandisdiscarded.Twoverysimplifiedversionsofthechemicalreactionsinvolvedare:

Smelting:
2CuFeS2(s)+402(g)Cu2S(l)+2FeO(s)+3SO2(g)
FeO(s)+SiO2(S)FeSiO3(l)
Thecopper(l)sulfideisthenheatedinaconverter(furnace)withoxygenblownthroughtoextractthecopperfromthe
coppersulfide(Figure3.11).Sandisalsoaddedtoremoveanyremainingironoxide.Twoverysimpleversionsofthe
reactionsinvolvedare:
Converter:

Cu2S(s)+O2(g)2Cu(l)+SO2(g)
FeO(s)+SiO2(s)FeSiO3(l)

Theoverallreactionis:
2CuFeS2(s)+5O2(g)2Cu(l)+2FeO(s)+4SO2(g)

Australianbasedresearchhasdevelopedothernewandefficientmethodstoextractcopper.Forexample,theprocessused
attheOlympicDamoperationiscalledflashsmelting.Thecopperconcentrateisdried,mixedwithchemicalscalledfluxes,
suchassand(SiO2),andfedintoaheatedsmelterwithoxygenenrichedair.Herethefineconcentratereacts(flashes)
instantly,formingmetalliccopper,sulfurdioxidegasandmoltenwastematerialcalledslag.Typicalreactionsare:
Cu2S(s)+O2(g)2Cu(l)+SO2(g)
2CuFeS2(s)+5O2(g)2Cu(l)+2FeO(s)+4SO2(g)
FeO(s)+SiO2(s)FeSiO3(l)(ironsilicateslag)
Moltenslag,whichcontainsthewasterockcombinedwiththefluxes,fallstothebottomofthefurnacewhereitfloatson
topofthemoltencopper.Thisslagcontainsabout20%copper.Theslagisremovedbytappingitoff,allowedtocool,then
treatedbygrindingandfrothflotationtorecovermorecopper.
Sulfurdioxidegoesoutthetopofthesmelterandispipedtoasulfuricacidplant.Hereitisconvertedtosulfurtrioxide,
whichisthendissolvedinwatertomakesulfuricacid.
2SO2(g)+O2(g)2SO3(g)
SO3(g)+H2O(l)H2SO4(aq)
Thecoppermetalproducedismoltenandfallstothebottomofthefurnacewhereitcanbetappedoff.Thiscopperiscalled
blistercopperbecausebubblesofescapingsulfurdioxidelooklikeblisters.Itisabout98%pure,butcontainsabout0.6%
sulfuraswellasotherimpuritiessuchasgoldandsilverandhastobepurlfied(refined)soitcanbeusedforsuchpurposes
asconductingelectricity.

Figure3.11ProducingcopperIntheIsasmeltprocess,copperoreisfirstsmeltedinamodernfurnacebeforebeing

Figure3.12RefiningcopperElectrolysispurifiesblistercopper
Refining
Electrolysisisusedtoproduceverypurecopper(Figure3.12).YoumaystudytheprocessindetailintheHSCbook.
Originallytheprocessusedverypurecoppercathodes.Australianrefinerieshavedevelopedanewmethodthatuses
stainlesssteelcathodes,andthismethodisnowusedaroundtheworld.
Theimpuremoltencopperiscastintoslabs,whichwillactasthepositiveelectrodes(anodes).Thenegativeelectrodes
(cathodes)aremadeofstainlesssteel(Figure3.12).Theseelectrodesaresuspendedintankscontaininganelectrolyte
(substancethatconductselectricity).Whenelectricityisapplied,theblistercopper(anode)goesintosolutionandpure
copperisdepositedonthecathode.Impurities,includinggoldandsilver,falltothebottomofthetankas'sludge'.After
severaldaysthecathodeisremovedfromthetankandthepurecopperstrippedoffthestainlesssteelcathodesandshipped
tomarkets.The'sludge'iscollectedandtreatedtoextractgoldandsilverbullion.
Environmentalissues
Inthepast,physicalchangesanddamagetotheenvironmentasaresultofmininghavebeenextensive.Todayagreatdeal
ofcareandmoneygoesintopreventingpollutionandrestoringtheenvironmenttoitsoriginalcondition.Miningin
Australiauseslessthan0.02%ofthelandsurfaceandmostdevelopmentsareinareasthatarenotheavilypopulated,but
stringentcontrolsarestillinplacetoensurethesafetyofpeople,nativeplantsandnativeanimals.Someproblems
associatedwithcopperminingincludethereleaseofsulfurdioxidegas,pollutionofwaterandthedisposalofunusedrock
material.
Sulfurdioxide
Sulfurdioxideisformedbytheheatingofsulfides.Thishasharmfuleffectsonbothplantsandanimals.Itaffectsthe
respiratorysystem,causingasthmainsomepeople.Sulfurdioxidealsodissolvesinrainwater,formingacidrain.To
preventsulfurdioxidereachingtheatmosphere,exhaustgasesarepassedthroughscrubbers,todissolvethesulfurdioxidein
water.Itisthenusedtoproducesulfuricacid.Remaininggasesaredischargedthroughchimneystacksandconcentrations
atgroundlevelarecontinuallymonitored.
Water
Mininguseslargevolumesofwater.Manyprocesses,suchasfrothflotation,requirewaterwaterissprayedonroadsand
stockpilestoreducedustandofcourseitmustbeavailablefordrinkingandwashing.Waterusedatcopperminesis
recycledwhereverpossible.Anywaterthatmaybecontaminatediskeptinretentionponds,whicharelinedtoprevent
contaminatedwaterenteringthewatersupply.Boresanddamsonsurroundingpropertiesaremonitored.
Tailings

10

Wasterockmaterialmustbedisposedofinanacceptablemanner.Inthepast,suchtailingshavebeendumpedalongrivers
andlakesandpoisonousheavymetalsthatwerenotextractedhavebeenabletoleachintothewatersupply.Todaythe
wasterockisgenerallyusedtohelprestoretheareatoitsoriginalcondition.TheareaisrevegetatedtopreventIdustand
erosion.Hills,plantsandanimalsintheareajmustallberestoredaftermininghasceased.
Economicissues
Inthelast50yearswehaveusedanincreasingamountandvarietyofmetals.Weareusingtwiceasmuchiron,almostthree
timesasmuchcopperandmorethansixtimesasmuchaluminiumaswewereusing50yearsago.
Pricesofmetalsfluctuatecontinually.Theyareaffectedbyanumberoffactors,including:
Difficultyandcostofextraction
Toextractmetalsfromoresenergyisneededandtheamountofenergyneededisdeterminedpartlybytheactivityofthe
metal.Theleastactivemetalsarefoundastheelementorascompoundsthatarerelativelyeasytodecompose.Todaymost
silverisfoundassilversulfide(argentite,Ag2S),whichdecomposesreadily.Moreactivemetalsrequiremoreenergyto
decomposethecompoundsinwhichtheyoccur.
Threemetalsthatareusedextensivelyinoursocietyarecopper,ironandaluminium.Coppercanbeextractedfromitsores
byroastingandsmeltingcoppersulfideandcopperoxidesarereducedtocopperbyheatingwithcarbonatrelativelylow
temperatures.Ironcompoundsarealsoreducedtoironbycarbon,butthiscanonlytakeplaceathighertemperatures.The
highertemperaturesareneededbecauseironismoreactivethancopper,somoreenergyisneededtodecomposeits
compounds.Aluminiumcompoundsrequireelectrolysisathightemperaturestoobtaintherelativelyactivemetal,
aluminium.Thetechniquesusedtoextractmetalshavebecomeincreasinglysophisticatedovertime.Theminingand
extractiontechniquesusedtodaymakeitpossibletominemuchlowergradedepositsthanpreviously.
Abundanceoforesandtheconcentrationofmetalsintheores
Therelativeabundanceofmetalsinthecrusthasinfluencedtheirvalueandextentofuse.Themostabundantmetalinthe
Earth'scrustisaluminium(about8%byweight),followedbyiron(about5%).Metalsarenotevenlydistributedinthe
crust.Wemineonlythoserocksthatcontainasufficientlyhighpercentageofthemetaltomakethemeconomictomine.
Copperonlymakesupabout0.07%ofthecrustandtheoresminedmaycontainfrom0.2to3%copper,theremainder
beingwasterock.Frothflotationconcentratestheoretoabout25%.Themineralsintheorecontainfrom27%to69%
copperdependingontheparticularmineralspresent(e.g.CuFeS2orCu2S).
Locationoforesandcostoftransport
Whetherametalcanbeextractedeconomicallydependsalsoonsuchfactorsasitslocation,costsofsettingupand
operatingthemineandcostsoftransportingrawmaterials,equipment,productsandpeople.Ifamineislocatedata
considerabledistancefromtownsthesecostsmaybegreaterasfacilitiessuchashomesandschoolswillalsohavetobe
provided.
Abilitytorecyclethemetal
Metaloresarenonrenewable.WhenwehaveuseduptheEarth'sresourcesoftheseoreswecannotreplacethem.Weneed
touseourmetalresourceswiselyanddeveloprecyclingtechniquessowecanreusemetals.Whetherwerecycleornotis
partlydeterminedbytherelativecostsofproducingmoreorecomparedtorecyclingcosts.Theeaseofrecyclingisalsoan
importantfactor.Copperandaluminiumarebothabletoberecycledreadily;ironislesseasilyrecycledasitissoeasily
corroded.
Producingmetalsbyrecyclingrepresentsaconsiderablesavinginenergy.Table3.4showsacomparisonoftheenergy
neededtoproduce1kgofthreedifferentmetalsfromtheiroresandbyrecycling.Thefiguresincludeenergyneededfor

11

transport,makingsodiumhydroxidetoextractthealuminafrombauxite,heatingthematerialswhenneededaswellasthe
energyneededtobreakchemicalbonds.Itisobviousthatrecyclingrepresentsaconsiderablecostsavings.
Othertechniquesthatcouldhelptoextendthelifeofourmetalresourcesinclude

reducingcorrosionsothatmetalslastlonger

usingabundantmetalswherepossibleinsteadofthosethatarescarce,e.g.replacinghighvoltagecopperelectrical
cableswithaluminium

findingalternativematerialsforsomeuses.

Australiashouldalsoberetainingownershipofourminesandsellingmanufacturedproductsratherthanrawmaterials.
Australiaisthefifthlargestproducerofminedcopperintheworld,mostofwhichisexported.Inrecentyearstherehas
beenadecreaseintheamountofcopperoreandconcentratesexportedfromAustralia,whiletheamountofrefinedcopper
andmanufacturedproductshasincreased.ThisvalueaddingresultsinmorejobsandgreaterincomeforAustralians.

Aluminiumandrecycling
Aluminiumisusedextensivelyinoursociety,intransport,transmissioncables,packagingandconstruction.Muchofthe
recentgrowthinaluminiumusehascomefromaluminiumreplacingheaviermetalsinvehicle(car)manufacture.The
propertiesofaluminiumthatmakeitsuitablefortheseapplicationsincludeitslowdensity,corrosionresistance,ductility,
electricalconductibilityandabilitytobecastindifferentshapes.
Aluminiumismostlyusedasalloys.Addingsmallamountsofothermetalstoaluminiumcanvaryitsproperties,makingit
evenmoreversatile.Forexample,addingsiliconwillloweritsmeltingpointbyuptoeightydegrees,whichmakesitflow
morereadilyintomoulds.SomeexamplesareshowninTable3.5.
Aluminiummakesupabout8%oftheEarth'scrust;itisthemostabundantmetallicelement,occurringmostlyastheoxide
alumina(aluminiumoxide,Al2O3)intheorebauxite.Morethan100milliontonnesofbauxiteareminedeachyear.
Althoughaluminiumisrelativelyplentiful,itisdifficulttoextractfromitsore,requiringagreatdealofenergytobreakthe
chemicalbondbetweenaluminiumandoxygen.Recyclinguseslessenergy,asthemeltingpointofaluminiumisrelatively
low(660C)andremeltingaluminiumtorecycleitrequiresonlyabout5MJ/kgcomparedto95MJ/kgneededtoextractit
byelectrolysisfromalumina.Thesevaluesdonotincludetheenergyneededforminingandtransport(Table3.4).

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