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Organizational culture

According to Dubkvis & Barbars (2010), organizational culture is a multifaceted


phenomenon that an institution is develop and nurture. This concept is considered to be
vague and very broad that may take on many factors and aspects. Several researchers
shared their observations as regards to the definitions of organizational culture.
However, majority of them define organizational culture as a value system which
determines attitude and atmosphere of the institution (Schein, 1985, 1990; Peters &
Waterman, 1982).
The most widely known definition of the organizational culture was given by
Edgar Schein (1985) wherein he explained that it is a (a) a pattern of shared basic
assumptions, (b) invented, discovered, or developed by a given group, (c) as it learns to
cope with its problems of external adaption and internal integration, (d) that has worked
well enough to be considered valid and, therefore (e) is to be taught to new members as
the (f) correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems.
To further develop its definition, Schein (1990) and Daft (2005) conducted a study
wherein there are three levels of culture manifestation that emerged. This includes the
following:
1. The observable values (artifacts): This is the level that is empirical. It can be
observed (the visible organizational structures and processes). Though that may
be the case, this level is still hard to understand;
2. The espoused values: This level focus on the creation of an image to the
organization. The strategies, goals and philosophies are formulated and
discussed internally through assessment and evaluation of certain questions.
This process leads to creation of that image;

3. Basic underlying assumptions: The last level of the organizational culture. These
are deep beliefs which form the essence of culture.

Another definition is by Wallach (1983) that states that organizational culture is the
shared understanding of the beliefs, values, norms and philosophies of how things
work.
He further analyze it by dividing culture into three categories namely: (1) Bureaucratic,
(2) Innovative or (3) Supportive cultures.
1. A bureaucratic culture are mature, stable, structured, procedural, hierarchical,
regulated and power-oriented since it is a very organized and systematic culture
based on power and control with clearly defined responsibilities and authority.
2. An innovative culture is portrayed as being entrepreneurial ambitious,
stimulating, driven and risk-taking since it has a creative, result oriented,
challenging work environment and;
3. A supportive culture is open harmonious, trusting, safe, equitable, sociable,
humanistic and collaborative since it displays teamwork and is a people-oriented,
encouraging, and has a trusting work environment.

Based from his study, Wallach (1983) also stated that organizational culture is
very significant on human resource management such as recruiting, managing,
motivating developing and retaining employees. The reason behind is that an employee
is more effective in doing the assigned job and realizes his or her full potential when the
individual motivation and the organizational culture match.

Based from their definition, it could be gleamed that organizational culture can
influence the attitudes and behavior of employees. Employees of an organization can
better work to their work environment if the ideals and the characteristics of the
organization are in line with their personal orientations (Vandenberghe, 1999). If the
values of an employee are similar with the values cultivated by an organizaton, it is
more likely that the individuals will be satisfied and their intention to leave the
organization will be low (Adkins and Caldwell, 2004).

Job satisfaction
It is undeniable that a manager is not only interested on the process done in the
institution but also considers several factors that may contribute on the success of the
institution. This includes the job satisfaction of employees. Job satisfaction is the level to
which an employee is contented with his current work status. This satisfaction is
manifested through the needs and wants that are met (Finn, 2001). It includes the
employee feelings about the vast job elements (both intrinsic as well as extrinsic
factors). Further, it includes specific features of satisfaction associated with pay,
benefits, supervision, organizational practices, promotion, work conditions and
relationships with co-workers (Misener et al, 1996).
Job satisfaction has been the center of interest among researchers (Lund, 2003).
This is due to the fact that many experts of the field (managers and researchers) believe
that it has a direct effect and influence to work productivity, employee commitment,
turnover and retention (Eslami & Gharakhani, 2012).
According to several literatures and studies, job satisfaction is influenced by
various factors. Worrell (2004) divided these factors into three groups:
1. Demographic data: age, gender and race;
2. Intrinsic factors: achievement, recognition,

work

itself,

responsibility,

advancement and growth;


3. Extrinsic factors: company policy, supervision, relationship with boss, work
conditions, relationship with peers and salary.

Aside from that, salary (pay), work itself (nature of the work), supervision, advancement
and growth (promotional prospects), relationship with peers are other factors of job

satisfaction that are considered of high importance to experts. These factors correspond
strongly affect job satisfaction wherein employees more productive and are likely to stay
sffiliated with the organization if they feel secured with the work nature (Mc NeeseSmith, 1997).

Relationship of Organizational Culture and Job Satisfaction


The type of organizational culture can be positively or negatively related to job
satisfaction (Lund, 2003). To obtain positive or negative job satisfaction can be based
from the job characteristics of his work. A culture of supportive, innovative, and the
bureaucratic dimension as theorized by Wallach is another way for determining the
employees job satisfaction since this characteristics could also have positive of
negative influence on employee job satisfaction.

Positive employee job satisfaction


A clan culture can be characterized by peer mentoring, loyalty,
and tradition. This can be compared with the supportive dimension.
The characteristics of a supportive dimension is geared on a warm,
trusting, sociable, friendly, and relationship-oriented organizational
culture (Koberg and Chusmir, 1987). If an organization has a culture
with these characteristics, it will lead to the optimum employee job
satisfaction (Lund, 2003). The studies by Berson et al. (2008) stated
that the supportive dimension is positively associated with employee
satisfaction. Similary, the clan culture is also positively related to job

satisfaction. In the aforementioned culture type and dimension,


employees feel dedicated to the organization due to the satisfaction
with their job (Akaah, 1993).
According to Lund (2003), the adhocracy culture is second to
the highest with regard to positive job satisfaction. This is
characterized by innovation, creativity, and adaptability (Bellou, 2010).
This culture type is comparable with the innovative dimension since
both the adhocracy culture and innovative dimension is weakly related
to satisfaction (Berson et al., 2008).This could be on the reason that a
type of industry has an influence on the culture and satisfaction. For
example, a company with sophisticated gadgets is more innovationoriented and can lead to a higher level of job satisfaction for the
employees that are keen on high technology gadgets. The general
innovative atmosphere contributes to employees general sense of job
satisfaction (Berson et al., 2008).
Aside from that, there are several job characteristics that could
obtain employee job satisfaction as well. For example, Hackman and
Oldham (1976) described that there are five different core dimension
that lead to positive job satisfaction. This includes the skill variety, task
identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Herzberg defined
six

motivating

factors

(achievement,

recognition,

work

itself,

responsibility, advancement, and personal growth) that result in


positive job satisfaction. All the aforementioned job characteristics

shall lead to positive employee job satisfaction and should be the


focus of the organization because positive job satisfaction will lead to
high performances and commitment of employees (Snipes et al.,
2005).

Negative employee job satisfaction


The bureaucratic dimension is often associated to a negative
employee satisfaction due to its characteristics of formal, specialized,
hierarchical, and inflexible (Adler and Borys, 1996). This dimension is
similar with the hierarchy culture and market culture. Lund (2003) has
defined the market culture with the characteristics as competition,
goal achievement, and market superiority while the hierarchy culture
is characterized by a bureaucratic order, rules, regulation, and
predictability. These two cultures are negatively related to job
satisfaction (Lund, 2003).

An organization can adopt the various characteristics of a specific culture or


dimension to obtain the highest job satisfaction possible. It is evident that the
characteristics of the supportive and innovative dimension lead to the highest level of
job satisfaction. However, the bureaucratic dimensions leads to the lowest level of
employee job satisfaction (Silverthorne, 2004).
Another way to obtain satisfied employees is by implementing job characteristics
which surely leads to increased job satisfaction. For example, implementing the job

characteristics autonomy among employees will lead to positive job satisfaction. And
this shall result to a satisfied employees with high organizational performances and
commitment of employees (Snipes et al., 2005).

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