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Z1
+
Z2
Z3
Z4
Z3 =
Z1 + Z 3
Z2 + Z 4
Z
Z 4 = 2 Z3
Z1
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Z4
Electronic Engineering
(8.1)
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( Z11 ) ( Z 4 4 ) = ( Z 22 ) ( Z 33 )
Z1Z 4 (1 + 4 ) = Z 2Z 3 (2 + 3 )
(8.2)
The products of the magnitudes of the opposite arms must be equal and
the sum of the phase angles of the opposite arms must be equal.
Impedance
Impedance is an important parameter used to characterize electronic
circuits, components, and the materials used to make components.
Impedance (Z) is generally defined as the total opposition a device or
circuit offers to the flow of an alternating current (AC) at a given
frequency, and is represented as a complex quantity which is graphically
shown on a vector plane. An impedance vector consists of a real part
(resistance, R) and an imaginary part (reactance, X) as shown in the
Figure. Impedance can be expressed using the rectangular-coordinate
form R + jX or in the polar form as a magnitude and phase angle:
Z = Z . Figure also shows the mathematical relationship between R, X,
Z, and . In some cases, using the reciprocal of impedance is
mathematically expedient. In which case 1/Z = Y = G + jB, where Y
represents admittance, G conductance, and B susceptance. The unit of
impedance is the ohm (), and admittance is the siemen (S). Impedance is
a commonly used parameter and is especially useful for representing a
series connection of resistance and reactance, because it can be
expressed simply as a sum, R and X. For a parallel connection, it is
better to use admittance.
Reactance takes two forms: inductive (XL) and capacitive (XC). By
definition, XL = 2fL and Xc = 1/(2fC), where f is the frequency of
interest, L is inductance, and C is capacitance. 2f can be substituted by
the angular frequency (: omega) to represent XL = L and XC =1/(C).
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Z = R + jX = Z
R = Z cos
X = Z sin
Z = R2 + X 2
X
= tan 1
Z = R + jX
Y=
1
1
+
= G + jB
R jX
X L = 2 fL = wL
Inductor
XC =
1
1
=
2 fC wC
Capacitor
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Example 1:
Z4 =
Z 2Z 3
Z1
250 400
= 1, 000
Z4 =
100
(8.3)
4 = 2 + 3 1
4 = 0 + 30 80 = 50
(8.4)
Z 4 = 1, 000 50
(8.5)
Comparison bridges
A basic capacitance comparison bridge is shown in Figure 2.
R1
E
+
-
R2
Detector
Cs
Rx
Rs
Cx
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1
j (capacitive impedance)
wCs
1
Z 4 = Rx j (capacitive impedance)
wCx
Z3 = Rs -
R2
Rs
R1
R
C x = 1 Cs
R2
Rx =
(8.6)
(8.7)
Equations 8.6 and 8.7 describe two balance conditions that must be met
simultaneously. To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must
contain two variable elements in its configuration. Rs and R1 are variable
elements for adjustment of the balance conditions. Since we are
measuring an unknown capacitor whose resistive effects could be small,
first R1 should be adjusted then Rs is adjusted for balance of the
resistive term. Also it should be noted that the frequency of the voltage
source does not enter either of the balance equations and the bridge is
therefore is said to be independent of the frequency of the applied
voltage.
Inductance comparison bridges are similar to the capacitance comparison
bridge (Figure 3).
R1
E
+
-
R2
Detector
Ls
Rx
Lx
Rs
Figure 3. Inductance comparison bridge.
It can be shown that the inductive and resistive balance equations yield:
Lx =
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R2
Ls
R1
Electronic Engineering
(8.8)
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Rx =
R2
Rs
R1
(8.9)
R1
R2
C1
A
Detector
R3
Rx
Lx
Y1 =
1
+jwC1
R1
Z2 = R2
Z3 = R3
Z 4 = Rx +jwLx
R2
R3
R1
Lx = R2R3C1
Rx =
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Electronic Engineering
(8.10)
(8.11)
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The Hay bridge of Figure 5 differs from the Maxwell bridge by having
the resistor R1 in series with standard capacitor C1 instead of in parallel.
It is immediately apparent that for large phase angles, R1 should have a
very low value. The Hay circuit is therefore more convenient for
measuring high-Q coils.
The quality factor (Q) serves as a measure of a reactances purity (how
close it is to being a pure reactance, no resistance), and is defined as the
ratio of the energy stored in a component to the energy dissipated by the
component. Q is a dimensionless unit and is expressed as:
XL
R
X
tan C = C
R
tan L =
(8.12)
(8.13)
R2
C1
A
Detector
R3
Rx
Lx
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Z1 = R1 -
1
j
wC1
Z 2 = R2
Z 3 = R3
Z 4 = Rx +jwLx
w 2C12R1R2R3
Rx =
1 + w 2C12R12
R2R3C1
Lx =
1 + w 2C12R12
(8.14)
(8.15)
From these equations it can be seen that inductance and resistance are
dependent on the w, which is the frequency of the voltage source.
However it is not true if we measure high-Q values:
XL wLx
=
=Q
R
Rx
X
1
tan C = C =
R
wC1R1
tan L =
tan L = tan C Q =
(8.16)
(8.17)
(8.18)
wC1R1
Lx =
R2R3C1
2
1 + (1 Q )
(8.19)
Lx = R2R3C1
(8.20)
Shering Bridge
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R1
R2
C1
E
Detector
Rx
C3
Cx
Y1 =
1
+jwC1
R1
Z 2 = R2
1
j
wC3
1
Z 4 = Rx j
wCx
Z3 = -
C1
R2
C3
R
C x = 1 C3
R2
Rx =
tan C Q =
(8.21)
(8.22)
1
wC x Rx
(8.23)
D=
Rx
= wC x Rx
Xx
(8.24)
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D = wR1C1
(8.25)
Example:
XC1=1000
A
R2=500
Detector
R3=1000
B
R4=100
XL4=500
Z1 = -
1
j = 1000 90
wC1
Z2 = R2 = 500
Z 3 = R3
Z 4 = Rx +jwLx = 100 + j 500 = 509.978.69
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From equation 8.2 the first balance condition (magnitudes) can be easily
met by adjusting R3:
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
(8.26)
1 + 4 = 2 + 3
(8.27)
90 + 78.69 0 + 0
E
+
XC1=1000 A
R1
R4=100
XL4=500
C3
R3=1000
(a)
A
R2=500
Detector
Detector
R3=1000
R2=500
XC1=1000
R4=100
XL4=500
(b)
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Y1 =
R1
+wC1 j
Z2 = R2 = 500
Z3 = R3 = 1000
Z 4 = Rx +jwLx = 100 + j 500 = 509.978.69
Z4
= Z2 Z3
Y1
100 + j 500
1
+ j 1000
R1
(8.28)
Z1 = -
1
j = j 1000 = 1000 90
wC1
Z2 = R2 = 500
1
Z3 = R3 j = 1000 - jXc
wC3
Z 4 = Rx +jwLx = 100 + j 500 = 509.978.69
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3
(8.29)
Xc = 200
Wien bridge
The Wien bridge is presented here not only for its use as an ac bridge to
measure frequency, but also for its application in various other useful
circuits. We find, for example, a Wien bridge in the harmonic distortion
analyzer, where it is used as a notch filter, discriminating against one
specific frequency. The Wien bridge also finds application in audio and HF
oscillator as the frequency-determining element. In this chapter, the
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R1
R2
C1
E
+
-
Detector
C3
R4
R3
Z1 = R1 -
1
j
wC1
Z 2 = R2
1
Y3 = +wC3 j
R3
Z 4 = R4
R2 R1 C 3
=
+
R4 R3 C1
(8.30)
R4
wC1R3
(8.31)
1
C1C 3R1R3
2
(8.32)
wC 3R1R4 =
where w = 2f
f =
Notice that the two conditions for bridge balance now result in an
expression determining the required resistance ratio, R2/R4, and another
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f =
2 RC
(8.33)
This is the general expression for the frequency of the Wien bridge. In a
practical bridge, capacitors C1 and C3 are fixed capacitors, and resistors
R1 and R3 are variable resistors controlled by a common shaft.
Wagner ground connection
The discussion so far has assumed that the four bridge arms consist of
simple lumped impedances which do not interact in any way. In practice,
stray capacitances exist between the various bridge elements and ground,
and also between the bridge arms themselves. These stray capacitances
shunt the bridge arms and cause the measurement errors, particularly at
the higher frequencies or when small capacitors or large inductors are
measured. One way to control stray capacitances is by shielding the arms
and connecting the shields to ground. This does not eliminate the
capacitances but at least makes them constant in value, and they can
therefore be compensated.
One of the most widely used method for eliminating some of the effects
of stray capacitance in a bridge circuit is the Wagner ground connection.
This circuit eliminates the troublesome capacitance which exists between
the detector terminals and ground. Figure 10 shows the circuit of
capacitance bridge, where C1 and C2 represent these stray capacitances.
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Rw
R2
R1
E
+
-
C1
2
C3
Cw
R3
C2
B
Cx
Rx
One of the most useful and versatile laboratory bridges is the universal
impedance bridge. Several of the bridge configurations discussed so far
is combined in a single instrument capable of measuring both dc and ac
resistance, the inductance and storage factor Q of an inductor, and the
capacitance and dissipation factor Q of a capacitor.
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