1,1 Simple Explanation of Einsteins General Theory of Relativity

Adrian Bjornson (March 2013)

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1,1,0 Introduction
The Artificial Complexity of the Einstein Theory
After Einstein presented his General theory of Relativity in 1916, a myth evolved that Einsteins
theory was so complicated that only a handful of brilliant scientists could understand it. This
myth reinforced the publics image of Einsteins genius and helped to make him a celebrity. The
supporters of Einstein recognized the greatness of Einstein theory, and so they accepted the
Einstein myth even though they knew it was false.
Actually, the primary mathematical complexity of the Einstein theory involves the mathematical
theory of curved space that was developed by Ricci and Riemann, which Einstein incorporated
into his General Relativity theory. The Einstein theory itself is profound, and the work of a great
genius, but it does not take a genius to understand that theory.
In the following narrative, the writer will lead the reader through this confusion, to explain the
Relativity theory of Einstein in a simple, detailed, and scientifically accurate manner, which
erases the Einstein myth while portraying the true nature of Einsteins great genius.

1,1,1 Special Relativity

The Speed of Light Paradox
The Einstein theory of Relativity evolved from a paradox associated with measuring the speed of
light. Let us review the history of our understanding of light propagation. Since the time of the
ancient Greeks, it has been known that sound is a wave that propagates by vibrating the air. But
what is light? Is it a stream of particles, or is it a wave like sound? Since light can travel through
a vacuum, it was postulated that all space was filled with a mysterious invisible medium called
the aether, and a light wave propagates by vibrating the aether.
The first measurement of the speed of light was performed by Ole Romer in 1676. He found that
the period of the orbit of Io, the innermost moon of Jupiter, appears to be shorter when the earth
(in its orbit around the sun) is approaching Jupiter, than when the earth is receding from Jupiter.
Based on this measurement, a speed of light of 220,000 km/sec (kilometer per second) was
determined, which is within 26% of the exact value. This showed that light travels about one
million times faster than sound.

In 1704, Isaac Newton published his book Opticks, which greatly advanced optical science.
Newton concluded that the aether made no sense physically, and so light cannot be a wave; it
must be a stream of particles. He asked, How can the aether be so thin that it does not impede
motion of a planet in its orbit, yet be so stiff it allows light to propagate at an enormous speed?
In 1802, Thomas Young performed wave interference experiments to prove that light propagates
as a wave. His finding was confirmed by more accurate experiments by Augustine Fresnel. This
concept was gradually accepted by the scientific community, even though the aether medium for
allowing light propagation could not be explained physically
In 1862 James Clerk Maxwell presented his electromagnetic field equations, which tied together
the experimental findings of many studies of electricity and magnetism. He proved from his
equations that a travelling wave can be generated consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields. From measured values of electric and magnetic parameters, he calculated the propagation
speed of this electromagnetic wave, and found it was approximately equal to the measured speed
of light. He concluded that light must be an electromagnetic wave of very high frequency.
Maxwells equations predicted that electromagnetic waves of much lower frequency than light
can be generated, and this was verified by an experiment within the laboratory performed in
1887 by Heinrich Hertz. A few years later, this led to the development of radio by Guglielmo
Marconi, who used a lower frequency than Hertz, which allowed long-distance propagation.
An electromagnetic wave consists of electric and magnetic fields that oscillate in directions
perpendicular to one another. The oscillating electric field generates the magnetic field, and the
oscillating magnetic field generates the electric field. An electromagnetic wave is a packet of
electromagnetic energy travelling at the speed of light. It does not propagate by vibrating an
aether medium.
The exact speed of light in vacuum is 299,792,458 m/sec (meter per second). To simplify our
discussion, we round this off to 300,000,000 m/sec, or 300,000 km/sec (kilometer per second),
which differs from the exact value by only 0.069%. The speed of light is slower than this when
light propagates through air or any other medium.
Although Maxwells equations showed that an aether medium was not needed to allow light
propagation, Maxwell still included the aether concept in his technical paper. The probable
reason for this is that the meaning of the speed of light is confusing without an aether medium
to act as a reference.
Do we measure the speed of light relative to the body that emits the light, or relative to the body
that receives the light? If there is an appreciable velocity between these two bodies, one would
logically expect the two measurements to be different. For example, assume that a star is
travelling toward earth at a velocity of 500 km/sec. (By measuring the Doppler wavelength shift
in the spectrum of starlight received from the star, we can accurately determine this velocity,)
Assuming that the light leaves the star at 300,000 km/sec, we might expect the starlight received
on earth to have a velocity of 300,500 km/sec, which is equal to the basic speed of light (300,000
km/sec), plus the relative velocity (500 km/sec) between the star and earth.
2

However, if this happened, the light received from stars having different Doppler shifts would be
travelling at different speeds. Since this does not occur, scientists assumed that light travels at a
fixed velocity of 300,000 km/sec relative to the aether. Even though the aether is not directly
involved in light propagation, most scientists still assumed that the aether provides a reference
medium relative to which the light propagates.
In 1887, the famous Michelson-Morley experiment was performed to measure the velocity of the
aether medium. As the earth travels around the sun, at 30 km/sec, the earth was assumed to travel
at different velocities relative to the aether. Equipment using wave interference was constructed
that could detect very slight differences of the speed of light in perpendicular directions, to an
accuracy much better than 30 km/sec. This equipment was tested at many points throughout the
annual orbit of the earth, but the results were completely negative.
Many postulates were proposed to explain the negative results of the Michelson-Morley
experiment. Some proposed that the aether that is near the earth travels with the earth, and moves
separately from the general aether medium. However, if this were true, the light from different
directions in space should display erratic diffraction effects as it passes through aether media
moving at different speeds.
Finally, George Fitzgerald and Hendrik Lorentz independently postulated that the dimensions of
the measuring equipment contract when the equipment moves relative to the aether. This
postulate seemed to explain the negative results of the Michelson-Morley experiment.
However, in 1903, Trouton and Noble implemented a new experiment for measuring the velocity
of the aether wind, which also had negative results, and could not be explained completely by
the contraction hypothesis. Lorentz concluded that clock rates must also change, along with
dimensions, when a body moves relative to the aether. However, Lorentz realized that it was not
legitimate to postulate a new correction factor to explain each negative experiment. A general
explanation was needed.
In 1904, Lorentz presented a general set of equations to show how dimensions and time
measurements should change as a body moves relative to the aether. These equations (later
called the Lorentz Transformation Equations) explained the negative results of all aether
experiments performed to that date. The analysis by Lorentz showed that it should be impossible
to measure the motion of the aether medium if these equations are correct.
But, if we cannot perform any experiment to measure the presence of the mysterious aether, how
can the aether have any physical meaning? Into this confusion came the young physicist, Albert
Einstein, with his 1905 paper on Relativity. This basic theory was later called the Einstein
Special Theory of Relativity.
The Einstein Relativity Theory
Einstein based his approach on fundamental reasoning. He concluded that absolute velocity has
no meaning. We can speak of the relative velocity between two bodies, but not the absolute
3

velocity of either one. Since absolute velocity has no meaning, there cannot be an aether
medium that establishes an absolute reference for measuring velocity.
If we consider two observers moving at different velocities, neither one has a preferred frame of
reference. Consequently, both observers must measure exactly the same value for the speed of
light. For this to be true, the standards for measuring distance and time must be different for
the two observers. Using the principle that the measured speed of light is exactly the same for all
observers (regardless of velocity), Einstein calculated how dimensions and time measurements
must change as observers move at different velocities. The equations that Einstein derived were
identical to those derived a year earlier by Lorentz.
The equations derived by Einstein are also called the Lorentz Transformation Equations.
However, Lorentz applied his equations to explain the effect of motion relative to the
hypothetical aether, whereas Einstein used them to explain the effect of motion between two
observers moving at different velocities. The physical assumptions for deriving the two sets of
equations were different, but they yielded the same equations.
Let us consider how the Einstein equations are applied. The relative velocity between two
observers (Observer A and Observer B) is denoted V. Both observers have identical equipment
for measuring the speed of light, which consists of a measuring rod, and two accurate clocks that
run at the same rate and are accurately synchronized. The clocks are placed at the two ends of the
measuring rod, and a light pulse is directed along the length of the measuring rod. When the light
pulse reaches the leading edge of the rod, Clock (1) is read; and when it reaches the trailing edge,
Clock (2) is read. The two clock readings are subtracted to obtain the time for the light pulse to
travel the length of the measuring rod. The speed of light measurement is the ratio of the
measuring-rod length, divided by the difference between the two clock readings.
A compression factor (K) can be defined as follows:
K =

[1 (V/c)2]

(1)

where (c) is the speed of light and (V) is the relative velocity between the two observers. To
Observer A, the measuring rod used by Observer B appears to be shortened by this compression
factor (K). Secondly, the clocks of Observer B appear to tick slower by this same factor (K).
Thirdly, the two synchronized clocks, which Observer B considers to be accurately
synchronized, appear for Observer A to be out of synch by the following amount:
Synchronization Error = (V/c)t

(2)

where (t) is the difference between the two clock readings that is measured by Observer B. It
can be shown that these three corrections explain why Observers A and B measure exactly the
same value for the speed of light, regardless of the velocity (V) between the two observers. (The
symbol () is the Greek letter delta, which is commonly used to denote a difference.)
Einstein concluded that these apparent effects are real. A measuring rod does not have an
absolute length; the length varies with the velocity of the observer. This same principle holds for
4

clock rate and clock synchronization. Measurements of distance and time are relative. Reality is
Relative!
Enormous Implications of the Einstein Theory
This analysis by Einstein not only explained the speed of light paradox; it had fundamental
physical implications. Einstein demonstrated from his equations that the mass of a body
increases when its velocity increases. The mass of a body varies as follows with velocity:
Mass = (Rest Mass)/K = (Rest Mass)/[1 (V/c)2]

(3)

The Rest Mass is the mass that the body has at zero velocity. This equation shows that a physical
body can never travel at the speed of light, because its mass would become infinite. Equation 3
was verified a few years later by accelerating electrons in an electric field.
Equation 3 showed that energy is converted into mass when a body is accelerated, and also
showed that mass must be converted into energy when a body is decelerated. Einstein concluded
that mass (M) and energy (E) are equivalent, and are related by the famous Einstein formula:
E = Mc2

(4)

This shows that a mass (M) of one gram is equivalent to 25 million kilowatt-hours of energy
(E). This equation explained the source of the enormous energy generated by the sun.
Because of the tremendous temperature and pressure at the center of the sun, the nuclei of
hydrogen atoms are forced closely together, which causes them to fuse and form helium atoms.
Four hydrogen atoms are fused to form one atom of helium. The four hydrogen atoms have
0.71% more mass than the helium atom that they form, and so 0.71% of the mass is lost in this
fusion process, to be converted into energy. If we multiply 25 million kilowatt-hours by 0.71%,
we have 177,500 kilowatt hours. Hence, 177,500 kilowatt hours of energy are released for every
gram of hydrogen that is converted into helium. One gram has 1/3 of the weight of a United
States penny (one cent coin).
The famous formula of Eq. 4 derived by Einstein became a fundamental tool in extensive atomsmashing experiments. In 1938 these studies resulted in a very important experiment by Otto
Hahn in Berlin, Germany. When Uranium was bombarded by neutrons, the atom split almost in
two, to form Barium and Krypton, along with a few neutrons. Uranium has 92 protons in the
nucleus, Barium has 56, and Krypton has 36. From the masses of the components of this
experiment, it was immediately recognized by scientists that this splitting of the atom has great
potential for developing atomic nuclear power and an atomic nuclear bomb.
Uranium has two isotopes with the same number of protons (92) but a different number of
neutrons in the atomic nucleus. Most uranium consists of Uranium-238, which has 146 neutrons
plus 92 protons in the nucleus, but 0.07% of uranium is Uranium-235, which has 143 neutrons
plus 92 protons. It was discovered that the uranium isotope that is being split is Uranium-235. To
derive useful power from this atom-splitting process, the uranium must be enriched to separate
5

the Uranium-235 isotope from the Uranium-238 isotope. A nuclear power plant can use
minimum enrichment, but a nuclear bomb requires nearly pure Uranium-235. Separating two
isotopes is very difficult, because they have the same chemical properties.
In June, 1942, the Manhattan Project was started in the United States to develop an atomic
nuclear bomb. The main effort of this enormous program was to separate the two isotopes of
uranium. Atomic nuclear bombs were dropped on Japan in August 1945 to end World War II.
This example is one of many revolutionary implications of the Einstein theory of Relativity.

1,1,2 General Relativity

Soon after Einstein published his basic theory of Relativity in 1905, he recognized that it has
serious theoretical limitations. His theory was based on the postulate that the speed of light is
exactly constant, which is true when velocities are constant. However, Einstein proved by
approximate calculations that the speed of light varies when the velocity changes, i.e., when
acceleration occurs. He also concluded that acceleration and gravity are indistinguishable, and so
the speed of light must also vary in a gravitational field. Consequently, Einstein needed to
generalize his theory of Relativity so that it accounts for the effects of acceleration and gravity.
After Einstein presented his General theory of Relativity in 1916, he regarded his basic theory as
a Special Case of General Relativity, and so his basic theory was called the Einstein Special
theory of Relativity.
Let us compare the effects of acceleration and gravity. When we sit in a parked airplane before
takeoff, we are forced downward in our seats because of the force of gravity. When the airplane
begins to take off, we are forced against the backs of our seats because of the airplane
acceleration. Einstein concluded that these two forces, due to acceleration and gravity, are
equivalent. With this principle, he was able to calculate the approximate relativistic effects due to
gravity by calculating those produced by acceleration.
Comparison of the Newtonian and Einstein Theories of Gravity
But what is gravity? Isaac Newton postulated that celestial bodies exert gravitational forces that
attract matter to them. As the earth travels in its orbit around the sun, the sun exerts a
gravitational force on the earth that pulls the earth toward the center of the sun, and this
gravitational force keeps the earth from flying off into space. For example, when you twirl a ball
on a string, the force on the string makes the ball move along a circular path. If you release the
string, the ball travels away along a straight line at constant velocity (except for the downward
drop due to gravity). Similarly, if one could magically remove the Newtonian gravitational force
that is exerted by the sun on the earth, the earth would theoretically fly off into space along a
straight line at constant velocity.
Einstein disputed this Newtonian concept of gravity. Einstein concluded that gravitational force
is an artifice that does not actually exist. Einstein postulated that the gravitational field of the
sun curves the space around it, and the earth travels on a curved path around the sun that follows
this curvature of space. The gravity of the sun does not exert any force on the earth.
6

The Mathematical Theory of Curved Space.

To generalize his Relativity theory, Einstein needed a rigorous mathematical theory that
characterized motion in curved space. He found this in the Riemann-Ricci mathematical theory
of curved space.
In 1852, the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866) presented the metric
equation, which is a general mathematical principle for specifying curved space. The metric
equation describes the shortest distance between two points in curved space. Riemann was
unable to develop his concept in detail, because he contacted tuberculosis in 1862, and died four
years later at age 39.
The Italian mathematician, Gregorio Ricci (1853-1925), used the curved-space principle of
Riemann as the foundation for a comprehensive mathematical theory, which Ricci called the
Absolute Differential Calculus. Ricci published his mathematical theory in 1901 with the help of
his student, Tullio Levi-Civita (1873-1941). In 1923, Levi-Civita published in Italian an updated
version of this theory. An English translation of this book is available as a Dover reprint. [3]
Unfortunately the monumental contributions of Ricci and Levi-Civita to General Relativity
theory have been largely ignored. The mathematical foundation for General Relativity is
commonly referred to as Riemannian geometry. However this foundation was really the
calculus of curved space developed by Ricci, which was a major extension of the Riemannian
geometric principle.
The Principle of Covariance
In his original paper of Relativity, Einstein wrote about measurements made by observers
moving at different velocities. In a general sense, this involves measurements made relative to
coordinates that are moving at different velocities. The purpose of Relativity theory is to
transform measurements properly between different coordinates.
Einstein described this concept in terms of the Principle of Covariance, which states that the
laws of physics should be formulated so that they are independent of the coordinate system. The
fundamental requirement for satisfying the principles of Relativity is to achieve Covariance in
the transformation equations.
Einstein concluded that gravity and acceleration produce curvature of space. The Riemann-Ricci
mathematical theory of curved space provided a rigorous mathematical tool for applying this
concept and for achieving a Covariant theory that satisfies the principles of Relativity. Einstein
needed to develop a Gravitational Field Equation that would constrain the Riemann-Ricci
mathematical theory so that its curvature of space is established by gravity and acceleration.
The basic Riemann-Ricci mathematical theory was expressed in general form in terms of multidimensional space. Einstein applied this curved-space theory in four dimensions, because
Relativity theory has four dimensions, three spatial dimensions plus time.

Normalized Mass Units

We will usually express the equations of General Relativity in terms of normalized mass units.
The normalized mass (m) is related to the true mass (M) by
m = MG/c2

(5)

where (G) is the gravitational constant of Newtons gravitational theory, and (c) is the speed of
light. The normalized mass is commonly used in the ratio (m/r), where (r) is radial distance. The
normalized mass (m) has units of distance, and so the (m/r) ratio is non-dimensional. The
normalized mass of our sun is 1.475 km (kilometer), which is usually approximated as 1.5 km.
Since the mass of a star is often expressed in terms of the mass of our sun, one can easily
determine the normalized mass of a star by multiplying its number of solar masses by 1.5 km.
The Meaning of Gravitational Potential
We will express the equations of General Relativity in terms of gravitational potential, which is
denoted () (Greek phi). Let us examine this concept. The weight of a body is the gravitational
force applied to the body. The gravitational force (f) acting on a mass (M) is equal to (M g),
where (g) is the acceleration of gravity. Thus
f = M g (gravitational force or weight)

(5a)

On the surface of the earth, the acceleration of gravity (g) is 9.8 meter/sec per second. Let us
approximate this as 10 meter/sec per second. If aerodynamic effects are negligible, the speed of a
falling body increases by 10 meter/sec for every second that it falls. In one second, the speed is
10 meter/sec; in two seconds, the speed is 20 meters per second; in three seconds, 30 meters per
second; etc.
The amount of energy (E), required to raise a body of mass (M) to a height (h), is equal to the
gravitational force (f) applied to the body multiplied by the height (h), and so is equal to
E = f h = M g h (Increase in gravitational potential energy)

(6)

Remember that the Greek letter () delta is used to denote a difference. Quantity (E) is an
increase in the gravitational potential energy of the body. Dividing the increase in gravitational
potential energy (E) by the body mass (M) gives the increase in gravitational potential, which is
denoted (). Thus
= E/M = g h

(Increase in gravitational potential)

(7)

In this website, conventional gravitational potential () is denoted with a prime () to distinguish

it from the gravitational potential of the Yilmaz theory, which is denoted ().
The gravitational force (f) between a celestial body of mass (M) and a small body of mass (Mx)
is given as follows by Newtons law of gravitational force:
8

f = GMxM/r2

(Newtons law of gravity)

(8)

where (G) is the gravitational constant, and (r) is the distance between the centers of gravity of
the two bodies. The acceleration of gravity (g) at the location of the small body is the ratio
(f/Mx), which is
g = (f/Mx) = GM/r2 = mc2/r2

(9)

Parameter (M) is the mass of the celestial body, and (m) is its equivalent normalized mass, which
is calculated from Eq 5. The increase in gravitational potential that is produced by raising a body
through a height (h) is
= g h = (mc2/r2) h = (mc2/r2) r = (mc2) (r/r2)

(10)

The height (h) has been replaced by (r), because (h) represents an increase in the radial distance
(r) from the center of the earth. By applying the principles of calculus, the incremental quantities
(), (r) are replaced by the infinitesimal quantities (d), (dr). Equation 10 becomes
d = (mc2) (dr/r2) = - (mc2) d(1/r)

(11)

The formulas of calculus show that (dr/r2) is equal to -d(1/r). The quantity (d) represents a tiny
change of the gravitational potential (). To obtain the equation for (), we perform the
calculus process of integration. The rules of calculus show that the integration of Eq 11 yields
= - (mc2)(1/r) = - (m/r)c2

(Conventional definition of gravitational potential) (12)

An arbitrary constant can be added to this expression. When this constant is zero (as in Eq 12),
the gravitational potential is zero at infinite radius (r). This is the usual choice for the constant,
because the gravitational potential () and the acceleration of gravity (g) are both zero at infinite
radius. With this definition, the gravitational potential () is always negative.
Later, we will discuss the Yilmaz theory. This uses a different gravitational potential variable
denoted (), which is equal to
= - /c2 = (m/r)

(Yilmaz gravitational potential)

(13)

The Yilmaz gravitational potential () is equal to (m/r) for a spherically symmetric celestial
body, and is proportional to the negative of the conventional gravitational potential (). Since
the conventional gravitational potential () is always negative, the Yilmaz gravitational
potential () is always positive. The conventional gravitational potential () describes the
energy of a body in a gravitational field, whereas the Yilmaz gravitational potential ()
describes the energy of the gravitational field itself.

The Metric Tensor

The Riemann-Ricci mathematical theory is expressed in terms of tensors. The principle of a
tensor is explained in Story [2], starting on page 137. The basic tensor is the metric tensor, which
describes the shortest distance between two points in curved space. One can directly calculate all
of the relativistic effects of any physical model from the components of the metric tensor.
The metric tensor is denoted (gab). The subscripts (a, b) are indices that can each take on the four
values 0, 1, 2 and 3, which represent the four dimensions of relativistic space-time. The index 0
represents the time dimension, and the indices 1, 2, 3 represent the dimensions of threedimensional space. Since index (a) has four possible values, and (b) has four possible values,
there are 4x4 or 16 components of the metric tensor (gab). The 16 components of the metric
tensor are displayed in the following array called a matrix:

g00
g10
g20
g30

g01
g11
g21
g31

g02
g12
g22
g32

g03
g13
g23
g33

(14)

Often 12 of these components are zero, and the only non-zero components are the four that fall
on the diagonal from the upper left to the lower right. This is called a diagonal metric tensor,
which has the following form:

g00
0
0
0

0
g11
0
0

0
0
g22
0

0
0
0
g33

(15)

The Einstein General theory of Relativity can be solved analytically only when the metric tensor
is diagonal. If the metric tensor is not diagonal, the calculations of General Relativity result in
millions of terms, and can only be solved on a computer. Since computers were not available in
Einsteins day, Einstein could only apply his theory to very simple physical models that yielded
diagonal metric tensors.
To represent time, Einstein used the value (4) for indices (a) and (b), rather than the value (0).
This difference in convention has no effect on General Relativity calculations. However, the
Einstein time component for the metric tensor (g44) would be is in the lower-right of the matrix
of Eq 15, rather than in the upper left, as (g00).
The metric tensor has two major forms: (gab) (with subscript indices) is the covariant form, and
(gab) (with superscript indices) is the contravariant form. If the covariant metric tensor (gab) is
diagonal, the contravariant metric tensor (gab) is also diagonal, and its components are the
reciprocals of the components of (gab). Thus
g00 = 1/g00 ; g11 = 1/g11 ; g22 = 1/g22 ; g33 = 1/g33
10

(16)

This shows that the contravariant components vary in opposition to (or contra to) the covariant
components. If the covariant metric tensor is not diagonal, the contravariant metric tensor is
calculated from the following formula:
(gab)x(gab) = Unit Matrix

(17)

Equation 17 shows that when the matrices for tensors (gab) and (gab) are multiplied together, the
result is a unit matrix. A unit matrix is a diagonal matrix in which all components on the
diagonal are unity. There are standard rules for multiplying two matrices together. The meaning
of the covariant and contravariant names is discussed in Appendix D. Do not confuse the
covariant form of a tensor with the Principle of Covariance.
The Einstein Gravitational Field Equation
The metric tensor (gab) describes the shortest distance between two points in curved space.
Another tensor, called the Ricci tensor (Rab), describes the curvature of space. The RiemannRicci mathematical theory of curved space gives complicated formulas for calculating the
components of the Ricci tensor from the components of the covariant and contravariant metric
tensors (gab and gab). Einstein needed to develop an equation that expresses the Ricci tensor
(which describes the curvature of space) in terms of the gravitational and acceleration
characteristics of matter and energy. He called this formula his Gravitational Field Equation.
By this means, Einstein incorporated the curvature of space produced by gravity and acceleration
into this general mathematical theory of curved space, which has the Covariance needed to
satisfy the principles of Relativity.
The Ricci tensor has three different forms. The covariant form of the Ricci tensor is denoted
(Rab), the contravariant form is denoted (Rab), and the mixed form is denoted (Rab). If one
knows the covariant and contravariant forms of the metric tensor (gab and gab), the three forms of
any other tensor can be translated into one another by means of simple formulas. The equations
for converting the forms of a tensor are given in Believe [1], Appendix A, Section A.3. The
metric tensor also has a mixed form (gab), but this tensor is the same for all applications, and so is
not very important.
Instead of using the Ricci tensor to specify the curvature of space in his gravitational field
equation, Einstein used a modification of the Ricci tensor, which is now called the Einstein
tensor. (The reason for using the Einstein tensor in place of the Ricci tensor is explained in
Appendix E.) To achieve this modification, Einstein first converted the covariant Ricci tensor
(Rab) to its mixed form (Rab). Next, he defined the variable (R), which is the sum of the diagonal
components of the mixed Ricci tensor (Rab), as shown by:
R = R00 + R11 + R22 + R33

(18)

The mixed Einstein tensor Gab is defined as follows (where () means not equal to):
Gab = Rab R

if a = b

(19)
11

Gab = Rab

if a b

(20)

(Einstein Gravitational Field Equation)

(21)

The Einstein tensor (Gab) defined by Eqs 19, 20 is the basis for the Einstein Gravitational Field
Equation, which specifies the General theory of Relativity. The Einstein Gravitational Field
Equation can be expressed as:
Gab = - 4Tab

(Alternate forms of this equation are given in Appendix A.) The variable (Tab) is the mixed form
of the energy-momentum tensor, which describes the gravitational effects of matter and energy
as they affect the curvature of space. Equation 21 represents 16 separate equations for the
different values of the (a, b) indices. For example, three of these 16 equations are
G00 = - 4T00 ; G13 = - 4T13 ; G20 = - 4T20

(22)

Six of these 16 equations are redundant, and so there are ten independent equations.
A requirement of this gravitational field equation is that it must approximate Newtons theory of
gravity in a weak gravitational field. The Poisson Equation is an important concept derived from
the Newtonian theory. Poissons Equation for the gravitational field is
2 = 4 G

(Poissons Equation)

(23)

The variable () (Greek rho) is the density of matter (which is mass per unit volume) and (G)
is the gravitational constant of Newtons theory. Einstein, in The Meaning of Relativity [4]
(originally published in 1921), stated on p. 82:
We must next attempt to find the laws of the gravitational field. For this purpose, Poissons
equation [Eq 23] of the Newtonian theory must serve as a model.
The gravitational potential () was described earlier and defined by Eq. 12. The symbol (2) in
Eq 23 is called the Laplacian, and is the second derivative performed in three dimensions. The
first derivative means the slope, and the second derivative means the rate-of-change of slope.
Let us think of the gravitational potential () as a hill. The acceleration of gravity (g) is the
slope of this gravitational potential hill. Let us assume that this is a smooth, rolling hill. The
steepest slope would usually occur about half way up the hill. The slope would usually be zero in
the valley below, and would gradually increase as we climb up the hill. The rate-of-change of the
slope of this gravitational potential hill (), as we climb up the hill, is the Laplacian (2).
Rate-of-change of slope is a measure of curvature. If the rate-of-change of slope of a section of a
plot is constant, that section approximates the segment of a circle. The greater the rate-of-change
of slope, the smaller is the circle radius, and the greater is the curvature. Since the Laplacian
(2) is the rate-of-change of slope of the gravitational potential (), it describes the curvature
of the gravitational potential ().
12

Since the Einstein tensor (Gab) describes the curvature of space, it is logical that (Gab) should be
related to (2), which describes the curvature of the gravitational potential (). Einstein
concluded that the component (G00) of the Einstein tensor (Gab) should be proportional to (2).
He developed the following relation:
G00 = - (1/c2) 2 = - 4(G/c2)

(24)

G00 = - 4 (G/c2) = - 4

(25)

In Eq 24, we have applied the Poisson formula for (2) given in Eq 23. It is convenient to
express the mass density () in terms of normalized mass units. As shown in Eq 5, normalized
mass (m) is obtained by multiplying the conventional mass (M) by (G/c2). Hence the density of
matter in normalized mass units, denoted (), is obtained by multiplying the density of matter
() in conventional mass units by (G/c2). Equation 24 becomes

The Einstein gravitational field equation given by Eq 21 shows that ( G00) is equal to (- 4T00).
Comparing this with Eq 25 shows that (T00) is equal to the density of matter () in normalized
mass units:
T00 =

(26)

Calculating the Complete Energy-Momentum Tensor

Appendix D shows that distances, velocities, etc. are contravariant variables, and so equations
that involve these variables use the contravariant form (Tab) of the energy-momentum tensor. For
a weak gravitational field, the contravariant component (T00) of the energy-momentum tensor is
approximately equal to the mixed component (T00). Equation 26 shows that (T00) must be
approximately equal to () in a weak gravitational field to approximate Newtons theory of
gravity. Hence, the following must hold in a weak gravitational field, where () is the density of
matter in normalized mass units:
T00 T00

(weak gravitational field)

(27)

The symbol () means approximately equal to. The physical concept of a tensor is explained
in Appendix D of Story [2], which shows that tensors are used in mechanical analysis to describe
the internal forces within a mechanical medium. An internal force is called a stress, and
represents force per unit area. Pressure is a kind of stress. The tensor components of stress
within a 3-dimensional medium are represented by the following matrix:
p11
p21
p31

p12
p22
p32

p13
p23
p33

(28)

13

The symbol (p) is used to represent stress, because pressure is a typical stress. The three diagonal
components (p11, p22, p33) are the pressures within the medium (also called compression
stresses), and the other six components are the shear stresses.
Combining the concepts of Eqs 27 and 28 gives the complete energy-momentum tensor, which is
.
.
Tpab
.

|
|
= (1/c2) |
|

c2
0
0
0

0
p11
p21
p31

0
p12
p22
p32

0
p13
p23
p33

|
|
|
|

(29)

The subscript (p) in (Tpab) indicates that this tensor is expressed in proper coordinates, which
will be explained shortly. The stress components (p11, p12, p13, etc.) are denoted with
superscript indices, because (Tpab) is a contravariant tensor. (Do not interpret these superscript
indices as mathematical exponents.)
The component in the upper left corner represents (Tp00), which Eq 27 has shown is equal to ().
We have factored (1/c2) from this tensor matrix, and so the upper left component within the
matrix is (c2). All components of the matrix are multiplied by (1/c2). This is done so that the
density parameter (c2) and the stress components (pab) inside the matrix have the same units.
The stress components (pab) are expressed in normalized mass units, and so are denoted with a
prime (). All of the components of the matrix (mass density and stress components) are
expressed in normalized mass units. Except for the multiplying factor (1/c2), the component
(Tp11) of this tensor is the pressure stress (p11) of the medium; the component (Tp12) of this
tensor is the shear stress (p12) of the medium; etc.
Equation 29 is given by Tolman [5] (p. 215, Eq 85.1). However, Tolman applied units that define
the speed of light (c) as unity, and so he expressed the component (Tp00) as (). This technique
(commonly used by General Relativity theorists) of defining the constants (c) and (G) equal to
unity increases the confusion of interpreting General Relativity formulas.
Achieving Covariance in the Energy-Momentum Tensor
As explained earlier, it is essential that all tensors used in General Relativity calculations have
the appropriate mathematical characteristics to satisfy the Principle of Covariance, which means
that a physical law will hold good in all coordinate systems. The energy-momentum tensor of
Eq. 29 achieves Covariance, because it is specified in terms of proper coordinates that move
with the medium that is being modeled. To use this information, the energy-momentum tensor
must be transformed from proper coordinates to fixed coordinates. This transformation must use
a transformation formula that maintains Covariance.
In the website article, 5,C (Calculation of Energy-Momentum Tensor), Eq 2 of Section 2 gives
the Formula for Converting Coordinates of a Tensor, which is part of the Riemann-Ricci
mathematical theory of curved space. This formula assures that Covariance is maintained when
data are transformed from one set of coordinates to another.
14

A tensor that satisfies the Covariance requirement is called a true tensor. The energymomentum tensor is defined by (1) specifying it in terms of proper coordinates that move with
the physical medium that is being modeled, and (2) transforming the data from proper
coordinates to fixed coordinates by means of an equation that maintains Covariance. When this
process is implemented properly, the energy-momentum tensor that is calculated is a true tensor.
Applying the Einstein Theory to a Physical Model
Let us trace the steps for applying the Einstein General theory of Relativity to a physical model.
The steps are as follows:
(1) For the physical model, calculate from Eq 29 the contravariant energy-momentum tensor in
proper coordinates (Tpab). This is a true tensor, because proper coordinates move with the
medium.
(2) From the website article 5,C (Calculation of Energy-Momentum Tensor), apply Eq 2 to
transform the energy momentum tensor (Tpab) from proper coordinates to fixed coordinates to
obtain the energy momentum tensor (Tab), which is still a true tensor.
(3) Using the metric tensors gab and gab, convert the contravariant energy-momentum tensor (Tab)
to the mixed form (Tab) by applying Eq. A-16 in Believe [1], Appendix A, Section A.3.
(4) Apply the mixed energy-momentum tensor (Tab) to the Einstein gravitational field equation,
given above in Eq 21, to compute the mixed Einstein tensor (Gab).
(5) Convert the mixed Einstein tensor (Gab) to the corresponding mixed Ricci tensor (Rab). First,
define the variable (G) as the sum of the diagonal components of (Gab) as follows:
G = G00 + G11 + G22 + G33

(30)

(Do not confuse G with the gravitational constant G.) By comparing Eq 30 with Eqs 18, 19, it
can readily be shown that (G = - R). Setting (G = - R) in Eq 19 gives the following formula for
calculating the diagonal components of the mixed Ricci tensor (Rab):
Rab = Gab G

if a = b

(31)

Non-diagonal components of the mixed Ricci tensor are calculated from Eq 20 expressed as:
Rab = Gab

if a b

(32)

(6) Using the metric tensors gab and gab, convert the mixed Ricci tensor (Rab) to the covariant
form (Rab) by applying Eq A-15 in Appendix A of Believe [1].
(7) Equation A-41 of Appendix A in Believe [1] gives a general formula for the covariant Ricci
tensor (Rab), which is expressed in terms of Christoffel symbols; Eq A-39 of that Appendix

15

gives a general formula for calculating the Christoffel symbols from the components of the
covariant and contravariant metric tensors (gab and gab).
(8) Solving equations backward. The goal of these General Relativity computations is to
calculate the metric-tensor components that correspond to the physical model being studied
(which is represented by the energy-momentum tensor Tab). The most complicated part of this
analysis is the set of equations that relate the metric tensor to the Ricci tensor, discussed in step
(7). It is very difficult to apply this set of equations to calculate the Ricci tensor from the metric
tensor. However, to solve a physical problem, these very complicated equations must be solved
backward; the metric tensor must be derived from the Ricci tensor. This backward calculation
can be horrendously complicated. Another problem is that steps (3) and (6) require the
knowledge of the metric tensor, which is not known at this point.
The Schwartzschild Solution
Because of the great computational complexity of the General Relativity equations, Einstein was
only able to obtain approximate solutions from his equations. Finally, Karl Schwartzschild, who
was cooperating with Einstein, was able to obtain a solution that modeled the gravitational field
of our sun, and could also apply to any celestial body. Einstein included the Schwartzschild
solution with his paper on General Relativity published in 1916. Sadly, Karl Schwartzschild died
from a rare skin disease before his famous solution was published. He was a soldier in the
German Army on the Russian front during World War I.
The analysis of the Schwartzschild solution is presented in the Scientific Addendum 5 of this
website. The basic analysis is presented in 5,2 (Schwartzschild and Isotropic Solutions of the
Einstein Theory), and the derivation of the Schwartzschild Energy-Momentum tensor is
presented in 5,C (Calculation of Energy-Momentum Tensor). The Schwartzschild solution was
the basis for tests that established the validity of the Einstein General theory of Relativity.
The Schwartzschild analysis assumes that our sun is an ideal fluid that has constant density, no
shear force, and no rotation. The constant density assumption is a severe approximation. The
density of our sun varies from 160 times the density of water at the center, to less than 0.001
times the density of water at the surface (the density of air on earth). Hence, the density of the
sun actually varies by more than a factor of 160,000, yet the Schwartzschild model assumes that
the density of our sun is constant. The extreme physical approximations of the Schwartzschild
analysis were essential in order to obtain a testable solution of the Einstein theory.
Based on the Schwartzschild solution, Einstein devised the following three tests to verify his
General theory of Relativity:
(1) When a light ray passes close to the sun, the gravitational field of the sun should deflect
the beam by 1.8 arc seconds.
(2) A gravitational field causes a clock to appear to run slower, and therefore causes the
excited elements on the surface of the sun to appear to oscillate at lower frequency. The

16

gravitational field of our sun should cause the spectra of light from the sun surface to shift
toward the red end of the spectrum by 2.1 parts per million of wavelength.
(3) The planet Mercury has a highly elliptical orbit. The axis of the Mercury orbit advances
(or rotates) by 1.39 arc seconds per orbit. In this advance of the orbit axis, 1.29 arc seconds
can be explained with Newton's laws by considering the gravitational attraction of other
planets. A residual error of 0.10 arc second per orbit remained, and this error was explained
by the Einstein General theory of Relativity.
These three tests were implemented, and the results were used to establish the validity of the
Einstein General theory of Relativity. When the predictions of General Relativity were verified,
Einstein became a celebrity. After that time, Einstein did little with his General Relativity theory.
Special Relativity is very much easier to use, and has wide applicability. During Einstein's
lifetime, General Relativity, with its very complicated tensor analysis, served primarily as a
theoretical foundation for Special Relativity.
The Einstein Pseudo-Tensor for the Gravitational Field
Einstein felt that his Gravitational Field Equation ought to have another tensor, which describes
the energy in the gravitational field. In The Meaning of Relativity [4], which was originally
published in 1921, Einstein stated on p. 83 the following:
It must be remembered that besides the energy density of the matter, there must also be
given an energy density of the gravitational field, so that there can be no talk of principles of
conservation of energy and momentum for matter alone.
Einstein derived a variable that he denoted (tab), which he called the energy components of the
gravitational field. Although (tab) superficially looks like a tensor, it does not satisfy the
Covariance requirements of a true tensor, and was called the Einstein pseudo-tensor.
This website discusses the Einstein pseudo-tensor (tab) in 5,3 (Aspects of Einstein and Yilmaz
Gravitational Theories), Section 2. In a document originally published in 1921, Pauli [6] (p. 162)
stated that Einstein considered the components of his pseudo-tensor (tab) to be equivalent in
certain respects to the energy-momentum components (Tab) of matter (i.e., the energy-momentum
tensor), which is a true tensor. However, Pauli showed that the Einstein pseudo-tensor (tab) is not
invariant with a change of coordinates, and can even be made identically zero when one
calculates the gravitational field of a point mass.
Since Einstein was unable to derive a true tensor to represent the energy of the gravitational
field, he could not include such a tensor in his gravitational field equation. His equation seemed
to work without this tensor, but, as we will see, the lack of a tensor to represent the energy and
stress of the gravitational field is a severe limitation.
Singularities of General Relativity Theory
The Schwartzschild solution does not yield a real answer for pressure inside the star if the massto-radius ratio at the surface of the star exceeds the ratio for our sun by a factor of 230,000. At
17

the time (1916) when the General theory of Relativity was presented, this limitation did not seem
to have practical significance. However, by the late 1930s, it was recognized that there are very
massive, dense stars (called neutron stars) that may appreciably exceed this limit. A 1939
technical paper applying the Einstein theory predicted that when this limit is exceeded, the star
must collapse indefinitely to form a singularity of infinite mass density. This collapsed star
was later called a Black Hole. Einstein was absolutely opposed to the non-physical Black
Hole singularity, and insisted that it could not actually occur. This issue is discussed in the
website article 1,4 (Singularities of the Einstein Theory).
When Einstein presented his General Relativity theory (in 1916), he recognized that it should
have strong application to cosmology. At that time, it was generally believed that the universe
was essentially static. Einstein felt that his gravitational field equation would not support a static
universe, and so he added an additional cosmological term of the form (k ab), where (k) is
called the cosmological constant, and ( ab) is the Kronecker delta function. The Kronecker
delta ( ab) is unity when the indices (a, b) are equal, and is zero when these indices are unequal.
Although ( ab) is a very simple function, it is a true tensor, and so (k ab) could be included in
Einsteins gravitational field equation. (Einstein used the Greek letter () to represent his
cosmological constant.) When Hubble discovered (in 1929) that the universe is expanding,
Einstein realized that his cosmological term was superfluous, and so he disavowed this term.
After Hubble discovered the universe expansion, it was commonly assumed that the universe
must have been a very compact body billions of years ago, which exploded (in a Big Bang)
and has been expanding ever since. When the Einstein General theory of Relativity was applied
to this process, it seemed to predict that the universe must have begun as a singularity of infinite
mass density. Einstein absolutely opposed this singularity prediction, and stated the following in
1945 [7]:
Theoretical doubts [concerning the creation of the universe] are based on the fact that [at
the] beginning of the expansion, the metric becomes singular and the density becomes
infinite. . . . In reality, space will probably be of a uniform character and the present
[relativity] theory will be valid only as a limiting case. . . . One may not therefore assume the
validity of the equations for very high density of field and of matter, and one may not
conclude that the beginning of the expansion must mean a singularity in the mathematical
sense. All we have to realize is that the equations may not be continued over such regions.
In this 1945 quotation, Einstein stated that his theory could not be used to justify a physical
singularity, because his equations would not apply under conditions of extreme density of field
and matter. In other words, Einstein admitted in 1945 that his gravitational field equation is an
approximation.
Throughout his lifetime, Einstein was absolutely opposed to the non-physical singularity.
There is no reason to believe that Einstein ever would have accepted the Black Hole and
Big Bang singularity concepts that cosmologists have derived from General Relativity
theory and now proclaim to be absolute truths.

18

Computer Solutions of the Einstein Gravitational Field Equation

Einstein died in 1955. About a decade later, powerful computers became available for scientific
research. One of the first applications was the use of computers to solve the very complicated
equations of General Relativity. Because of the Myth of Einstein, discussed in the Introduction
(1,1,0), the public believed that only a near-genius could understand the Einstein General theory
of Relativity. Consequently, scientists performing computer studies of the Einstein theory were
held in high esteem, and so this became a popular area for study.
Solving these complicated equations on a computer is a difficult technical task, because the
equations must be solved backward, which requires an iterative computer program.
Sophisticated computation techniques are required to make the computer program converge to a
solution. On the other hand, it does not take a genius like Einstein to solve the Einstein
equations on a computer. As this article has demonstrated, all of the equations of the Einstein
General theory of Relativity are precisely specified.
Among the first results of this computer research was to prove that the Einstein gravitational
field equation definitely predicts: (1) a massive neutron star must collapse to form a Black Hole
singularity, and (2) the universe must have begun as a singularity at the instant of the Big Bang.
These computer studies have led to extensive cosmology research, which has convinced the
scientists that our enormous universe must have began about 15 billion years ago as a singularity
that was microscopic in size, even though our universe has many billions of galaxies, each
containing many billions of stars comparable to our sun.
In these cosmology studies, the Einstein gravitational field equation is treated as absolute truth.
Although Einstein strongly rejected the singularity concept, scientists performing these studies
insist that the Einstein gravitational field equation (which Einstein developed in an intuitive
manner) must be exactly correct. The cosmologists are using Einsteins great prestige to prove
that physically impossible Big Bang and Black Hole singularities have indeed existed.

1,1,3 Yilmaz Theory

Derivation of the Yilmaz Metric Tensor
In the 1950s, as part of his PhD research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Huseyin
Yilmaz studied Einsteins General theory of Relativity. Yilmaz examined an approximate
calculation that Einstein had performed to determine the wavelength shift of light produced by a
gravitational field. Yilmaz discovered that he could solve this problem exactly. (This Yilmaz
analysis is presented in Story [2], Appendix E, and a simplified version is presented in the
website article 1,2 Simple Derivation of the Yilmaz Theory.)
Since wavelength shift is equivalent to a change in clock rate, Yilmaz was able to calculate from
wavelength shift the g00 component of the metric tensor, which is the component pertaining to
time. In this manner, Yilmaz derived the following exact formula for g00
g00 = e-2m/r

(33)
19

This applies to the gravitational field of any celestial body having spherical symmetry. The
parameter (m) is the normalized mass of the celestial body, and (r) is the radial distance from the
center of that body.
The expression (e-2m/r) is called the exponential function. A simple tutorial of exponential and
logarithm functions is presented in Appendix A of the website article (1,2). The parameter (e) is
a transcendental number (like ) and is approximately equal to 2.72. Hence g00 can be expressed
quite accurately as (2.72-2m/r). When 2(m/r) is much less than unity (as it is within our solar
system) the exponential function of Eq 33 is closely approximated by
g00 = e-2m/r 1 2(m/r)

[for 2(m/r) << 1 ]

(34)

where ( ) means approximately equal to and (<<) means much less than.
To obtain the rest of the metric tensor, Yilmaz made the following postulate: The speed of light,
measured locally in a gravitational field, is independent of direction. This postulate shows that
the three spatial components of the metric tensor must be equal:
g11 = g22 = g33

(35)

As shown in Appendix B of the website article 1,2 (Simple Derivation of the Yilmaz Theory),
Yilmaz also proved (with a complicated analysis) that the product (g00 g11) must equal (-1).
Hence g11 is equal to
g11 = - 1/g00

(36)

Apply to Eq 36 the expression for g00 in Eq 33. This gives

g11 = - 1/g00 = - 1/e-2m/r = - e2m/r

(37)

A negative exponent indicates the reciprocal: for example, (e-x) is equal to (1/ex). Using Eq 35
gives the complete metric tensor.
g00 = e-2m/r ;

g11 = g22 = g33 = - e2m/r

(38)

This applies to any spherically symmetric celestial body, and so it applies accurately to our sun,
despite its 160,000 to one variation of density.
When Yilmaz developed his metric tensor solution, he mailed it to Einstein. Unfortunately
Einstein was too sick to read it, and died soon thereafter.
Comparison with the Schwartzschild Solution
Let us compare this Yilmaz solution with the Schwartzschild solution. The metric tensor
components g00 and g11 for the Schwartzschild solution are
20

g00 = 1 2(m/r)

(Schwartzschild solution)

(39)

g11 = - 1/[1 2(m/r)] = - 1/g00

(Schwartzschild solution)

(40)

(The Schwartzschild solution is expressed in polar coordinates, and so its g22 and g33 components
cannot be directly compared with the Yilmaz solution.) Equation 39 for the Schwartzschild
solution is the same as the approximation for g00 of the Yilmaz theory given in Eq 34. The
relation (g11 = -1/g00) in Eq 40 is the same as relation for the Yilmaz theory in Eq 36.
The maximum value for 2(m/r) in our solar system occurs at the surface of the sun. The radius (r)
of the sun is approximately 700,000 km, and its normalized mass (m) is approximately 1.5 km.
Hence 2(m/r) at the surface of the sun is approximately (2x1.5/700,000), which is 4.3x10-6 or 4.3
parts per million. With this tiny value for the maximum value of 2(m/r), the values of g00 and g11
for the Yilmaz and Schwartzschild solutions are essentially identical. Consequently, one cannot
distinguish between the Yilmaz and Schwartzschild solutions from experimental tests performed
within our solar system (as far as the g00 and g11 terms are concerned).
The relative speed of light is equal to [-g00/g11], which becomes g00 when the (-g00 g11) product
is unity. By Eq 39, g00 is equal to [1 2(m/r)] for the Schwartzschild solution, and so the relative
speed of light in the radial direction is equal to [1 2(m/r)]. However, as explained in Eq 52 of
the website article 5,2 (Schwartzschild and Isotropic Solutions of the Einstein Theory), the
relative speed of light in the tangential direction (perpendicular to the radius) is radically
different, it is equal to [g00], which is approximately [1 (m/r)].

The fact that the speed of light varies strongly with direction is a severe theoretical weakness of
the Schwartzschild solution. To correct this problem, the Isotropic Solution was developed by
modifying the Schwartzschild solution. In the Isotropic solution, the speed of light is the same in
all directions. This issue is explained in the website article 5,2. The Isotropic solution is
generally used when General Relativity theory is applied for calculations within our solar
system. Within the weak gravitational fields of our solar system, the Yilmaz and Isotropic
solutions are quantitatively indistinguishable.
Remember that the Schwartzschild solution assumes that the sun is a perfect fluid, with
constant density, no shear stress, and no rotation, even though our sun has appreciable rotation,
and the density of the sun varies by more than a factor of 160,000. Since the Isotropic solution is
derived from the Schwartzschild solution, it must have the same theoretical restrictions. In
contrast, the Yilmaz solution merely assumes that our sun has spherical symmetry.
Yilmaz generalized his metric tensor solution by expressing it as follows in terms of the
gravitational potential ():
g00 = e-2

g11 = g22 = g33 = - e2

(41)

As shown in Eq 13, Yilmaz defined a gravitational potential variable () that is equal to (-/c2),
where () is the conventional definition for gravitational potential. The conventional definition
21

of gravitational potential () describes the potential energy of an object in a gravitational field.

The Yilmaz gravitational potential () is proportional to the negative of the conventional
gravitational potential (), and therefore describes the energy of the gravitational field itself.
For a single spherically-symmetric celestial body of normalized mass (m), the Yilmaz
gravitational potential () is equal to (m/r) at any point outside the body, where (r) is distance
from the center of the celestial body. Gravitational potential is a linear variable, and so the
Yilmaz gravitational potential for a number of spherically symmetric celestial bodies is simply
the sum of the (m/r) values of the individual bodies, provided that the gravitational potential is
computed at a point outside all of the celestial bodies.
Equation 41 describes the static solution of the Yilmaz theory, which holds when the
gravitational field does not vary with time. This static solution of the Yilmaz theory was
published by the prestigious Physical Review in 1958 [8]. In 1973, Yilmaz [9] published the
much more complicated time-varying solution of his theory. The time-varying solution has
proven that the simple static solution gives a very accurate approximation when the gravitational
field varies slowly relative to the speed of light, and so the static solution is adequate for nearly
all applications. The metric tensor for the static Yilmaz theory is always diagonal, whereas the
metric tensor for the Einstein theory is diagonal only for very simple physical models.
The Yilmaz Gravitational Field Equation
The Riemann-Ricci mathematical theory of curved space provides complicated equations for
calculating the components of the Ricci tensor from the components of the metric tensor. For a
general 16-component metric tensor, these equations can have millions of terms, and so can only
be solved on a computer. Professor Herbert Dingle solved these equations for the case of a
diagonal metric tensor, and expressed the results in terms of the 16 components of the Einstein
tensor Gab. These equations by Herbert Dingle were published by Tolman [5], and are repeated in
this website in the article 5,B (Einstein Tensor and Christoffel Symbols for a Diagonal Metric
Tensor) Section 5, Eqs 35 to 47.
The website article 5,3 (Aspects of Einstein and Yilmaz Gravitational Theories), Section 1
applies these formulas by Herbert Dingle to the Yilmaz metric tensor components of Eq 41, and
shows that they result in the following Yilmaz Gravitational Field Equation:
Gab = - 2(ab + tab)

(Yilmaz Gravitational Field Equation)

(42)

Yilmaz named (ab) the stress-energy tensor for matter, and (tab) the stress-energy tensor for the
gravitational field. The stress-energy tensor for matter (ab) reduces to the following single
component (00), all other components of (ab) being zero:
00 = - e2 2 = - g00 2

(43)

In accordance with Eq 42, we have replaced (e2) by (g00). The stress-energy tensor for the
gravitational field is as follows:
22

tab = e-2{(/xa)(/xb) - ab k(/xk)2}

for k = 1, 2, 3

(44)

As explained earlier, ( ab) is the Kronecker delta function, which is unity when the indices (a, b)
are equal, and is zero otherwise. Yilmaz uses a different formula for this tensor. Equation 44 is
calculated from the Yilmaz formula in Appendix F.
Variable (xa) represents (ct) when (a = 0), and x, y, or z when (a = 1, 2, or 3). The expression (ct)
is normalized time, where (t) is time and (c) is the speed of light. The normalized time coordinate
(ct) has units of distance, and so has the same units as the x, y, z distance measurements.
The expression (/xa) is called a partial derivative. A derivative means a slope. As explained
earlier, we can think of the gravitational potential () as a hill, and so the derivative of the
gravitational potential is the slope of the hill. We can specify this hill by a contour map, which
has map directions that we denote xa and xb (which could represent East and North). To specify
the slope of this hill, we must indicate the direction in which we are measuring the slope. If we
walk along a contour line, the ground is flat and there is no slope. If we walk perpendicularly to a
contour line, we go up-hill or down-hill and experience maximum slope. Hence to describe the
slope of a hill, we must specify the direction in which the slope is measured. The expression
(/xa) is the slope of the gravitational potential hill () measured in the xa-direction.
In the static Yilmaz theory, the gravitational potential () does not change with time (which is
the coordinate x0), and so we can set (/x0 = 0). From Eq 44, we can calculate the following
individual components of the Yilmaz stress-energy tensor (tab) for the gravitational field:
t00 = - e-2{(/x1)2 + (/x2)2 + (/x3)2}

1 component

tkk = e-2(/xk)2 + t00

for k = 1, 2, 3

3 components

tjk = e-2(/xj)(/xk)

for j, k = 1, 2, 3 ; j k

6 components

t0k = tk0 = 0

for k = 1, 2, 3

6 components

(45)

Equations 42 to 45 completely define the Yilmaz gravitational field equation (at least for the
static case). All of the tensors of the Yilmaz equation are true tensors, and therefore achieve
Covariance. This Yilmaz gravitational field equation was derived rigorously; whereas, Einstein
developed his gravitational field equation in an intuitive manner.
As explained earlier, Einstein tried to derive a true stress-energy tensor for the gravitational field
that is equivalent to the Yilmaz tensor (tab), but could only obtain a pseudo-tensor. As we will
see, the fact that the Einstein gravitational field equation lacks a stress-energy tensor for the
gravitational field is a severe limitation.
The stress-energy tensor for matter (ab) has a single component (00) given in Eq 43. This
equation can be modified as follows:
00 = - g002 = g00(1/c2)2 = g00 4(G/c2) = g00 4
23

(46)

According to Eq 13, () was replaced by (-/c2), where () is the Yilmaz gravitational potential
and () is the conventional gravitational potential. The Poisson equation (Eq 23) shows that
(2) is equal to (4G). Finally, (G/c2) was replaced by (), which is the mass density
expressed in normalized mass units.
Equation 29 showed that T00 in proper coordinates is equal to (). In Believe [1], Appendix A,
Eq. A-24 shows that (T00) is equal to (g00T00), when the metric tensor is diagonal. Hence the
expression for (00) in Eq 46 can be expressed as
00 = g00 4 = g00 4 T00 = 4 T00

(47)

The factor (4) is merely a scale difference in the definitions of the Einstein and Yilmaz
gravitational field equations.
Thus, the component (00) of the Yilmaz stress-energy tensor for matter (which represents the
complete Yilmaz stress-energy tensor for matter ab) is exactly equal to the component (T00) of
the Einstein energy-momentum tensor, except for the (4) scale factor due to the equation
definitions. On the other hand, the Yilmaz stress-energy tensor for matter (ab) is not the same
as the Einstein energy-momentum tensor (Tab), because the Einstein energy-momentum tensor
contains other components besides (T00).
The author derived the Yilmaz gravitational field equation by applying the equations by Herbert
Dingle, which are given in the website article 5,B (Einstein Tensor and Christoffel Symbols for a
Diagonal Metric Tensor). (This calculation was achieved without error by using a word
processor, which allows sections of equations to be repeated without error.) Yilmaz originally
derived his gravitational field equation in a different manner by using complicated Lagrangian
analysis. When Yilmaz submitted the original paper on his theory to the Physical Review, it was
rejected. Yilmaz claimed that his gravitational field equation (described by Eqs 42, 43, and Eq F1 of Appendix F) was the solution to his metric tensor in Eq 41.
In the rejection of the paper, the reviewer stated that the calculation for obtaining the Ricci tensor
from the metric tensor involves ten nonlinear coupled partial differential equations, with three
variables and numerous singularities. He asked, What is the chance that the predicted solution
will be achieved? The claim is absurd!
Yilmaz did not know what to do. He was unable to solve the complicated equations by Herbert
Dingle without making multiple errors. Yilmaz was working at the Sylvania Applied Research
Laboratory in Waltham, Massachusetts. The Director of the Laboratory, Dr. Leonard Sheingold,
had faith in Dr. Yilmaz. He assigned the problem to three mathematicians (all women) in
different locations in the company. They were given the equations for the components of the
Einstein tensor (derived by Prof. Dingle for a diagonal metric tensor), along with the Yilmaz
metric tensor components. They were told that () varies with the (x, y, z) position variables, but
not with time.

24

After a few weeks, all three mathematicians found the same answer, which agreed with the
prediction by Yilmaz. Armed with this evidence, a revised version of the manuscript was rapidly
accepted, and the original paper on the Yilmaz theory was published by the prestigious Physical
Review in 1958. [8]
The reader should look at the equations by Herbert Dingle given in the website article 5,3
(Addendum Chapter 3), Section 5, Eqs 35 to 47. These equations involve sums of 150 terms, and
144 of these terms are computed by multiplying together at least four variables. Do not worry
about the mathematical meaning of these equations. Look at them to achieve an appreciation of
their great complexity.
When these very complicated equations are applied to the components of the Yilmaz metric
tensor given in Eq 41, nearly all of the terms cancel themselves out, and the result that remains
reduces to the simple formulas given in Eqs 42 to 45, which specify the Yilmaz gravitational
field equation. This fact proves that the Yilmaz theory has profound mathematical integrity.
The Yilmaz theory has a general metric tensor solution (Eq 41) that accurately matches its
general gravitational field equation (Eqs 42 to 45). No other solution of the principles of
General Relativity can even begin to compare with this achievement.
When the Einstein General theory of Relativity is applied, the Einstein gravitational field
equation is calculated from the physical model by calculating the Einstein energy-momentum
tensor Tab. Then, the complicated equations of the Riemann-Ricci mathematical theory of curved
space must be solved backward. This extremely difficult backward calculation is used to find the
metric tensor components that correspond to those of the Einstein gravitational field equation.
In contrast, when the Yilmaz theory is applied, the metric tensor is computed directly from the
physical model, because the Yilmaz theory has general formulas for the metric tensor
components. The Yilmaz gravitational field equation is not needed when the Yilmaz theory is
applied to a physical problem. Nevertheless, the Yilmaz gravitational field equation is still very
important, because it establishes the theoretical validity of the Yilmaz theory
The General Time-Varying Yilmaz Theory
Yilmaz published the static version of his theory in 1958. In 1973 he developed the much more
complicated general time-varying solution to his theory. The derivation of the general timevarying Yilmaz theory is presented in the website articles 5,5 and 5,F (General Time-Varying
Yilmaz Theory, and Stress-Energy Tensors for General Yilmaz Theory). Appendix B of this
article presents a simplified form of the equations for applying the time-varying Yilmaz theory.
The static solution of the Yilmaz theory consists of the following matched set of equations: (1)
formulas for the metric tensor components, and (2) the Yilmaz gravitational field equation. The
time-varying solution consists of a similar matched set of equations. The analyses presented in
the website articles 5,5 and 5,F prove that the Yilmaz time-varying gravitational field equation is
an exact solution to the Yilmaz time-varying metric tensor. By time-varying we mean that the
gravitational field can vary with time. As with the static solution, the time-varying gravitational
field equation is generally not used when the time-varying theory is applied.
25

Section 5 of the website article 5,5 (General Time-Varying Yilmaz Theory) shows that the simple
static solution of the Yilmaz theory gives an accurate approximation of the time-varying solution
when the velocities of bodies are much less than the speed of light. Consequently the simple
static Yilmaz solution is nearly always more than adequate for practical applications.
As shown in Appendix B, the time-varying solution for the metric tensor is in differential form.
To apply this differential equation, one would first solve the static solution. The differential
equation would then be used by computer analysis to modify the static solution (in an iterative
manner) until an exact time-varying solution is achieved. The computation requirements for
achieving this solution are trivial in comparison to what is needed for a computer solution of the
Einstein gravitational field equation.
The Yilmaz theory is a refinement of the Einstein General theory of Relativity, which applies
all of the principles of General Relativity, except that it has a different gravitational field
equation. Einstein developed his gravitational field equation in an intuitive manner; whereas
Yilmaz derived his gravitational field equation rigorously.
John A. Peacock is a recognized modern authority on General Relativity and its relation to
cosmology. In his lengthy book, Cosmological Physics [9] (p. 19), Peacock stated: The Einstein
gravitational field equation cannot be derived in any rigorous sense; all that can be done is to
follow Einstein and start by thinking about the simplest form such an equation might take.
Einstein's Search for a Unified Field Theory
After developing his General theory of Relativity, Einstein devoted most of his efforts in a search
for a Unified Field Theory. This would have combined into a single integrated theory the effects
of gravitational fields, electromagnetic fields, and atomic nuclear fields. Einstein realized that if
he could solve this problem he would make a revolutionary advance in physics. He struggled
with this task to his last days but never succeeded. A fundamental problem that Einstein faced is
that his gravitational field equation is inconsistent with quantum mechanics.
String Theory is a complicated mathematical theory that tries to make the Einstein gravitational
field equation consistent with quantum mechanics. This highly publicized theory postulates that
physical reality is made up of infinitesimal and unobservable vibrating strings, which vibrate in
eleven independent dimensions (seven of which are unobservable).
Analyses by Yilmaz [13] and by Alley [12] have proven that the Yilmaz gravitational field
equation is consistent with quantum mechanics. This finding makes research on String Theory
irrelevant. Einstein had the wisdom to realize that a Unified Field Theory may be achievable,
and should lead to great advances in physics. Since the Yilmaz theory is consistent with quantum
mechanics, it should provide the key for achieving Einstein's elusive Unified Field Theory.

26

1,1,4 Deficiency of Einstein Equation

The Yilmaz theory is a refinement of the Einstein General theory of Relativity, which applies all
of the principles of the Einstein theory, except that it has a different gravitational field equation.
The Yilmaz gravitational field equation does not allow a singularity, nor does it have the other
deficiencies of the Einstein gravitational field equation, which will now be discussed.
Professor Carroll O. Alley of the University of Maryland is one of the few experts on General
Relativity who has applied the theory to practical problems. He supervised laser measurements
with retro-reflectors on the moon, which included relativistic corrections to measure distances to
the moon to an accuracy of 3 centimeters. Alley measured the relativistic time delay of an atomic
clock carried in an aircraft, and he was intimately involved in applying General Relativity
corrections to the Geophysical Positioning System (GPS). [11]
Alley became impressed by the Yilmaz theory and has worked closely with Yilmaz. Alley
proved that the Einstein theory is incapable of achieving a two-body solution having interacting
gravitational fields. Alley devised a model consisting of two infinite slabs of matter separated by
a fixed distance, a model that is sufficiently simple for General Relativity to be applied
analytically. The General Relativity analysis of this Alley model predicts that there is absolutely
no gravitational attraction between the two slabs, a result that severely conflicts with
experimental evidence. No one has ever been able to refute this analysis. [12]
To understand this result, consider the Schwartzschild analysis, which has two solutions: (1) the
interior solution that applies inside the sun, and (2) the exterior solution that applies in the
vacuum of space outside the sun. Since there is no matter in the vacuum of space, the energymomentum tensor (Tab) is identically zero for the exterior solution. The Einstein gravitational
field equation shows that (Gab) is proportional to (Tab), and so all elements of the Einstein tensor
(Gab) must be zero for the exterior solution. This in turn requires that all elements of the Ricci
tensor (Rab) must be zero in the vacuum of space outside the sun.
Since the Ricci tensor characterizes the curvature of space, this seems to show that there is no
space curvature, and hence no gravitational field, in the vacuum of space outside the sun. How
then can the Schwartzschild solution describe the orbit of the planet Mercury around the sun?
To explain this, we must consider the Riemann tensor, which is denoted (Rabcd). Since this tensor
has four indices, it has 4x4x4x4 or 256 components. The Riemann tensor (which is not directly
used in General Relativity analysis) rigorously specifies the curvature of space. The Ricci
tensor (Rab) is a contraction of the Riemann tensor (Rabcd). This contraction is formed by (1)
setting index (d) equal to index (c) in the equation for the Riemann tensor, (2) setting (c) equal in
sequence to the indices (0, 1, 2, 3), and (3) summing the terms for these four values of index (c).
If all components of the Riemann tensor are zero in a region of space, the Ricci tensor is
identically zero, and that region of space can have no curvature and no gravitational field.
However, even if all components of the Ricci tensor are zero in a region of space, it is possible
for the Riemann tensor to have non-zero components, and so that region of space can still have
curvature and a gravitational field. This apparently occurs with the Schwartzschild solution. But
27

the Schwartzschild solution is a very special case. It is a single-body solution with a highly
symmetric gravitational field.
The Ricci tensor is formed by summing the components of the Riemann tensor. If all of the Ricci
tensor components are zero over a region of space, yet the Riemann tensor components are not
zero, the Riemann tensor components must be accurately matched, so that they cancel
themselves out when they are summed. This accurate cancellation can only occur in a highly
symmetric physical model like the Schwartzschild solution; it cannot occur in a complex multibody model. This shows that a multi-body model with interacting gravitational fields cannot
predict a gravitational field in the vacuum of space using the Einstein gravitational field
equation. Hence, the Einstein gravitational field equation cannot yield meaningful results
when applied to a general multi-body model.
The Yilmaz Gravitational Field Equation can easily handle a multi-body model, because it has a
tensor that characterizes the stress and energy of the gravitational field. The Yilmaz stress-energy
tensor for the gravitational field is generally not zero in the vacuum of space, and so the Einstein
and Ricci curvature tensors are generally not zero in the vacuum of space.
In addition to the failure of the Einstein gravitational field equation to achieve an interacting
multi-body solution, that equation has other serious weaknesses. As shown in Story [2], Chapter
13, these include:
(1) The Einstein equation does not achieve conservation of matter-plus-energy;
(2) The Einstein equation is over-constrained, and so can allow multiple, conflicting solutions;
(3) The Einstein equation is not rigorous.
If the Einstein gravitational field equation cannot handle a multi-body model with interacting
gravitational fields, how can the elaborate computer solutions of the Einstein General Relativity
theory solve realistic problems? In order for an iterative computer program to solve the Einstein
gravitational field equation, it requires a control program that forces the iterative analysis to
converge to a solution. This control program is often a simplified version of the physical model
being studied. The control program is apparently putting answers into the solution that are not
coming from the Einstein gravitational field equation.
In short, the elaborate computer solutions of General Relativity are not actually applying the
Einstein theory. They are performing artificial mathematical exercises.

1,1,5 What is General Relativity?

To apply the Einstein General Theory of Relativity, one needs only two tools: (1) the RiemannRicci mathematical theory of curved space; and (2) the Einstein gravitational field equation,
including the definition of the energy-momentum tensor. The Riemann-Ricci mathematical
theory of curved space was borrowed by Einstein and incorporated into General Relativity.
This article has stated that the Yilmaz theory applies all of the principles of General Relativity,
except that it has a different gravitational field equation. One may ask: If we remove the Einstein
28

gravitational field equation, what is left of the Einstein theory? Is not the Einstein gravitational
field equation essentially the whole Einstein General theory of Relativity, except for the portion
that Einstein borrowed from Riemann and Ricci?
Our answer is that it is not the mathematical computations of General Relativity that are
important; it is the physical principles behind those computations. Einsteins Special theory of
Relativity used the same Lorentz transformation equations presented a year earlier by Lorentz.
However, Lorentz interpreted his equations to explain motion relative to the hypothetical aether;
whereas, Einstein used his equations to describe the principle that Reality is Relative. As
explained earlier, this Einstein interpretation has had enormous physical implications, including
the awesome power of the atomic nuclear bomb.
Most people believe that Einstein must have been a great genius, because his theory is so
complicated that practically no one can understand it. However the mathematical complexity of
General Relativity came from the Riemann-Ricci mathematical theory of curved space, which
was not developed by Einstein. This general attitude concerning Einsteins genius is nonsense!
The genius of Einstein is displayed in the profound nature of the physical principles behind his
mathematics, not in the mathematical details themselves.
The Riemann-Ricci theory is an abstract mathematical theory of curved space, with no particular
relationship to physical reality. Einstein took the Ricci tensor from that abstract theory to
describe the curvature of space, and he equated a modification of that tensor to the gravitational
effects of matter. Why should this mathematical combination unlock the mysteries of the
universe? What really matters are the physical principles underlying that mathematical solution.
Let us examine those principles.
The Covariance Principle
Einstein considered his Special theory of Relativity to be a special case of General Relativity,
which is incorporated into his General theory of Relativity. But how is this achieved? There is no
Lorentz transformation in the equations of General Relativity.
Einstein recognized that the paradox concerning the speed-of-light measurement (which led to
his Special Relativity theory) was due to error in translating measurement data between two
coordinate systems moving at different velocities. The general answer to this problem, and to all
relativity problems, is to have a mathematical system that maintains Covariance when
measurement data are transferred from one coordinate system to another. Einsteins primary goal
was to satisfy the Principle of Covariance, which can be stated simply as: The general laws of
nature are to be expressed by equations that hold in all coordinate systems.
John D. Norton [14] has presented a lengthy article, which has reviewed the extensive debate
over the meaning of the Principle of Covariance that has occurred since Einstein first presented
this concept in 1907. Nortons historical review is particularly helpful in describing Einsteins
efforts to develop General Relativity.

29

In August 1912, Einstein moved to Zurich, where he met his old college friend, Marcel
Grossmann, who was a mathematician. Grossmann was intimately familiar with the 1901 paper
by Ricci and Levi-Civita, entitled The Absolute Differential Calculus. We have called this
paper, the mathematical theory of curved space, but the paper itself is so abstract it does not
even refer to geometry. Nevertheless, Grossmann quickly recognized that the Ricci-Levi paper
had the answer to Einsteins search for the Principle of Covariance.
The 1901 Ricci-Levi paper was expressed in terms of covariant and contravariant systems.
Einstein and Grossmann recognized that these systems have the mathematical form of the
tensors used in mechanics to specify the internal stresses within a physical medium, and so they
named these systems as tensors. As a result, the mathematical theory of Ricci and LeviCivita was soon called Tensor Analysis.
The paper by Norton [14] has shown that scientists have argued for at least 80 years over the
precise meaning of Einsteins Principle of Covariance. However, to Einstein this issue was
irrelevant after 1912. The Ricci-Levi paper provided the Covariance that Einstein needed. These
limitless arguments over the meaning of the Principle of Covariance are probably symptoms of
problems with the Einstein theory itself or, more precisely, problems with the Einstein
gravitational field equation.
Before we proceed further with the application of the abstract mathematical theory presented in
the Ricci-Levi paper, let us examine another basic principle of Einsteins theory, the Principle of
Equivalence, which relates the effects of acceleration and gravity.
The Equivalence Principle
Soon after Einstein presented his basic theory of Relativity in 1905, which deals with coordinate
systems moving at different velocities, he began to ask, What happens when the coordinates are
accelerating?. He soon realized that one cannot distinguish between the effects of acceleration
and gravity. This led Einstein to postulate his Principle of Equivalence, which states that, The
effects of gravity and acceleration are equivalent. With respect to this principle, Einstein stated
in 1911 (see Norton [14], p. 798):
The assumption of exact physical equivalence makes it impossible for us to speak of the
absolute acceleration of the system of reference, just as the usual theory of Relativity
forbids us to talk of the absolute velocity of a system.
We can observe this concept in the International Space Station, which is orbiting the earth about
200 miles above the ground. In this low orbit, the gravitational field from the earth is not much
less than it is at the earths surface. Nevertheless, the astronauts are weightless in the space
station, because the astronauts, along with the space station, are in a free-fall state. They are
continually accelerating toward the center of the earth, yet they stay at a constant altitude
because they are travelling so fast. This illustrates the point that the effects of gravity and
acceleration are indistinguishable, and cannot be separated in an absolute manner.

30

By applying his Principle of Equivalence, Einstein developed his famous theoretical model for
calculating the approximate effects of gravity on measurements of time, distance, and the speed
of light. Einstein considered two elevators: elevator A is fixed on earth in the gravitational field
of the earth; while elevator B is located in space (where there is no gravitational field) and is
being pulled upward with an acceleration equal to the acceleration (g) of the earths gravitational
field.
Einstein considered a light wave propagating from floor to ceiling in elevator B, and from this he
calculated the approximate effect of acceleration on wavelength and on a time measurement. He
considered the path of a horizontal light beam entering from the side of the elevator, and from
this he calculated the approximate effect of acceleration on a distance measurement. From the
distance and time measurements, Einstein calculated the approximate effect of acceleration on
the speed of light.
Einstein then applied his Principle of Equivalence, and showed that the effects occurring in the
accelerating elevator B must also occur in the fixed elevator A located in the earths gravitational
field. From this, Einstein obtained approximations for the effects of gravity on time and distance
measurements, and on the speed of light. Because the relativistic effects of the suns gravitational
field are tiny, these calculations gave accurate approximations of the actual relativistic effects of
gravity that were later measured within our solar system.
Application of Ricci-Levi Mathematical Theory to General Relativity
Einstein and Grossmann struggled with the application of the Ricci-Levi mathematical theory to
the problem of relativity, and wrote a combined paper in 1913 (in German) with the following
English title: Outline of a Generalized Theory of Relativity and a Theory of Gravitation.
The Ricci-Levi paper was formulated in terms of multi-dimensional space. Since Relativity
operates in four-dimensional space-time coordinates, Einstein converted the Ricci-Levi
mathematical theory to a four-dimensional form. The Ricci-Levi theory was expressed in
abstract mathematics. Since this theory was an extension of a geometric concept by Riemann, it
was apparently obvious to Einstein and Grossmann that the Ricci-Levi theory should be treated
as a geometric theory of curved space.
Einsteins goal was to achieve a theory that satisfied his Principle of Covariance and included
the effects of gravity and acceleration. A fundamental question was: How can the effects of
gravity and acceleration be applied to the Ricci-Levi theory? Einstein concluded that gravity and
acceleration should be treated as the curvature in the Ricci-Levi theory of curved space.
The concept that gravity and acceleration produce a curvature of space is a radical departure
from the traditional Newtonian theory. Newtons gravitational theory contends that the sun
exerts an attractive gravitational force on the earth, which forces the earth to follow a curved
orbit around the sun. The new Einstein concept is that the gravitational field of the sun curves the
space around it, and the earth follows a curved geodesic path around the sun that follows this
curvature of space. Einstein concluded that there is no attractive gravitational force acting
between the sun and the earth, as Newton contended.
31

The Ricci-Levi mathematical theory includes the Geodesic Equation, a tensor formula that
specifies the geodesic path, which represents the shortest distance between two points in curved
Ricci-Levi space. A celestial body follows a geodesic path in this curved space. Newtons theory
states that a body follows a straight line at constant velocity unless a force is applied to it. When
this Newtonian law is generalized so that it applies to curved space, it becomes: Since no
gravitational force is exerted on a celestial body, a celestial body follows a curved geodesic
path, which is the shortest distance between any two points along the path, and is equivalent to
a straight line in flat Newtonian space.
Since the Ricci-Levi mathematical theory was specified by Einstein to operate in fourdimensional space-time coordinates, a geodesic path that is calculated from the Geodesic
Equation is a four-dimensional curve, which depends on time (the fourth dimension) as well as
on location in three-dimensional space. This means that the geodesic path that is followed by a
celestial body depends on the velocity of the celestial body as well as on its location. Velocity is
the rate of change of position relative to time (the fourth dimension).
Next, Einstein was led to the question: How can the curved-space effects of gravity and
acceleration be incorporated into the mathematics of the Ricci-Levi theory? The curvature of
space of the Ricci-Levi theory is specified by the Riemann tensor. However, the Riemann tensor
is a high-order tensor, with 256 components, and so is far too complicated to be used in a
manageable equation for General Relativity calculations. Consequently, to specify the curvature
of space, Einstein chose the Ricci tensor, which is a contraction of the Riemann tensor.
The Riemann tensor has four indices, and is denoted (Rabcd). With four indices, the Riemann
tensor has 4x4x4x4 or 256 components. The Ricci tensor (Rab) is formed by contracting the
Riemann tensor. In this contraction process, index (d) of the Riemann tensor is set equal to index
(c), and index (c) is set equal in sequence to the values (0, 1, 2, 3). The components for these
four indices are added together to form the (Rab) Ricci tensor, which has 4x4 or 16 components.
Norton [14] (p. 801) reports that, Einstein and Grossmann [in their 1913 paper] considered the
Ricci tensor as their gravitational tensor. Norton goes on to state, However [Einstein and
Grossmann] reported that the resultant field equation failed to give the Newtonian limit in the
case of weak static gravitational fields. In their place, . . . they offered a set of gravitational field
equations that was not generally covariant. Einstein then descended into a long struggle with his
imperfect theory that lasted almost three intense years, before he emerged victoriously [in 1916]
with the final generally covariant theory in hand.
An important change that Einstein made after the 1913 Einstein-Grossmann paper was to modify
the original gravitational tensor (the Ricci tensor Rab) to form what was later called the Einstein
tensor Gab to specify the curvature of space. Appendix E explains the reason for this change.
The Yilmaz Refinement of Einsteins General Theory of Relativity
Yilmaz studied Einsteins approximate calculation of the effect of acceleration and gravity on the
wavelength of light, and realized that he could solve the problem exactly. This gave Yilmaz an
32

exact formula for the metric tensor component (g00), which describes the effect of acceleration
and gravity on a time measurement. By postulating that the speed of light is independent of
direction, Yilmaz calculated from (g00) the complete metric tensor. Yilmaz applied the equations
of the Ricci-Levi theory to this metric tensor, and (following Einsteins theory) calculated the
Einstein tensor (Gab). This yielded the Yilmaz gravitational field equation.
With this simple approach, Yilmaz discovered a way of achieving a generally covariant
gravitational field equation, with all of the properties that Einstein sought. This Yilmaz
gravitational field equation includes a generally covariant tensor to specify the stress and energy
of the gravitational field, something that Einstein searched for, but could not find. (In the
following discussion, we will call the Ricci-Levi theory by its more general name, the RiemannRicci mathematical theory of curved space.)
Einsteins Struggle with the Hole Argument
As explained by Norton [14] (Section 3.3, pps 801-802), in the three years after the completion
of the Einstein-Grossmann paper, Einstein struggled with a serious problem called the hole
argument, which can be stated simply as follows. In a model of the gravitational effects of our
sun, the analysis has two parts: one part consists of the sun itself (which contains the matter that
produces the gravitational field), and the second part is the space surrounding the sun, which is a
vacuum (or a hole), where the energy-momentum tensor is zero. Einstein found that his
equations can allow solutions that are identical inside the sun, but are different in the vacuum (or
hole) outside the sun. How then can the matter within the sun rigorously determine the
gravitational field outside the sun? Einstein struggled with this hole argument for three years,
and then apparently chose to ignore this problem that he could not solve.
The real answer to the hole argument is that the gravitational field equation must have a tensor
that specifies the stress and energy of the gravitational field if it is to achieve general
covariance. A tensor for the gravitational field eliminates the ambiguity associated with the
hole. Since Einstein could not derive a covariant stress-energy tensor for the gravitational
field, he did not have a solution to his hole problem, and so could not achieve the general
covariance that he sought. The Yilmaz theory achieves that covariance, because its gravitational
field equation includes a stress-energy tensor for the gravitational field.

1,1,6 Cosmology and Relativity

Computer Simulations of the Big Bang
Scientists have used the Einstein gravitational field equation as the foundation for elaborate
computer models of the universe based on the Big Bang concept. In order for these models to be
consistent with experimental evidence, two physical concepts have been invented: dark energy
and dark matter. Dark energy is completely fictitious. Dark matter has two components:
baryonic dark matter, which is normal matter, and non-baryonic dark matter, which is
fictitious.

33

Baryon is a generic term meaning proton or neutron, and so baryonic matter means normal
matter, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons. An electron is technically not a baryon,
but the mass associated with electrons is negligible in comparison to the proton mass, and so the
electron mass can be included within the mass of baryonic matter.
In a typical galaxy, there is evidence that there must be about ten times as much dark matter
(which we cannot see) as there is luminous matter, like stars and gaseous nebulae (which we can
see). This conclusion is deduced by measuring the velocities of different stars in the galaxy.
There is abundant evidence that this dark matter is baryonic dark matter, and the obvious
assumption is that this baryonic dark matter is mainly hydrogen gas. Most of the hydrogen gas is
probably in the molecular (H2) form: a chemically-bound pair of hydrogen atoms that is very
stable and very difficult to detect. The atomic (H) form of hydrogen, which consists of single
hydrogen atoms, is much less stable and much easier to detect. Cosmologists reject the concept
that dark matter can be hydrogen because they are assuming atomic (H) hydrogen.
Cosmologists generally lump baryonic dark matter and non-baryonic dark matter together into
the common name dark matter. This confuses the physically real baryonic dark matter with the
fictitious non-baryonic dark matter, and suggests (incorrectly) that there is real physical
evidence to support fictitious non-baryonic dark matter.
The July, 2012 Sky and Telescope magazine (pps. 28-35) described the extremely elaborate
Bolshoi program implemented on a supercomputer to simulate the evolution of our universe from
24 million years after the Big Bang to the present. This used the equivalent of 14,000 processors
operating for 18 days. The authors (who led this program) claim that, Supercomputer modeling
is transforming cosmology from an observational science into an experimental science. The
article shows that the computer-simulation results closely match the general structure of the
observed universe. The simulation starts from initial conditions specified by the map of cosmic
microwave background radiation, obtained from the WMAP satellite.
This sounds like convincing evidence that the Big Bang theory must be correct. However, the
model assumes (on p. 31) that 73% of the cosmic density is dark energy, 22% is non-baryonic
dark matter, and only 5% is physically real baryonic matter. Of this baryonic matter, 0.5% is
luminous matter observable as stars and gaseous nebulae; 4.5% is dark.
Thus, 95% of this simulation consists of fictitious dark energy and fictitious non-baryonic dark
matter, which have no relationship to any energy or matter that we can observe on earth. Yet this
simulation is depicted as experimental science.
Big Bang theorists claim that cosmic microwave background radiation is the cooled relic of
optical radiation generated in the universe shortly after the Big Bang. A map of this radiation
was measured by the COBE satellite, and later with more precision by the WMAP satellite. The
cosmic background radiation is extremely uniform, and varies with direction by only a few parts
in 100,000 (a variation appreciably less than 0.01%). An amplified picture of this tiny, tiny
variation is displayed on page 29 of this Sky and Telescope article, and is assumed to be a picture
of the early universe. On page 31, this article states, WMAP and other observations definitely
determine the age of the universe (to within 1% accuracy) as 13.7 billion years.
34

On the other hand, Science News (Sept 18, 2004, p. 189) reported in the article, Beryllium Data
Confirms Stars Age that two of the oldest stars of our Milky Way galaxy (within the globular
cluster NGC6397) are at least 13.4 billion years old. If the Big Bang occurred 13.7 billion years
ago, these two stars inside our own galaxy must have been formed within 300 million years after
the Big Bang, or 276 million years after the start of this Bolshoi simulation, when the universe
was extremely uniform, varying by less than 0.01%. Was the basic structure of our Milky Way
galaxy formed before that, or were these stars created before our galaxy?
Big Bang scientists use the Einstein General theory of Relativity to prove that our universe began
as a singularity at the instant of the Big Bang. Our present universe has many tens of billions of
galaxies (maybe 100 billion), each containing up to 100 billion stars. At the instant of the Big
Bang, these cosmologists claim that our enormous universe was squeezed into a singularity that
was microscopic in size.
Cosmologists claim that after the Big Bang the universe expanded according to mathematical
rules unrelated to known physical laws. This expansion started with the mysterious mathematical
concept of inflation, which expanded much faster than the speed of light. The inflation magically
disappeared to give way to a more regular expansion process, dominated by fictitious dark
energy and fictitious non-baryonic dark matter. Nevertheless, the theoreticians assure us that they
are dealing with experimental science.
Neutron Star versus Black Hole
Astronomers are finding abundant evidence for Black Holes, and have discovered that the
centers of most galaxies appear to contain super-massive Black Holes. They claim to have proof
that a super-massive Black Hole of 4.1 million solar masses exists at the center of our own Milky
Way galaxy.
What astronomers are finding are extremely massive and highly compact non-radiating celestial
bodies. The obvious explanation is a neutron star. However, the neutron star possibility is
rejected, because the Einstein gravitational field equation predicts that a neutron star with more
than 10 solar masses must collapse to form a Black Hole. On the other hand, a Black Hole is not
an acceptable answer, because it contains a physically impossible singularity at its center.
The answer to this paradox is that the Einstein gravitational field equation is incomplete. When
we apply the rigorous and complete Yilmaz gravitational field equation, we find that there is no
upper limit to the mass of a neutron star. A neutron star is a very strange body, which has a
density of about one billion tons per teaspoon. This density may seem unbelievably high, but this
same density exists here on earth within the nucleus of every atom.
The website article 1,5 (Super-Massive Neutron Star) examines the neutron star explanation for a
super-massive Black Hole. To analyze the orbits of bodies around a neutron star, we apply the
Einstein General theory of Relativity, rather than Newtons theory of gravity. General Relativity
rejects the Newtonian concept that attractive gravitational forces act between celestial bodies.
Instead, a gravitational field produces curvature of space, which forces a celestial body to travel
35

along a curved geodesic path. We determine the geodesic path by solving the Geodesic
Equation, which is a tensor formula of the Riemann-Ricci mathematical theory of curved space
that is incorporated into General Relativity.
The Geodesic Equation is analyzed in the website article 5,D (Analysis of Geodesic Equations).
This material shows how the Geodesic Equation can be used to calculate accurately the paths of
planets as they orbit around the sun.
The website article 1,5 (Super-Massive Neutron Star) applies the Geodesic Equation to calculate
the paths of celestial bodies orbiting or falling into a neutron star. The center of our Milky Way
galaxy apparently has a neutron star (or a Black Hole) with 4.1 million solar masses. This
article shows that a neutron star with 4 million solar masses would have a theoretical diameter of
4200 km. A body falling into this super-massive neutron star would accelerate rapidly to 58% of
the speed of light. However, as the body gets close to the neutron star, the enormous
gravitational field causes the speed of light to decrease drastically, and so the absolute velocity of
the body gets smaller and smaller. Eventually the body falls so slowly that it never reaches the
theoretical surface of the neutron star; the body falls forever toward the neutron-star center.
Therefore, this super-massive neutron star is actually a cloud of falling bodies that is much larger
than the theoretical diameter of the neutron star (about 4 thousand km), yet is much smaller than
the theoretical event-horizon for a Black Hole of the same mass (about 6 million km).
Cosmology Predictions of the Yilmaz Gravitational Field Equation
As was shown in Eq 41, the Yilmaz metric tensor is expressed in terms of the Yilmaz
gravitational potential (). For a spherically-symmetric celestial body, () is equal to (m/r) at any
point outside the body. To calculate planetary orbits accurately in our solar system, we must
include the gravitational fields of the planets as well as our sun. In this case, the Yilmaz
gravitational potential () is the sum of the (m/r) values for the sun and planets. The website
article 5,D (Analysis of Geodesic Equations), shows in Eqs 150 to 154 how the resultant ()
function can be applied to the Geodesic Equation, to obtain an accurate multi-body solution of
the planetary orbits. This solution would include the relativistic effects of the planetary
gravitational fields.
We have also discussed the application of the Geodesic Equation to calculate the accurate paths
for bodies orbiting, or falling into, a massive neutron star, an application where the Newtonian
theory is grossly inadequate.
Now let us apply the Yilmaz metric tensor equation to cosmology. We assume the following
simple cosmology model: The universe has a constant average density of matter that extends to
infinity and does not change with time. This model, called the Yilmaz Cosmology Model, is
analyzed in Appendix C, which gives (in Eq C-3) a gravitational potential (2) of
2 = (4G/3c2) r2 = (r/r0)2

(48)

36

The parameter (G) is the gravitational constant in Newtons theory, () is the average mass
density of the universe, and (r) is radial distance from an observer on earth. This expression is
simplified by defining the constant (r0), which Eq 48 shows is equal to [3c2/4G]. Equation
48 is substituted into the metric tensor formulas of Eq 41. The result is applied to the Geodesic
Equation, which is solved in Appendix C. To simplify the result, velocities tangential to the
radius are set to zero. The final result (in Eq C-21) is
(Vap/cap)2 = 1 - exp[-(r/r0)2]

(49)

This gives the apparent radial velocity (Vap) of a galaxy, divided by the apparent speed of light
(cap), expressed in terms of the true distance (r) to the galaxy. The apparent speed of light is the
speed of light observed on earth, and the apparent radial velocity is the radial velocity of a galaxy
observed on earth. When radial distance (r) is much less than (r0), exp[-(r/r0)2] can be
approximated by [1 - (r/r0)2], and Eq 49 becomes
(Vap/cap)2 (r/r0)2

(for r << r0)

Vap/c r/r0

(for r << r0)

(50)

le l
aw

0.8

V( R )
H( R )

(51)

speed of light

apparent relative
galaxy velocity
Vap/cap

Hu
bb

galaxy velocity relative to the speed of light

where () means approximately equal to, and (<<) means much less than. For small values
of (r), the apparent speed of light (cap) can be approximated by (c). The square root of Eq 50 is

0.6

0.4

0.2

10

15
12

20

18

30
24

25

35

30

true distance to galaxy Rin billions of light years

Figure 2: Apparent galaxy velocity relative to apparent speed
of light, compared with Hubble law.

Equation 51 shows that the radial velocity of a galaxy is approximately proportional to distance,
which indicates that the universe must expand. This indicates that the Hubble expansion of the
37

universe is a natural relativistic effect directly caused by gravity. As explained elsewhere in this
website, the Yilmaz cosmology model predicts a Steady-State universe that is infinitely old.
Recent studies give a Hubble expansion rate of about 20 km/sec per million light years of galaxy
distance. This corresponds to 300,000 km/sec (the speed of light c) for a radial distance (r) of 15
billion light-years, and so (r0) is 15 billion light-years. With this value of (r0), Eq 49 can be
plotted as shown in Fig 2.
The dashed line in Fig 2 is a plot of (r/r0), which describes the Hubble Law, for which galaxy
velocity is exactly proportional to distance. The solid curve shows the square root of Eq 49,
which is a plot of (Vap/cap). The figure shows that at distances less than 5 billion light years, the
galaxy velocity closely follows the Hubble Law. At 15 billion light years, the Hubble Law
reaches the apparent speed of light, but the galaxy velocity is about 80% of this value. At very
large distances, the galaxy velocity gradually approaches the apparent speed of light, but never
quite reaches it. The ratio (Vap/cap) is the V/c value that astronomers measure from Doppler shift.
By Eq C-24 of Appendix C, the average mass density () of the universe is given by
= 3c2/4G r02 = 3/4GT02

(52)

Parameter (T0) represents (r0/c). Since (r0) is 15 billion light-years, (T0) is 15 billion years. This
gives the following for the average mass density of the universe:
= 16.0x10-30 gm/cm3 = 16.0x10-24 gm/m3

(53)

The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.67x10-24 gm, and so this density is equivalent to 9.6 hydrogen
atoms per cubic meter.
A recent (2008) study [15], which was derived from astronomical observations, gives (in its
Table) a measured average mass density of the universe of (5 to 12)x10-30 gram/cm3, which is
equivalent to (3.0 to 7.2) hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. This mass density is highly consistent
with the Yilmaz cosmology model prediction of 9.6 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter.
Thus, when the Yilmaz metric tensor is applied to a simple model of cosmology, it predicts that
the universe must expand, just as Hubble observed. This shows that the Einstein General theory
of Relativity had the potential of predicting the Hubble expansion. However, Einstein could not
achieve this result, because he was unable to develop a covariant gravitational field equation.
Yilmaz discovered a general formula for the metric tensor, and thereby derived a rigorous and
covariant gravitational field equation that satisfies the principles of General Relativity.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation. Big Bang cosmologists have claimed since the
1960s that cosmic microwave background radiation (which was accurately measured by the
COBE and WMAP satellites) is the cooled relic of optical radiation from the early universe, and
is proof that the Big Bang theory is correct. However, the website article 5,1 (Calculation of
Cosmic Background Radiation) proves that the Yilmaz cosmology model also predicts this same
radiation. This article gives a detailed analysis that calculates an equivalent blackbody
38

temperature for this radiation of 4.0 degrees Kelvin, which is highly consistent with the 2.73
Kelvin blackbody temperature measured by the COBE and WMAP satellites. This radiation is
predicted to come from stars at a distance of 56 billion light years. The predicted microwave
radiation should be extremely uniform with direction, which agrees with the satellite data.
Supernova Data. The website article 1,3 (Analysis of Supernova Data Applied to Yilmaz
Cosmology Model) examines the data from Type 1a supernovae. Type 1a supernovae (which can
be identified by their spectra) radiate a nearly constant amount of peak power, and so can be used
to measure astronomical distances. Since these supernovae emit a peak power equivalent to five
billion suns, they have been observed in very distant galaxies, out to distances exceeding eight
billion light years. From these measurements, astronomers have concluded that the expansion of
the universe is accelerating. To explain this they postulate that our universe contains a vast
amount of mysterious dark energy, which is unrelated to anything observable on earth.
The analysis in the website article 1,3 demonstrates that these supernova data are highly
consistent with predictions from the Yilmaz cosmology model. Yet this model predicts an
infinitely old Steady-State universe that contains only normal (baryonic) matter (with no dark
energy and no non-baryonic dark matter).
The Steady-State Universe
In 1949, the famous astrophysicist Fred Hoyle proposed his Steady State universe theory,
which postulated that the universe is infinitely old, and that matter is continuously created to
compensate for the universe expansion, so that the average density of matter stays constant.
During the 1950s, scientific thinking about the universe was about equally divided between the
Hoyle Steady-State theory and the Big Bang theory of George Gamow, which postulated
that the universe was born as a giant neutron star, which exploded in a Big Bang. Applying
modern astronomical data shows that this giant neutron star would have been about the size of
the orbit of the planet Mars.
In the 1960s, the Hoyle Steady-State theory fell into disfavor, and the Gamow Big Bang theory
was transformed into the Modern Big Bang theory, which postulates that the universe was born
as a microscopic Singularity. The primary force behind these changes was the enormous
computer research effort to simulate Einsteins General Relativity theory, which began in the
mid 1960s when computers became available for scientific research. In time, even Hoyle
abandoned his Steady State theory. Gamow died in 1966.
This website shows that the Einstein General Relativity theory, refined by the Yilmaz
gravitational field equation, predicts that the Hubble expansion of the universe is a natural
relativistic effect caused by gravity. But the Yilmaz cosmology model, which predicts this result,
assumes that the average mass density of the universe does not change with time. For the
average density of matter to remain constant, as the universe expands, there must be a process
that creates matter to compensate for the universe expansion, just as Hoyle postulated in his
Steady-State theory.

39

We conclude that the universe is infinitely old. But how can the universe be infinitely old if it is
continually expanding? What is the source of this continual creation of matter? Does this require
an infinite external source of matter to compensate for the infinitely expanding universe?
These issues are addressed in the books written by the author. Analysis shows that the relativistic
effect of gravity causes the speed of light to decrease to zero over great cosmological distances.
Consequently, the actual speed of a galaxy approaches zero at great distances, even though the
galaxy speed is close to the speed of light. This indicates that at great cosmological distances
the universe does not expand, and so the over-all size of the universe remains constant.
Since the over-all size of the universe is constant, there is no need for an external source of
matter to compensate for the universe expansion. We postulate that energy radiated across the
universe is converted into matter that compensates for the universe expansion, and this matter is
created in the form of diffuse hydrogen atoms.
These concepts are direct consequences of Einsteins General theory of Relativity. They may
seem unbelievable, but all predictions of Relativity are unbelievable when one first hears them.

Conclusions
Ever since Hubble discovered the expansion of the universe, by far the greatest mystery of
astronomy has been: What is causing the Hubble expansion? Big Bang cosmologists claim that
they know the answer: The expansion was caused by the Big Bang! By applying an enormous
amount of scientific study, they have been able to decide in minute detail how the universe must
have expanded from a microscopic singularity 13.7 billion years ago, to form the vast universe
that we observe today. But even if you have the faith to believe the astounding package of
science-fiction predictions derived from the Big Bang theory, a fundamental question still
remains: What caused the Big Bang? Big Bang cosmologists have no answer!
This article gives a remarkably simple answer to this mystery. The Hubble expansion is caused
by gravity. How can this be? you ask. How can the force of gravity (which always causes
masses to attract one another) make the universe expand?
The answer is: Gravitational force does not exist! As Einstein explained, the Newtonian concept
of gravitational force is an artifice. Gravity is a curvature of space; it is not an attractive force.
When we observe the effect of gravitational space-curvature within our solar system, and even
within our Milky-Way galaxy, gravity appears to act like an attractive force. However, when we
model the universe as a whole, the curvature of space produced by gravity manifests itself as
an expansion of the universe!
Thus, the Einstein General theory of Relativity predicts that gravity causes the Hubble expansion
of the universe. But why havent cosmology scientists discovered this earlier? The answer is that
they are using the incomplete Einstein gravitational field equation. Since that equation does not
have a tensor to characterize the energy and stress of the gravitational field, it cannot yield
meaningful predictions of gravitational effects over cosmological distances. When we refine the
40

mathematics of General Relativity by applying the Rigorous and Covariant Yilmaz

gravitational field equation, we discover that gravity makes the universe expand.

Appendix A: Alternate Forms of the Einstein Gravitational Field Equation

Several different forms of the Einstein Gravitational Field Equation are given in the literature.
The following discussion summarizes the main forms. Our basic form of the Einstein
gravitational field equation was given essentially as follows in Eq. 21:
Gab = - 8Tab

(A-1)

As shown earlier, the Kronecker delta function ( ab) is unity when the indices (a, b) are equal,
and is zero when they are different. Using the Kronecker delta, we can express the two equations
(19, 20) that define the Einstein tensor (Gab) by the following single equation:
Gab = Rab ab R

(A-2)

When (a) and (b) are equal, ( ab) is unity, and Eq A-2 becomes Eq 19. When (a) is not equal to
(b), ( ab) is zero, and Eq A-2 becomes Eq, 20.
The covariant and contravariant forms of the metric tensor (gab and gab) are very important in
General Relativity calculations. However, the mixed form of the metric tensor (gab) is always
equal to the Kronecker delta ( ab), and so has little importance by itself. In Eq. A-2, we can
replace ( ab) by (gab) to obtain
Gab = Rab gab R

(A-3)

Substituting this for (Gab) in Eq 21 gives the following for the Einstein gravitational field
equation:
Rab gab R = - 8Tab

(A-4)

This equation can also be expressed as follows in terms of the covariant and contravariant forms
of the tensors:
Rab gab R = - 8Tab

(A-5)

Rab gab R = - 8Tab

(A-6)

Since the variable R is calculated from the mixed form of the Ricci tensor (Rab), Eq A-4 is
usually the most convenient form of the Einstein gravitational field equation.
Equation 29 gave the basic form of the energy-momentum tensor in proper coordinates. The
density and stress variables were expressed in normalized mass units, and so were denoted ()
and (pab), Normalized mass (m) is equal to (G/c2)M, where M is mass in conventional units.
41

Hence the density and stress variables can be expressed in conventional mass units by
multiplying the array by (G/c2). With this change, Eq 29 becomes:
.
.
Tp

ab

|
|
4
= (G/c ) |
|

c2
0
0
0

0
p11
p21
p31

0
p12
p22
p32

0
p13
p23
p33

|
|
|
|

(A-7)

The density and stress variables () and (pab) are expressed in conventional mass units. It is
convenient to define the energy-momentum tensor as the above matrix, and incorporate the
(G/c4) factor into the expression for the gravitational field equation. Hence Eq A-1 becomes
Gab = - 8(G/c4) Tab

(A-8)

Equation A-7 becomes

.
.
Tpab =
.

|
|
|
|

c2
0
0
0

0
p11
p21
p31

0
p12
p22
p32

0
p13
p23
p33

|
|
|
|

(A-9)

This is the energy-momentum tensor in proper coordinates, with the density and stress variables
expressed in conventional mass units. With this change, Eq. A-4 becomes
Rab gab R = - (8G/c4) Tab

(A-10)

General Relativity formulas usually employ the Greek letters (, ) in place of the letters (a, b)
that we use to represent tensor indices. The reason is that Roman letters, like (a, b), are generally
reserved for 3-dimensional tensors, while Greek letters, like (, ), are generally used to specify
4-dimensional tensors. The author uses Roman letters (like a, b) because Greek letters make the
equations appear to be much more complicated. In terms of Greek indices, Eq A-10 becomes
R g R = - (8 G/c4) T

(A-11)

If we consider the covariant form of Eq A-5, this becomes

R g R = - (8 G/c4) T

(A-12)

For comparison, Wikipedia, in their article on Einstein field equations gives the following
formula for the Einstein gravitational field equation;
R g R = - (8 G/c4) T + g

The last term (g ) is the cosmology term, which Einstein later disavowed.
42

(A-13)

Appendix B: Equations for the General Yilmaz Theory

The General time-varying Yilmaz theory is derived in the website articles 5,5 and 5,F (General
Time-Varying Yilmaz Theory, and Stress-Energy Tensors of General Yilmaz Theory).
The static Yilmaz theory is based on the gravitational potential (). The gravitational potential
for the static Yilmaz theory is defined by
= (m/r)

(B-1)

The quantity (m) is a small element of mass, expressed in normalized mass units, and (r) is the
absolute value of the distance from the gravitational center of this mass element to the point
where the gravitational potential is computed. The () symbol represents the sum; the equation
states that the gravitational potential () is the sum of the (m/r) values for all elements of mass.
This static Yilmaz theory applies rigorously only when the gravitational potential does not vary
with time. To obtain a theory that allows the gravitational potential to vary with time, the
gravitational potential () is generalized to form the gravitational potential tensor (ab). The
gravitational potential () is the sum of the diagonal components of the gravitational potential
tensor (ab). Thus:
= 00 + 11 + 22 + 33

(B-2)

The components of the gravitational potential (ab) for the time-varying Yilmaz theory are:
a0 = (m/r)(d/ds)2 Fa

(a = 0, 1, 2, 3)

(B-3)

ak = (m/r)(Vk/c)(d/ds)2 Fa

(a = 0, 1, 2, 3; and k = 1, 2, 3)

(B-4)

where the variable (Fa) is equal to

Fa = {ga0 + ga1(Vx/c) + ga2(Vy/c) + ga3(Vz/c)}

(a = 0, 1, 2, 3)

(B-5)

The expression [(m/r)] has the same meaning as in the definition of the gravitational potential
() given in Eq B-1. The variable (Vk) is the velocity in the xk direction, where x1 = x, x2 = y, and
x3 = z. The variables x, y, z are the coordinates of 3-dimensional space. The variable () is the
normalized time (ct).
The metric tensor gab for the general time-varying Yilmaz theory is calculated from the
gravitational potential tensor ab by using the following differential formulas:
dgab = 2gab d - 4 (ga0 db0 + ga1 db1 + ga2 db2 + ga3 db3)

(B-6)

dgab = 2gab d - 4 (g0b da0 + g1b da1 + g2b da2 + g3b da3)

(B-7)

43

Equations B-6, B-7 are equivalent. Either equation can be used.

To solve Eqs B-3, B-4 one needs the value for (d/ds). This can be obtained in an iterative manner
by applying the static Yilmaz theory to the physical model, thereby obtaining an approximation for
(d/ds). Using this approximation for (d/ds), one can solve Eqs B-3, B-4 in an iterative manner to
obtain the exact value for this quantity.
In the website article 5,D (Analysis of Geodesic Equations), Eqs 61 and 64 show how this (d/ds)
factor is calculated for two models of the static Yilmaz theory. The model for Eq 61 assumes a
single star of normalized mass (m). The model for Eq 64 assumes a uniform density of matter that
extends to infinity. The factor (d/ds) for these two cases is
d/ds = exp[2m/r] = e2m/r

(single star)

(B-8)

d/ds = exp[(r/r0)2]

(uniform density of matter)

(B-9)

The case of uniform density of matter was applied to the Yilmaz Cosmology Model.
To solve the differential formula of Eqs B-6 or B-7, one would start with a model derived from the
static Yilmaz theory, and then perturb the model according to the differential formula. This would
require computer simulation, but the computations would be trivial in comparison to what is
required when the Einstein General Relativity equations are solved on a computer.

Appendix C: Summary of the Yilmaz Cosmology Model

This appendix presents the basic equation for the Yilmaz cosmology model, which demonstrates
that the Hubble expansion of the universe is a natural relativistic effect. This is a summary of the
website article 1,6 (Derivation of the Yilmaz Cosmology Model). As was shown in Eq 41 the
general formulas for the components of the Yilmaz metric tensor are
g00 = e-2

g11 = g22 = g33 = - e2

(C-1)

The variable () is the Yilmaz gravitational potential. For a single spherically symmetric celestial
body, () is equal to (m/r) at any point outside the body. For a number of spherically symmetric
bodies, () is the sum of the (m/r) values for the separate bodies.
Now let us apply the Yilmaz metric tensor equation to cosmology. We assume the following
simple cosmology model: The universe has a constant average density of matter that extends to
infinity and does not change with time. To apply this model we use the Poisson equation, which
was given as follows in Eq 23:
2 = 4 G

(C-2)

The variable () is the conventional gravitational potential, which is equal to (-c2), where () is
the gravitational potential of the Yilmaz theory. Article 1,6 uses the Poisson equation to describe
44

the gravitational field of a uniform distribution of matter, and derives in Eq 15 the following
gravitational potential, expressed in terms of the Yilmaz gravitational potential variable ():
2 = (4G/3c2) r2 = (r/r0)2

(C-3)

Parameter (G) is Newtons gravitational constant, () is the average mass density of the universe,
(r) is radial distance from the earth, and (r0) is a constant. Solving Eq C-3 for (r02) gives
r02 = 3c2/4G

(C-4)

Applying Eq C-3 to Eq C-1 gives the following metric tensor for the Yilmaz cosmology model:
g00 = exp[-(r/r0)2] ; g11 = g22 = g33 = - exp[(r/r0)2]

(C-5)

Note that exp[x] means ex. According to Einsteins General theory of Relativity, a celestial body
follows a geodesic path produced by the curvature of space. A geodesic path is specified by the
Geodesic Equation, which is a general tensor formula of the Riemann-Ricci mathematical theory
of curved space. In Section 2 of the website article 5,D (Analysis of Geodesic Equations), this
general tensor formula is applied in spherical coordinates, to calculate the specific geodesic
equations for the Yilmaz theory when the gravitational field is spherically symmetric. These
equations are shown in Eqs 81 to 83 of the website article 5,D. Applying the metric tensor values
of Eq C-5 to Eqs 81 to 83 of the website article 5,D, yields the following geodesic equations for
the Yilmaz Cosmology Model:
d/ds = exp[(r/r0)2]

(C-6)

d2r/ds2 = (r/r02)[1 - (dr/ds)2] + (1/r)[1 + (r/r0)2](dxt/ds)2

(C-7)

d2xt/ds2 = - (1/r)[1 + 2(r/r0)2](dr/ds)(dxt/ds)

(C-8)

Equations C-6 to C-8 are shown in Eqs 89 to 91 of the website article 5,D; and they are also
shown in Es 24 to 26 of the website article 1,6. These formulas are expressed in terms of
infinitesimal displacement in the radial (dr) and tangential (dxt) directions. When the geodesic
equations are applied, one often needs the metric equation. As shown in Eq 28 of the website
article 1,6, the metric equation for the Yilmaz cosmology model is
(ds)2 = exp[-(r/r0)2](d)2 - exp[(r/r0)2] [(dr)2 + (dxt)2]

(C-9)

We are interested in applying the Yilmaz cosmology model to determine the radial velocity of a
galaxy. We can simplify these equations by setting the tangential velocity (dxt/d) equal to zero. It
can be shown from the geodesic equations (Eqs C-6 to C-8) that if (dxt/d) is zero, then (dxt/ds),
(d2xt/ds2), and (d2xt/d2) are all zero. Hence the metric equation (Eq C-9) reduces to
(ds)2 = exp[-(r/r0)2](d)2 - exp[(r/r0)2] (dr)2
The geodesic equations (Eqs C-6 to C-8) reduce to
45

(C-10)

d/ds = exp[(r/r0)2]

(C-11)

d2r/ds2 = (r/r02) - (r/r02)(dr/ds)2

(C-12)

Divide the metric equation of Eq C-10 by (ds)2, and solve for (dr/ds)2. This gives
(dr/ds)2 = exp[-2(r/r0)2](d/ds)2 - exp[-(r/r0)2]

(C-13)

Square the expression for (d/ds) in Eq. C-11, and substitute it for (d/ds)2 in Eq. C-13. The first
term is unity and Eq. C-13 becomes
(dr/ds)2 = 1 - exp[-(r/r0)2]

(C-14)

The derivative (dr/ds) can be expressed as follows in terms of normalized time ():
dr/ds = (dr/d)(d/ds) = (dr/d) exp[(r/r0)2]

(C-15)

The expression for (d/ds) of Eq. C-11 was applied in Eq C-15. Solve Eq C-15 for (dr/d), and
square this to obtain (dr/d)2 . This gives
(dr/d)2 = exp[-2(r/r0)2] (dr/ds)2

(C-16)

Substitute into Eq C-16 the expression for (dr/ds)2 of Eq C-14. This gives
(dr/d)2 = exp[-2(r/r0)2]{1 - exp[-(r/r0)2]}

(C-17)

This gives the radial velocity relative to normalized time ( = ct). To derive this formula, we
have used the metric equation (Eq C-10) and only one geodesic equation (Eq C-11). In website
article 1,6, Eqs 34 to 37 show by differentiating the formula for (dr/ds)2 that the second geodesic
equation (for d2r/ds2) in Eq C-12 is consistent with our result.
Let us denote the radial velocity as Vr, which is equal to (dr/dt). Since normalized time () is equal
to (ct), (dr/d)2 is equal to (Vr/c)2, and Eq C-17 becomes
(Vr/c)2 = exp[-2(r/r0)2]{1 - exp[-(r/r0)2]}

(C-18)

The apparent speed of light, denoted (cap), represents the speed of light of a distant object as it
appears on earth. Einstein called this the coordinate speed of light. In the website article 1,6, Eq
44 shows that the apparent speed of light for the Yilmaz cosmology model is given by
cap/c = exp[-(r/r0)2]

(C-19)

Combining Eqs. C-18, C-19 gives

(Vr/c)2 = (cap/c)2{1 - exp[-(r/r0)2]}

(C-20)
46

The variable V represents the radial velocity of a distant galaxy, as observed from earth, and so can
also be called the apparent radial velocity, which is denoted Vap . Hence Eq C-20 simplifies to
(Vap/cap)2 = 1 - exp[-(r/r0)2]

(C-21)

This gives the apparent radial velocity (Vap) of a galaxy, divided by the apparent speed of light
(cap), expressed in terms of the true distance (r) to the galaxy. When the radial distance (r) is much
less than (r0), exp[-(r/r0)2] is approximately [1 - (r/r0)2]. Applying this approximation to Eq C-21
gives
(Vap/cap)2 = 1 - exp[-(r/r0)2] (r/r0)2

(for r << r0)

(C-22)

For (r << r0), (cap) can be replaced by (c). Taking the square root of Eq C-22 gives
Vap/c r/r0

(for r << r0)

(C-23)

Equation C-23 shows that a galaxy has a radial velocity that is approximately proportional to
distance. This indicates that the universe must expand: the Hubble expansion of the universe
is a natural relativistic effect that is directly caused by gravity.
Recent studies give a Hubble expansion rate of about 20 km/sec per million light years of galaxy
distance. This corresponds to 300,000 km/sec (the speed of light) for a radial distance (r) of 15
billion light-years, and so (r0) is 15 billion light-years. By Eq C-4, the corresponding average
mass density () of the universe is
= 3c2/4G r02 = 3/4GT02

(C-24)

The parameter (T0) represents (r0/c). Since (r0) is 15 billion light-years, (T0) is 15 billion years.
Equation C-24 yields the following average mass density of the universe that is predicted by the
Yilmaz cosmology model:
= 16.0x10-30 gm/cm3 = 16.0x10-24 gm/m3

(C-25)

Since the mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.67x10-24 gm, this density is equivalent to 9.6 hydrogen
atoms per cubic meter.

Appendix D: Covariant, Contravariant Tensors and Principle of Covariance

In probability and statistics, Covariance is a measure of how much two random variables change
together. The Einstein Principle of General Covariance is as follows: The laws of physics
should take the same mathematical form in all coordinate systems.

47

Covariant and Contravariant Vectors and Tensors

Vectors that measure position, velocity, etc. are called contravariant because the measured
values change in opposition to (or contra to) a change in the coordinate system. For example, if
the origin of the coordinates shifts in the negative direction of the variable (x), the value of (x)
becomes more positive.
Another example is a scale change on a map. Suppose the map is marked in kilometers, and we
find that the distance between two towns is 100 kilometers. Now we examine another map
marked in miles, and find that the distance between those same towns is 60 miles. Since a mile is
larger than a kilometer, the coordinate system has stretched, while the measurement value has
shrunk from 100 to 60. The measured value varies contra-to the change in the coordinate
system, and so the distance vector is contravariant.
Suppose we are measuring the slope, or gradient, of a highway, and find that the road rises 100
meters per mile. Now we measure the distance traveled in kilometers, and find that the gradient
is now 60 meters per kilometer. The gradient is covariant because it changes in the same
direction as the coordinate. The scale decreases from miles to kilometers, and the measurement
decreases from 100 to 60.
The metric tensor has a covariant form (gab) and a contravariant form (gab). The product of these
two tensors is a unit matrix. Thus
(gab)x(gab) = Unit Matrix

(D-1)

This shows that when the matrices for the tensors (gab) and (gab) are multiplied together, the
result is a unit matrix, which is a diagonal matrix in which all diagonal components are unity. If
the metric tensor is diagonal, the corresponding diagonal components are related by
(g00)x(g00) = 1 ; (g11)x(g11) = 1 ; (g22)x(g22) = 1 ; (g33)x(g33) = 1

(D-2)

Hence the covariant and contravariant metric tensor components are reciprocals of one another
when the metric tensor is diagonal. Thus
g00 = 1/g00 ; g11 = 1/g11 ; g22 = 1/g22 ; g33 = 1/g33

(D-3)

Thus the contravariant metric tensor varies contra-to the covariant metric tensor. Contravariant
vectors and tensors are commonly measured in units of distance (e.g., meter), whereas covariant
vectors and tensors are commonly measured in units of reciprocal distance (e.g., 1/meter).

Appendix E: Why Did Einstein Use the Einstein Tensor?

To specify the curvature of space, Einstein used the Einstein tensor (Gab) instead of the Ricci
tensor (Rab), because he wanted his tensor to have a Covariant Derivative that is zero. In
Appendix A, Eq A-2 shows that the these two tensors are related by
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Gab = Rab ab R

where the Kronecker delta ( ab) is defined as unity when (a = b), and is zero otherwise. The
covariant derivative of (Rab) is equal to the covariant derivative of ( ab R). Therefore, by
subtracting ( ab R) from (Rab), Einstein achieved a curvature tensor (Gab) that has a covariant
derivative of zero. Now let us consider what is meant by a Covariant Derivative.
A derivative means a rate-of-change. Consider the height of a road as it progresses up a hill. The
derivative of the height of the road means the rate-of-change of the road height, which is the
slope of the road.
Assume that one has a telescope that is aimed at a distant star. The line-of-sight of the telescope
can be specified by considering a line of fixed length, and specifying the 3-dimensional
coordinates of the end of the line with respect to the coordinates at the beginning of the line.
Assume that the telescope is moved horizontally along a flat plane. If the derivatives of the three
coordinates are all zero (which means that the coordinates do not change), the telescope will
continue to be aimed at the same star. In other words, the line of light for the second telescope
location will be parallel to the original line-of-sight.
Now let us move the telescope along the curved surface of the earth. Assume that the direction of
the telescope is measured in terms of the local coordinates: in the east, north, and vertical
directions. If these east-north-vertical coordinates are kept fixed, the telescope will no longer
look at the same star. For curved space, keeping the derivatives of the coordinates zero, does not
mean that the line-of-sight of the telescope is moved in a parallel manner.
The Covariant Derivative solves this problem. If the Covariant Derivative of the line-of-sight is
kept zero as the telescope is moved over the curved surface of the earth, the line-of-sight of the
telescope is moved in a parallel manner, and the same star is still in view.
By keeping the Covariant Derivative of his curvature tensor zero, Einstein could maintain a
constant absolute meaning for his variables in curved space, as he changed coordinates. This was
needed to satisfy his Principle of Covariance.

Appendix F: Stress-Energy Tensor for the Gravitational Field

This appendix derives a more convenient form for the Yilmaz stress-energy tensor of the
gravitational field. The form given by Yilmaz is
tab = - a b + ab d d d

(F-1)

The variable () is the Yilmaz gravitational potential. The function (a) means (/xa). The
function (b) means (c gbcc), which represents [c gbc(/xc)]. The summation sign (c)
indicates that the expression is summed over the four values (0, 1, 2, 3) of the index (c). Thus

49

(b) = (c gbcc) = c gbc(/xc) = gb0(/x0) + gb1(/x1) + gb2(/x2) + gb3(/x3)

(F-2)
Since the Yilmaz metric tensor is diagonal, the contravariant metric tensor (gbc) is zero unless the
index (c) is equal to (b). For a diagonal metric tensor, the summation over (c) becomes a single
term, and Eq F-2 reduces to
(b) = (gbbb) = gbb(/xb)

(F-3)

Applying Eq F-3 to Eq F-1 gives

tab = - a(gbbb) + ab d d (gddd)

= - gbb a b + ab d gdd (d)2

= - gbb a b + ab{g00(0)2 + g11(1)2 + g22(2)2 + g33(3)2}

(F-4)

Since () does not vary with time, the derivative (0), which represents (/x0), is zero. The
contravariant metric tensor components g22, g33 are equal to g11. Hence Eq F-4 reduces to
tab = - gbb a b + ab g11{(1)2 + (2)2 + (3)2}

(F-5)

In the first term, (b) is zero if index (b) is (0). Hence (gbb) is either g11, g22, or g33, and so is
always equal to (g11). Hence Eq F-5 reduces to
tab = g11{ - a b + ab[(1)2 + (2)2 + (3)2] }

(F-5)

This can be expressed in the following compact form

tab = g11{- ab + ab k(k)2}

for k = 1, 2, 3

(F-6)

Using the common symbols for the partial derivatives gives

tab = g11{- (/xa)(/xb) + ab k(/xk)2}

for k = 1, 2, 3

(F-7)

For a diagonal metric tensor, (g11) is equal to (1/g11), and (g11) is equal to (- e2) for the Yilmaz
metric tensor. Hence (g11) is equal to (- e-2). Applying this value to Eq F-7 gives our final
formula
tab = e-2{ (/xa)(/xb) - ab k(/xk)2}

for k = 1, 2, 3

(F-7)

As explained elsewhere, ( ab) is the Kronecker delta function, which is unity when the two
indices (a, b) are equal, and is zero otherwise. From Eq F-7, we can derive the following
individual components of the stress-energy tensor (tab):
t00 = - e-2{(/x1)2 + (/x2)2 + (/x3)2}

50

1 component

tkk =

e-2(/xk)2 + t00

for k = 1, 2, 3

tjk = e-2(/xj)(/xk) for j, k = 1, 2, 3; j k

t0k = tk0 = 0

for k = 1, 2, 3

3 components
6 components
6 components (F-8)

References
[1] Adrian Bjornson, A Universe that We Can Believe, Addison Press, Woburn, MA, 2000, ISBN
09703231-0-7.
[2] Adrian Bjornson, The Scientific Story of Creation, Addison Press, Woburn, MA, 2002, ISBN
09703231-2-3.
[3] Tullio Levi-Civita, The Absolute Differential Calculus, 1977, Dover Pub, NY, (first Italian ed,
1923), ISBN 0-486-63401-9.
[4] Albert Einstein, The Meaning of Relativity, Princeton University Press, 5th ed., 1953, ISBN 0691-02352-2, (1st ed. 1921), (See p. 83).
[5] Richard C. Tolman, Relativity, Thermodynamics, and Cosmology, 1987, Dover Pub, NY, ISBN
0-486-65383-8 (first pub, 1934, Oxford, Clarendon Press). (See p. 215, Eq 85.1)
[6] W. Pauli, Theory of Relativity, 1958 Pergammon Press, reprint Dover Pub, NY, ISBN 0-48664152-X (See p. 162)
[7] Albert Einstein, The Meaning of Relativity, Ref [4] (See appendix for 2nd ed., 1945, p. 129).
[8] Huseyin Yilmaz, New Approach to General Relativity, Physical Review, vol. 111, No. 5,
Sept. 1, 1958, pp 1417-1426,
[9] Huseyin Yilmaz, New Approach to Relativity and Gravitation, Annals of Physics, Academic
Press, NY, 1973, pps. 179-200.
[10] John A. Peacock, Cosmological Physics, 1999, Cambridge U. Press, United Kingdom, ISBN
0-521-42270-1. (See p.19)
[11] Alley, Carroll O., "Investigation with Lasers, Atomic Clocks [etc.] of Gravitational Theories
of Yilmaz and Einstein", in Frontiers of Fundamental Physics, 1994, M. Barone and F. Selleri,
eds, pp. 125-137, Plenum Press, NY.
[12] Carroll O. Alley, The Yilmaz Theory of Gravity and its Compatibility with Quantum
Theory, Ann New York Acad Science, 1995 vol 755, pp 464-477.
[13] Huseyin Yilmaz, Gravity and Quantum Field Theory, a Modern Synthesis, Ann New York
Acad Science, 1995, vol 755, pp 476-499.
[14] John D. Norton, General Covariance and the Foundations of General Relativity: Eight
Decades of Dispute, Rep. Prog. Phys. Vol. 56 (1993) pps. 791-838 (printed in the UK;
available on the internet)
[15] Yuri Baryshev, et. al, Practical cosmology and cosmological physics, from conference
held in St. Petersburg, Russia on June 2008, ARxIV:0809.1084V1 [astro-ph], see website
http://arxiv.org/abs/0809.1084v1.
Note: In this article, References [1] and [2] are referred to as Believe [1] and Story [2].
This document is part of the Internet website OldUniverse.com.
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