Electromagnetic Fields

Local laws

Martin Verweij

Supplement to Physics for Scientists and Engineers sixth edition

Course ET1105 (2007/2008)

c
2007
Laboratory of Electromagnetic Research
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the Laboratory of Electromagnetic Research.

Preface
This booklet forms a supplement to Physics for Scientists and Engineers by
Paul A. Tipler and is especially written for Electrical Engineering students.
You may ask: Why do I need a supplement to a book that already counts
more than 1,100 pages ? I shall briey answer this. Tiplers book aims at
all kinds of students that have to acquire a general knowledge of dierent
parts of physics. In this respect, Tipler has written a great book. However,
Electrical Engineering students need a more than average knowledge of Electricity and Magnetism. In addition to the items treated in Part IV of the
book, in the early stage of their educational career they must get acquainted
with the following topics:
local laws of the electric, magnetic and electromagnetic eld;
the boundary conditions for these elds;
alternative eld quantities that appear in the electrotechnical literature.
These topics are not treated in Tiplers book. This supplement lls the gap.
The best way to use this supplement is rst to nish an entire subject
(such as electrostatics) from the book, and then to study the associated
sections from this booklet, according to the following scheme:
Suggested use of the supplement
Subject
Electrostatics
Electric current
Magnetostatics
Electromagnetics

Book chapters
21, 22, 23, 24
25
26, 27
28, 30

Supplement sections
1, 2, 3
4, 5
6
7

In this supplement two types of numbers are used for referencing. A

number that starts with the character S refers to an object (equation,
gure or table) in this supplement, while a number that starts with a digit
refers to an object in Tiplers book.
Finally, I acknowledge my colleagues Robert van Amerongen, Dirk Quak
and Johan Smit for their valuable comments.
Delft
December 2000

Martin Verweij

Preface to the second edition

In this edition, problems have been added at the end of each section. Moreover, references to equations and chapter numbers in Physics for Scientists
and Engineers have been updated to be compatible with the fth edition
of this book. The author acknowledges Koos Huijssen for making these
improvements.
Delft
September 2005

Martin Verweij

Preface to the third edition

In this edition, references to equations and chapter numbers in Physics for
Scientists and Engineers have been updated to be compatible with the sixth
edition of this book. For the same reason, some equations have been slightly
modied.
Delft
November 2007

Martin Verweij

Contents
1 Global versus local laws 1
2 Integral theorems of Gauss and Stokes 2
Gausss integral theorem 4
Gausss integral theorem using the nabla operator 5
Stokess integral theorem 5
3 Local laws for the electrostatic eld 8
Conservation of energy in the electrostatic eld 8
Local electrostatic eld equations 9
 11
The electric ux density D
 and D
 14
Boundary conditions for E
Equations of Poisson and Laplace 18
4 Conservation of charge 20
Global and local laws for the transport of charge 20
 22
Boundary condition for J
5 Ohms law 24
6 Local laws for the magnetostatic eld 27
Local magnetostatic eld equations 27
 29
The magnetic eld strength H

 33
Boundary conditions for H and B
7 Local laws for the electromagnetic eld 37
Local Maxwells equations 37
 D,
 H
 and B
 40
Boundary conditions for E,
A Proof of integral theorems 43
Proof of Gausss integral theorem 43
Interpretation of Gausss integral theorem 45
Proof of Stokess integral theorem 45
Interpretation of Stokess integral theorem 47
B Answers to problems 49

SECTION 1 Global versus local laws

Global versus local laws

Physical experiments show that electromagnetic quantities behave in a predictable and reproducible way. We can use mathematical equations to describe this behavior. For example, from numerous experiments it has become
clear that the electric eld of a system of point charges can be written as
 iP = kqi riP .
E
2
riP

S-1

 iP
This is Equation 21-7, which describes how the electric eld strength E
at position P depends on such things as:
other electromagnetic quantities: the strength of the point charge qi
causing the electric eld,
iP of the
properties of the conguration: the length riP and direction r
vector from the point charge to the eld point P at which the electric
eld strength is measured,
constants: the Coulomb constant k = 8.99 109 N m2 /C2 .
The electric eld strength is a vector. As a consequence, the right-hand
side of the equation above is also a vector, and the equation is called a
vector equation. A vector equation simultaneously describes the three
scalar equations for the three vector components.
The example shows that a physical law may be expressed in the language
of mathematics. But there is more. The tools of mathematics may be used
to cast a physical law in several forms. In case of electromagnetic eld
quantities, two large classes of laws may be distinguished: global laws and
local laws.
An example of a global law is Equation 22-16


Qinside
 n
dA =
En dA =
.
E
net =
0
S
S

S-2

The law states that the total electric ux through any closed surface S is
equal to 1/0 times the total electric charge enclosed by the surface. Both the
ux and the enclosed charge are quantities that are related to the surface S.
In general, quantities related to a volume, surface, or line are called global

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

quantities, and the laws connecting global quantities are called global laws.
In view of this it is not surprising that in many global laws we encounter
integrations with respect to the spatial coordinates. Since all classical electromagnetic experiments have been performed with devices having a certain
size, the observed quantities are in principle global quantities, and the resulting basic laws are primarily global laws. Thus a benet of global laws is
that these yield a direct description of physical observations. On the other
hand many global laws contain integrals, which often give rise to integral
equations that are hard to solve by hand. Therefore a drawback of global
laws is that these are less suitable for manual mathematical calculations.
An example of a local law is Equation 23-17

 = V
 =
E


V V V
i+
j+
k .
x
y
z

S-3

 and the
This law gives the connection between the electric eld strength E
potential V for each single point in space. Both the electric eld strength
and the gradient of the potential are quantities that are related to individual points. In general, quantities that are related to single points in space
are called local quantities, and the laws connecting local quantities are
called local laws. Many local quantities depend on some spatial derivative
of another local quantity. This explains why in many local laws we nd differentiations with respect to the spatial coordinates. Local laws often result
in dierential equations that can be solved by hand. Thus a benet of local
laws is that these are suitable for manual mathematical calculations. However, in classical electromagnetics, observations always involve the collective
eect of all points in a certain measurement area, not only that of a single
point. Therefore a drawback of local laws is that these do not yield a direct
description of physical observations.

Integral theorems of Gauss and Stokes

In the theory of electric and magnetic elds we encounter scalar quantities like the electric potential V , and vector quantities like the electric eld
 Moreover, these quantities may depend on a scalar quantity
strength E.
such as the time t, and a vector quantity such as the position vector r . In

SECTION 2 Integral theorems of Gauss and Stokes

view of this, the mathematical functions that describe the behavior of electromagnetic quantities may belong to some of the four classes presented in
Table S-1.
 is a vector that is a function of the poThe electrostatic eld strength E
 r ) to indicate the value of the electric
sition vector r . We use the notation E(

 as a function of the position r . Since E

 = Exi + Ey j + Ez k
eld strength E
we may write

 r ) = Ex (r )i + Ey (r )j + Ez (r )k.

E(

S-4

so Ex , Ey , Ez depend on the coordinates x, y, z.

Moreover, r = xi + y j + z k,
To show this explicitly, we may also write

 r ) = Ex (x, y, z)i + Ey (x, y, z)j + Ez (x, y, z)k.

E(

S-5

 r ) is nothing more than a shorthand notation indicating that the

Thus E(
 depend on the components of r , i.e. the spatial coordinates
components of E
x, y, z.
Any vector that is a function of another quantity is called a vector
function. A quantity that is a function of the position vector describes a
so-called eld. Examples of elds are the scalar eld V (r ) and the vector
 r ). For vector elds there are some special theorems for turning one
eld E(
type of integral into another type. Two integral theorems are particularly
Table S-1
Classication of functions
Function
value
Scalar

Argument
Scalar

Example of quantity
I(t) - Electric current
versus time

Scalar function of
vectorial argument

Scalar

Vector

V (r ) - Electric potential

versus position

Vector function of
scalar argument

Vector

Scalar

Vector function of
vectorial argument

Vector

Vector

 (t) - Torque on a
dipole versus time
 r ) - Electric eld
E(
strength versus position

Class of function
Scalar function of
scalar argument

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Figure S-1 Domain D with closed boundary surface S for the application of
Gausss integral theorem.

important, since these are used in electromagnetics to derive local laws from
global laws. These integral theorems will now be presented.

Gausss integral theorem

Suppose we have a vector function v (r ) and a volume D with a closed
boundary surface S. See for example Figure S-1. In that case Gausss
integral theorem states that
v n
dA =
S

 

vn dA =
S

vz
vx vy
+
+
x
y
z


dV.

S-6

Gausss integral theorem

The proof and the interpretation of this this theorem are given in the Appendix. Some requirements must be met before the theorem may be employed. The theorem only makes sense if v (r ) is dened on a domain that at
least consists of the volume D. Moreover, all the components of v(r ) must
be continuously dierentiable with respect to all the coordinates x, y, z on a
domain that at least consists of the volume D. Finally, the normal vector
on S must point away from D. Thus, the value of vn is positive at those
n
locations on S where v is pointing to the outside of D, and the value of vn
is negative at those locations on S where v is pointing to the inside of D.

SECTION 2 Integral theorems of Gauss and Stokes

Gausss integral theorem using the nabla operator

Gauss theorem may be written in a slightly dierent form when we introduce
a new mathematical object called the nabla operator. The nabla operator
 and dened as
is indicated by the symbol

 = i + j + k.

x
y
z

S-7
Nabla operator

Like any operator, the nabla operator is only useful if it works on something

suitable. In the present case it makes sense to use the dot product to let
work on a vector function like v . By applying the dot product from Equation
6-15 and assembling the derivatives in the obvious way, we get
 v = vx + vy + vz .

x
y
z

S-8
Divergence of a vector eld

 v is called the divergence of the vector eld v . An

The quantity
 v is div v. By applying these new items, Gausss
alternative notation for
integral theorem may be written as



v n
dA =
S


 v dV =

div v dV.

S-9

Gausss integral theorem Alternative notations

Stokess integral theorem

Suppose we have a vector function v (r ) and a surface S with a closed boundary curve C. A possible conguration is given in Figure S-2. In this case
Stokess integral theorem states that



v d =
C

 v ) n
dA.
(

S-10

Stokess integral theorem

The proof and the interpretation of this this theorem are given in the Appendix. Again some conditions must be satised before this theorem may be

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

C
d

Figure S-2 Surface S with closed boundary curve C for the application of
Stokess integral theorem.

applied. The theorem only makes sense if v (r ) is dened on a domain that
at least consists of the surface S. Moreover, all the components of v(r ) must
be continuously dierentiable with respect to all the coordinates x, y, z on
a domain that at least consists of the surface S. Finally, the normal vector
on S points in the direction given by a (right-handed) corkscrew that is
n
turning in the direction of d.

In Stokess integral theorem the cross product of the nabla operator
and a vector function v appears. The cross product of two ordinary vectors
a and b may be found with the aid of Equations 10-2, 10-7a and 10-7b. An
easier way to remember is to write this product using a determinant




a b = 



i j k


ax ay az 
bx by bz 
S-11
= (ay bz az by )i + (az bx ax bz )j + (ax by ay bx )k.
Cross product using determinant notation

Applying this recipe for the cross product and assembling the derivatives in
the obvious way, we get

SECTION 2 Integral theorems of Gauss and Stokes


 v=


vy
vz

y
z

i+ vx vz
z
x

vy
vx
j +

x
y


S-12
k.

Curl of a vector eld

 v is called the curl of the vector eld v . An alternative

The quantity

notation for v is curl v or rot v.

Problems
2-1 Four vector elds are given as a mathematical expression together with
a graphical representation. The arrows in the gures indicate the direction
and magnitude of the eld in any given point. For each vector eld, calculate
 
 
the divergence
v and curl
v , and explain the results qualitatively
from the gures.
y

a)

b)

z
v (r ) = x i

v (r ) = y i

c)

d)

z
y

v (r ) = x i z k

z
y
z i

v(
r) = x k

2-2

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Given is a scalar quantity V (x, y, z) = x2 + yx2 + 3z 2 .

 = V
 .
a) Calculate E

b) Calculate the divergence of E.

c) Calculate the curl of E.

Local laws for the electrostatic eld

In the previous section the integral theorems of Gauss and Stokes have been
presented as purely mathematical rules. In this section we will show how
these tools enable us to nd the basic local laws for the static electric eld.

Conservation of energy in the electrostatic eld

In Section 23-2 a potential function V for the electric eld of a point charge
is found. This potential function gives the potential energy of a unit test
charge in the eld of a point charge. The potential function only depends
on the spatial coordinates through the distance r between the test charge
and the point charge. This implies that only the position of the test charge
relative to the point charge is important.
More complex situations may be described by either adding discretely
distributed charges qi or by integrating continuously distributed charges dq.
The potential functions of these complex charge distributions are obtained
by adding the potential functions of the discrete point charges qi as in Equation 23-10, or by integrating the potential functions of the continuously
distributed point charges dq as in Equation 23-18. Just like the potential
function of a single point charge, any composed potential function only depends on the position of the test charge relative to a xed point in the charge
distribution. This is an important property of the electrostatic eld, as will
soon become clear.
Now consider two points a and b in an arbitrary electrostatic eld. The
work we deliver when we carry a test charge q0 from a to b is proportional to
the potential dierence Vb Va . Since the potential function only depends on
the position relative to the corresponding charge distribution, this dierence
only depends on the positions of a and b with respect to the charge distribu-

SECTION 3 Local laws for the electrostatic eld

tion. It doesnt matter along which path the test charge is carried from a to
b. As a result, a round-trip from a to b along one path and from b to a along
another path will always cost us q0 (Vb Va ) q0 (Va Vb ) = 0 work. So the
fact that any potential function only depends on the position relative to the
charge distribution causes the work for a trip around any closed contour C
to be zero. This may be stated mathematically as

 d = 0.
F

S-13

 Global law
Conservative property for F

 in any electrostatic eld is conservaWe have just proven that the force F

 = q0 E,
tive. For a description of conservative forces see Section 7-1. Since F
the electrostatic eld is also conservative. This property may be stated as

 d = 0.
E

S-14

 Global law
Conservative property for E

This is a basic property of the electrostatic eld. Without this property,

Equation 23-2b would not make sense.

Local electrostatic eld equations

There are two basic global laws that fully describe the electrostatic eld.
From these we will now derive the two basic local laws.
The rst basic global law is the description of the conservative property
 given by Equation S-14. Since E
 is a vector function of the position
for E
vector r , we may apply Stokess integral theorem from Equation S-10. This
results in


 E)
 n
dA = 0.
(

 d =
E
C

S-15

Equation S-15 must hold for any surface S. This can only be achieved when
the integrand of the surface integral is zero. This results in

10

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

 E
 = 0.

S-16
 Local law
Conservative property for E

We have now found the local law that corresponds to the global law in
Equation S-14. From the conditions of Stokess integral theorem it follows
that Equation S-16 is only valid on a domain for which all the components of
 are continuously dierentiable with respect to all the coordinates x, y, z.
E
The second basic global law is Gausss law from Equation 22-16



 n
dA =
E

net =
S

En dA =
S

Qinside
.
0

S-17

 Global form
Gausss law for E

The total charge Qinside enclosed by a surface S depends on the volume

charge density introduced on page 728

dV.
S-18
Qinside =
D

Here D is the domain enclosed by S. Substitution into Equation S-17 yields





dA =
dV.
S-19
En
S
D 0
Now we may apply Gausss integral theorem from Equation S-9. This gives




 n
 E
 dV =
dA =
dV.
S-20
E

S
D
D 0
Equation S-20 must hold for any domain D. This can only be achieved when
the integrands of both volume integrals are equal. This gives
 E
 = .

S-21
 Local form
Gausss law for E

We have now obtained the local Gausss law that corresponds to its global
counterpart in Equation S-19. From the conditions of Gausss integral theorem it follows that Equation S-21 is only valid on a domain for which all

SECTION 3 Local laws for the electrostatic eld

11

 are continuously dierentiable with respect to all the

the components of E
coordinates x, y, z. In the next part we will see that it is customary to cast
both the global and the local form of Gausss law in a slightly dierent form.


The electric ux density D
In Tiplers book the electric eld is described by means of only one quantity
 In the electromagnetic literature E
 is usually
called the electric eld E.
called the electric eld strength. Moreover, it is common practice to
 as a second quantity.
introduce the electric ux density D
The distinction between the electric eld strength and the electric ux
density becomes important when there is both free charge (from free conduction electrons or ions) and bound charge (from dipolar charges of electrically
polarized molecules). This occurs for example in a capacitor with a dielectric, see Section 24-5. In this case, Equation 22-16 may be written as


1

dA =
En dA = (Qf + Qb ).
S-22
En
net =
0
S
S
Here Qf is the amount of enclosed free charge, and Qb is the amount of
 is related to the total
enclosed bound charge. Equation S-22 shows that E
amount of charge. On the other hand, the electric ux density satises



 n
dA =
D
S

Dn dA = Qf .

S-23

 Global form
Gausss law for D

This is the alternative form of Gausss law that is commonly used in the
 only depends on the amount of
literature. Equation S-23 shows that D
free charge. Moreover, the factor 1/0 is absent here. From the equation it
also follows that the product of electric ux density and area yields electric
 is C/m2 . Just like Equation S-17, we may take the
charge, so the unit of D
global law in Equation S-23 and derive a local law from it. Using the same
analysis as before, its follows that
 D
 = f .

S-24
 Local form
Gausss law for D

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

12

Here f is the volume density of the free charge. This is the local Gausss
 Since Gausss integral theorem is employed in the derivation,
law for D.

Equation S-24 is only valid on a domain for which all the components of D
are continuously dierentiable with respect to all the coordinates x, y, z.
In vacuum there is no bound charge. Comparison of Equation S-22 and
Equation S-23 shows that the electric eld strength and the electric ux
density are then related by
 = 0 E.

D

S-25
 and E
 in vacuum
Relation between D

Inside a dielectric the polarized molecules enhance the electric ux density


of vacuum by an amount P
 = 0 E
 +P
.
D

S-26
 E
 and P
 in a dielectric
Relation between D,

 is called the polarization of the dielectric. Normally, D


The quantity P


and P depend on E in a manner that depends on the type of dielectric
material.
There are two approaches to analyze a capacitor with a dielectric. One
of these is to disconnect the voltage source from the capacitor before the
dielectric is put in place. This is the procedure described at the beginning
of Section 24-4. Let us derive the dependence of D and P on E using this
procedure . Since in this case the free charge Qf = Q on the capacitor plates
remains constant, the electric ux density D has a constant value
D = f =

Q
= 0 E0 .
A

S-27

Here E0 is the electric eld strength before the dielectric is inserted. After
insertion of the dielectric, the induced bound charge at the surface of the

Following Section 24-4, for the analysis of the parallel plate capacitor we only consider
 P
 and E.
 This is allowed since these eld
the scalar magnitude of the eld quantities D,
quantities are normal to the capacitor plates.

SECTION 3 Local laws for the electrostatic eld

13

Figure S-3 The electric eld between the plates of a capacitor with a dielectric. The surface charge on the dielectric weakens the original eld between
the plates.
dielectric opposes the free charge at the plates, see Section 24-5 and Figure S-3. According to Equation 24-18, this causes the electric eld strength
E to weaken to a value
f + b
E0
.
=
S-28
E=
0

Removing E0 from both equations above gives

D = 0 E = E.

S-29

Substitution of Equation S-29 into Equation S-26 further shows that

P = ( 1)0 E = e 0 E.

S-30

The quantity e = 1 is called the electric susceptibility of the dielectric. In this paragraph and in Sections 24-4 and 24-5 it is assumed that the
 and E
 have the
dielectric is isotropic. The word isotropic indicates that P
same direction. In such materials, the latter two equations may be generalized to their vector forms
 = 0 E
 = E,

D
 = ( 1)0 E
 = e 0 E.

P

S-31
S-32
 and P
 expressed in terms of E

D

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

14

The notion of dielectric constant and the symbol are commonly used in
physics. In the electrotechnical literature this quantity is usually indicated
by the name relative permittivity and the symbol r .
 and D
 is that we are now
A benet of using two separate quantities E

able te analyze a capacitor with a dielectric without using the electric eld
strength E0 or the charge Q0 that is present before placing the dielectric. To
show this, we choose to keep the voltage source connected to the capacitor
when the dielectric is inserted. This is the other approach, which is shortly
described in Section 24-4 just above Practice Problem 24-13. Under this
circumstance the potential dierence V between the capacitor plates remains
at the constant value
V = Ed.

S-33

Assuming we know of the dielectric, the free charge Qf = Q of the capacitor

is simply
Q = f A = DA = EA.

S-34

Dividing Equation S-34 by S-33 yields for the capacitance

C=

A
.
d

S-35

 and D

Boundary conditions for E
Equations S-16 and S-24 are the basic local laws of electrostatics. Unlike
their global counterparts, these local laws are only valid when the relevant
eld quantities are continuously dierentiable with respect to the spatial
coordinates. This need not always be the case. For example, at a boundary
between two media with dierent , some part of the eld quantities will
jump and the local laws will in general cease to hold. To fully describe the
behavior of the electrostatic eld in congurations with jumps in the medium
parameters, the basic local equations must be supplemented by boundary
conditions. The purpose of these boundary conditions is to link the eld
quantities at both sides of a boundary.

Following Section 24-4, for the analysis of the parallel plate capacitor we only consider
 and E.
 This is allowed since these eld
the scalar magnitude of the eld quantities D
quantities are normal to the capacitor plates.

SECTION 3 Local laws for the electrostatic eld

15

a
C1
b

C4

Et1
Et2

C3

Medium 1
1
Medium 2
2

C2
Figure S-4 Rectangular loop around a part of the boundary between two
dierent media.
 at a boundary where jumps.
First let us investigate the behavior of E
This is done by considering a small, rectangular loop around a part of the
boundary, as depicted in Figure S-4. The boundary is assumed to be locally
at. The loop extends into the media on both sides of the boundary. It
has the sides a and b, and may be subdivided into parts C1 through C4 .
According to Equation S-14 we nd for the loop










 d = 0.
S-36
E d +
E d +
E d +
E
C1

C3

C2

C4

Since we want to know what happens really close to the boundary, we take
the limit b 0. This means that we let the loop shrink around the con remains nite near the boundary, we
sidered part of the boundary. Since E
nd that

 d = 0,
S-37
E
lim
b0 C3

 d = 0.
lim
S-38
E
b0 C4

So near the boundary we have





 d = 0.
E d +
E
C1

S-39

C2

Since this must hold for any length a, the contribution coming from each
part of C1 must exactly be cancelled by a contribution coming from the
corresponding part of C2 on the opposite side of the boundary. Because

16

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Dn1
r

S1

Medium 1
1

S3

S2
Dn2

2
Medium 2

Figure S-5 Circular cylindrical box around a part of the boundary between
two dierent media.
C1 and C2 are directed in opposite directions, this is only possible if at the
boundary
Et1 = Et2 .

S-40

Boundary condition for E

This must hold for any direction of the loop, so it may be concluded that
 is continuous. Warning: the
at a boundary the tangential component of E

analysis does not provide a statement about the normal component of E,
which will in general jump.
 at a boundary where
Second we will investigate the behavior of D
jumps. This is done by considering a small, circular cylindrical box (pillbox)
around a part of the boundary, as depicted in Figure S-5. The boundary is
assumed to be locally at. At the boundary, a free surface charge density
f may be present. The box extends into the media on both sides of the
boundary. It has a radius r and a height h, and its surface may be subdivided
into the top S1 , the bottom S2 and the rim S3 . According to Equation S-23
we nd for the box


Dn dA +
S1

Dn dA +
S2

Dn dA = Qf .
S3

S-41

SECTION 3 Local laws for the electrostatic eld

17

Next we shrink the box around the considered part of the boundary by taking
 remains nite near the boundary, we nd that
the limit h 0. Since D

lim

h0 S3

Dn dA = 0.

S-42

Near the boundary we now have




Dn dA +
S1

Dn dA = Qf .

S-43

S2

This must hold for any radius r, so also in the limit r 0. But in this limit
 and f may be considered
S1 and S2 become innitesimally small and D
constant over these surfaces. In that case, Equation S-43 may be replaced
by
r 2 Dn1 r 2 Dn2 = r 2 f .

S-44

The minus sign comes from the fact that on S2 the normal component Dn2
points to the inside of the box, while the normal component Dn in Equation
S-41 points to the outside. Dividing by r 2 shows that at the boundary
Dn1 Dn2 = f .

S-45

Boundary condition for D

 jumps
It may be concluded that at a boundary the normal component of D
by an amount equal to the surface charge density f . If there is no surface
 is continuous at the boundary. Warning:
charge, the normal component of D
the analysis does not provide a statement about the tangential component
 which will in general jump.
of D,
For a charged surface that is surrounded by vacuum or air, Equation S-45
is equivalent to Equation 22-20 since in this case Dn = 0 En for both medium
1 and medium 2. When the charged surface is surrounded by a dielectric,
Equation S-45 remains valid, while Equation 22-20 no longer holds.

18

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Equations of Poisson and Laplace

In Section 23-3 it is shown that in the static case the electric eld strength
 may be found from the potential V . The recipe given in Equation 23-17
E
is

 V =
 = grad
E


V V V
i+
j+
k .
x
y
z

S-46

Using the nabla operator from Equation S-7, this may be written as
 = V.

E

S-47

Substitution of Equation S-31 yields

1

D = V.

S-48

Dot-multiplying both sides of this equation with the nabla operator and
using the local version of Gausss law from Equation S-24 nally gives
 )V

(
=

f
.

S-49

This local law between the potential and the charge density is called Poissons
 )
 is usually written as 2 and is
equation. The operator combination (
called the Laplace operator. Application of the dot product from Equation
6-15 shows that the Laplace operator is in fact
2 =

2
2
2
+
+
.
x2 y 2 z 2

S-50
Laplace operator

With the Laplace operator, Poissons equation becomes

2 V =

f
.

S-51
Poissons equation

SECTION 3 Local laws for the electrostatic eld

19

When the charge density is zero, Poissons equation turns into what is known
as Laplaces equation
2 V = 0

S-52
Laplaces equation

There exist powerful numerical packages for solving Poissons equation and
Laplaces equation in almost every kind of situation.

Problems
3-1 In a certain region in space the electric eld potential is given by
V (x, y, z) = 12 x2 y 2 V.

a) Determine the electric eld strength E.
b) Is this electric eld a conservative eld? Explain your answer.
c) Obtain the volume charge density .

 = (kq/r 3 ) r V/m, where r = xi + y j + z k

3-2 Given is an electric eld 
E
is the position vector and r = x2 + y 2 + z 2 is its length.
 E
 outside the origin r = 0.
a) Determine the divergence
b) Is there any volume charge in the region outside the origin?
3-3 A uniform dielectric medium (r = 9) of large extent has an electric
ux density D = 15 pC m2 applied.
a) Find D inside a thin disk-shaped air cavity cut in the dielectric with at

sides normal to D.

b) Find D inside a slender needle-shaped air cavity with axis parallel to D.
3-4 Find the total free charge Qf in a cube (x, y, z) {1 x 2,
C/m2 . Ob = 4xi + 3y 2 j + 2z 3 k
2 y 3, 3 z 4} m, in which D
tain Qf by
 D
 throughout the volume of the cube.
a) integrating f =
 over the surface of the cube.
b) integrating D

20

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Conservation of charge

It is impossible to create or destroy an amount of electric charge without

creating or destroying an equal amout of opposite charge. This is the law of
conservation of charge as discussed in Section 21-1. Here we will see what
consequences this law has for electric currents.

Global and local laws for the transport of charge

Suppose we have a xed domain D with a closed surface S as in Figure
S-1. In view of the conservation of charge no net charge can be created
or destroyed inside D. Consequently, the amount of charge Qinside that is
present inside D can only change if charge is transported through S. Let
Qinside /t be the rate at which the charge inside the domain decreases.
Then the electric current owing through the surface out of the domain is
I=

Qinside
.
t

S-53
Conservation of charge Global law

This is the global law relating current and charge for an entire object. It
is tempting to suggest that this is simply a modied version of Equation
25-1. This is not true, however, since Equation S-53 is a consequence of the
conservation of charge while Equation 25-1 is just the denition of electric
current and does not imply the conservation of charge.
It is easy to derive a local form of the above global law. First we introduce
the current density as the current per unit area. The vectorial current
 is related to the vectorial drift velocity v d of the charge carriers
density J
through
 = qnvd = f v d ,
J

S-54
Relation between current density and drift velocity

which corresponds to Equation 25-4. Here q is the charge of each of the

charge carriers, n is their number density, and f the density of the free
 in each point of a
charge they represent. If we know the current density J
surface S, according to Equation 25-5 the current I that ows through the

SECTION 4 Conservation of charge

21

surface is



 dA
 =
J

I=
S

 n
dA.
J

S-55

Current through a surface

 n
 in the direction of the unit normal
is the normal component of J
Here J
Of course I may be negative. This indicates that actually more
vector n.
than in the direction parallel
charge crosses S in the direction opposite to n
Combining Equation S-55 with Equation S-53 yields
to n.

Qinside
,
Jn dA =
S-56
t
S
points away from D. Further the charge Qinside may be
where as usual n
expressed in terms of the volume charge density

dV.
S-57
Qinside =
D

Substitution into Equation S-56 gives




dV.
Jn dA =
S
D t

S-58

Next we may apply Gausss law from Equation S-9 and obtain






dV.
Jn dA =
J dV =
S
D
D t

S-59

Since this must hold for any domain D, it must be concluded that the integrands of both volume integrals are equal. This yields
 J
 = .

S-60
Conservation of charge Local law

We have now obtained the local law relating current density and volume
charge density. From the conditions of Gausss integral theorem it follows
that Equation S-60 is only valid on a domain for which all the components of
 are continuously dierentiable with respect to all the coordinates x, y, z.
J

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

22

Jn1
r

S1

h
Medium 1
1
2


S3

S2
Jn2

Medium 2
Figure S-6 Circular cylindrical box around a part of the boundary between
two dierent media.


Boundary condition for J
 is continuously dierentiable with respect to the
The requirement that J
spatial coordinates will not always be met. At a boundary between two
 will jump and the local
media with dierent resistivities , some part of J
law in Equation S-60 will in general cease to hold. To fully describe the
behavior of the current density in congurations with jumps in the resistivity,
the basic local equation must be supplemented by a boundary condition that
links the current density at both sides of a boundary.
 at a boundary where jumps, we employ
To investigate the behavior of J
 We start by taking a
the same method as for the electric ux density D.
small, circular cylindrical box (pillbox) around a part of the boundary,
as depicted in Figure S-6. The boundary is assumed to be locally at. It
may be able to store surface charge, so a surface charge density may be
present. The box extends into the media on both sides of the boundary. It
has a radius r and a height h, and its surface may be subdivided into the
top S1 , the bottom S2 and the rim S3 . According to Equation S-56 we nd

The symbol used here for the resistivity was used in previous sections for volume
charge density. Care must be taken to distinguish which quantity refers to. Usually this
will be clear from the context.

SECTION 4 Conservation of charge

23

for the box



Jn dA +

Jn dA =

Jn dA +

S1

S2

S3

Qinside
.
t

S-61

Next we shrink the box around the considered part of the boundary by taking
 remains nite near the boundary, we nd that
the limit h 0. Since J

lim

h0 S3

Jn dA = 0.

S-62

Near the boundary we now have



Jn dA =

Jn dA +
S1

S2

Qinside
.
t

S-63

This must hold for any radius r, so also in the limit r 0. But in this limit
 and may be considered
S1 and S2 become innitesimally small and J
constant over these surfaces. In that case, Equation S-63 may be replaced
by
r 2 Jn1 r 2 Jn2 = r 2

.
t

S-64

The minus sign comes from the fact that on S2 the normal component Jn2
points to the inside of the box, while the normal component Jn in Equation
S-61 points to the outside. Dividing by r 2 shows that at the boundary
Jn1 Jn2 =

.
t

S-65

Boundary condition for J

 jumps
It may be concluded that at a boundary the normal component of J
by an amount /t. If there is no changing surface charge, the normal
 is continuous at the boundary. Warning: the analysis does
component of J
 , which will
not provide a statement about the tangential component of J
in general jump. The size of this jump may be determined by combining
Equation S-40 and Equation S-74 from the next section.

24

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Problems
4-1 A circular disc with thickness d and radius R rotates around its axis
with angular velocity . The disc is situated on the xy-plane and its axis
coincides with the z-axis. The disc is charged with a uniform volume charge
density .

a) Give an expression for the current density J(x)
on the x-axis.
b) Obtain the total current through the plane described by {x > 0, y = 0}.
c) Show by equation S-60 that the rate of change of on the x-axis is zero.

Ohms law

In Section 25-2 the electric current owing in a piece of wire is considered.

The charge carriers inside the wire are set in motion by the force caused by
a time-independent electric eld inside the wire. After a very short time, the
average velocity of the charge carriers (drift velocity) stabilizes at a constant
value because of collisions of the charge carriers with the lattice ions. From
this moment on, a steady current is present in the wire.
As in Section 25-2, let us consider the segment of wire in Figure S-7.
When it is assumed that the electric eld strength E is the same everywhere
in the segment, the potential dierence V over the distance L is given by
Equation 25-6 as
V = Va Vb = E L.

S-66

Figure S-7 A segment of wire carrying a current I. The potential dierence

is V = Va Vb = E L.

SECTION 5 Ohms law

25

Suppose that A is the area of the cross section of the wire. If we assume that
the contribution of the moving charge carriers to the current I is distributed
uniformly over the cross section, the current density J is the same everywhere
on the cross section and we may write
I = JA.

S-67

The ratio of V and I is the resistance of the segment. For ohmic materials the
resistance is independent of V and I. The relation between these quantities
is then given by
V = IR,

R constant.

S-68
Ohms law Global form

This is Equation 25-9, which is Ohms law in global form. To nd its local
counterpart, we apply the fact that according to Equation 25-10
R=

L
.
A

S-69

Here is the resistivity of the conducting material. The inverse of the

resistivity is the conductivity
=

1
.

S-70
Conductivity

The unit of conductivity is 1 m1 or S m1 , where the symbol S is

the abbreviation for the unit siemens. In terms of , Equation S-69 may be
written as
R=

L
.
A

S-71

Combination of Equations S-66, S-67, S-68 and S-71 leads to

EL = JA

L
.
A

S-72

Here the symbol does not indicate volume charge density.

The symbol used here for the conductivity was used in previous sections for surface
charge density. Care must be taken to distinguish which quantity refers to. Usually this
will be clear from the context.

26

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Figure S-8 Conducting object with an elementary domain at point P .

Elimination of L and A shows that J and E are related through

J = E.

S-73

This is the local version of Ohms law, although still in scalar form. This
equation not only applies to a wire segment. Suppose we have an arbitrarily
shaped object in which E and J change in a continuous fashion with position
(no jumps). In this case we may look at an innitesimally small elementary
domain inside the object, as depicted in Figure S-8. Due to its small size,
inside the elementary domain E and J may be considered constant. Performing the same analysis as above again gives Equation S-73. The elementary
domain is innitesimally small, so this equation in fact holds in the point
P at which the elementary domain is located. Since an elementary domain
may be located everywhere in the object, Equation S-73 applies to every
point of the object.
 and E
 in the same direction),
In isotropically conducting materials (J
the scalar Equation S-73 may be generalized to
 = E.

J

S-74

Combining this result with Equation S-70, we nd Equation 25-11, which is

the local version of Ohms law in vector form.

SECTION 6 Local laws for the magnetostatic eld

27

Problems
5-1 At the plane boundary between two conductors the normal electric
eld is 2 V/m in medium 1, and the normal current density in medium 2 is
12 A/m2 . The charge at the boundary can be considered constant. Find the
conductivity of medium 1.

Local laws for the magnetostatic eld

In this section we will show how the integral theorems of Gauss and Stokes
enable us to nd the basic local laws for the static magnetic eld. The
derivation of these local laws will reveal a close mathematical correspondence
between the magnetostatic and the electrostatic eld, despite the physical
dierences.

Local magnetostatic eld equations

There are two basic global laws that fully describe the magnetostatic eld.
From these we will now derive the two basic local laws.
The rst basic global law is Amp`eres law given by Equation 27-16


 d = 0 IC ,
B

Bt d =
C

for any closed curve C.

S-75

 Global form
Amp`eres law for B


The current IC enclosed by a curve C depends on the current density J
introduced in Equation S-55

 n
dA.
J

IC =

S-76

Here S is any surface that has C as its boundary curve. Substitution into
Equation S-75 yields



 d = 0
B
C

 n
dA.
J
S

S-77

28

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Now we may apply Stokess integral theorem from Equation S-10. This gives







 n
dA = 0 J
dA.
S-78
B d = ( B) n
C

Equation S-78 must hold for any surface S. This can only be achieved when
the integrands of both surface integrals are equal. This gives
 B
 = 0 J.


S-79
 Local form
Amp`eres law for B

We have now obtained the local Amp`eres law that corresponds to its global
counterpart in Equation S-77. From the conditions of Stokess integral theorem it follows that Equation S-79 is only valid on a domain for which all
 are continuously dierentiable with respect to all the
the components of B
coordinates x, y, z. In the next part we will see that it is customary to cast
both the global and the local form of Amp`eres law in a slightly dierent
form.
The second basic global law is Gausss law for magnetism from Equation
27-15



dA =
m,net =
Bn dA = 0.
S-80
Bn
S

 Global form
Gausss law for B

When we apply Gausss theorem from Equation S-9, this results in



 B
 dV = 0.
Bn dA =

S-81

Equation S-81 must hold for any volume V . This can only be achieved when
the integrand of the volume integral is zero. This results in
 B
 = 0.

S-82
 Local law
Gausss law for B

We have now found the local law that corresponds to the global law in
Equation S-80. From the conditions of Gausss integral theorem it follows

SECTION 6 Local laws for the magnetostatic eld

29

that Equation S-82 is only valid on a domain for which all the components of
 are continuously dierentiable with respect to all the coordinates x, y, z.
B


The magnetic eld strength H
In Tiplers book the magnetic eld is described by means of only one quantity
 In the electromagnetic literature B
 is usually
called the magnetic eld B.
called the magnetic ux density . Moreover, it is common practice to
 as a second quantity.
introduce the magnetic eld strength H
The distinction between the magnetic eld strength and the magnetic
ux density becomes important when there is both a conduction current
and an amperian current. A conduction current is due to freely moving
conduction electrons or ions. This is the ordinary current that forms the
subject of Chapter 25, and Sections S-4 and S-5. An amperian current is
due to microscopic current loops of moving bound atomic charges. This is
the hypothetical current that accounts for the magnetization of a material,
as discussed in Section 27-5. Both currents occur in a solenoid with a core of
magnetic material, see page 938 and pages 944-946. In this case, Equation
27-16 may be written as

 d = 0 (If + Ia ),
for any closed curve C.
S-83
B
C

Here If is the enclosed conduction current and Ia is the enclosed amperian

 is related to the total current. On the
current. Equation S-83 shows that B
other hand, the magnetic eld strength satises

 d = If ,
H

for any closed curve C.

S-84

 Global form
Amp`eres law for H

This is the alternative form of Amp`eres law that is commonly used in the
 only depends on the conduction
literature. Equation S-84 shows that H
current. Moreover, the factor 0 is absent here. From the equation it also
follows that the product of magnetic eld strength and length yields electric
 is A/m. Just like Equation S-75, we may take the
current, so the unit of H

 in Equation S-80 plays the same

This is consistent with the electrostatic case since B
 in Equation S-23.
role as the electric ux density D

30

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

global law in Equation S-84 and derive a local law from it. Using the same
analysis as before, its follows that
 H
 = Jf .

S-85
 Local form
Amp`eres law for H

Here Jf is the conduction current density. This is the local Amp`eres law
 Since Stokess integral theorem is employed in the derivation, Equafor H.
 are
tion S-85 is only valid on a domain for which all the components of H
continuously dierentiable with respect to all the coordinates x, y, z.
In vacuum there are no magnetic dipoles, so the magnetization is zero.
This implies that a curve C that is entirely located in vacuum does never
enclose an amperian current. Comparison of Equation S-83 and Equation
S-84 shows that the magnetic eld strength and the magnetic ux density
are then related by
 = 0 H.

B

S-86
 and H
 in vacuum
Relation between B

Inside a magnetic material the magnetic dipoles change the magnetic ux


density of vacuum by an amount 0 M
 = 0 H
 + 0 M
 .
B

S-87
 H
 and M
 in a dielectric
Relation between B,

 is called the magnetization of the magnetic material.

The quantity M

 depend on H
 in a manner that depends on the type of
Normally, B and M
magnetic material.
Let us derive the dependence of B and M on H using a thin solenoid

This means that the radius of the solenoid is much smaller than its length. In this
case we may neglect the inuence of both ends on the inside magnetic eld, and assume
that this eld is parallel to the axis of the solenoid. This fact allows us to only consider
 M
 and H
 inside the solenoid.
the scalar magnitude of the eld quantities B,

SECTION 6 Local laws for the magnetostatic eld

C3
M

31

a
C1

C2

C4

H
Ia

Figure S-9 Solenoid with a magnetic core.

with a magnetic core. Consider a coil of length with n turns per unit length,
where the wire carries a conduction current I. Application of Equation S-84
to the loop in Figure S-9 gives










 d = anI.
S-88
H d +
H d +
H d +
H
C1

C3

C2

C4

The eld outside the solenoid (except near the ends) is small and may be
neglected, so

 d = 0.
S-89
H
C1

The eld inside the solenoid (except near the ends) is constant and in the
direction  of the path C2 , so

 d = aH.
S-90
H
C2

Along C3 and C4 the eld is perpendicular to the direction of the path, so


 d = 0,
S-91
H
C3

 d = 0.
S-92
H
C4

Substitution of these results in Equation S-88 gives for the eld inside the
solenoid
Bapp
.
S-93
H = nI =
0

32

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Here Bapp is the magnetic ux density of the magnetizing eld, see pages
938-939. This is the ux density of the eld that would exist inside the
empty coil. In the presence of the core, the amperian current at the surface
accounts for its magnetization. According to Equation 27-20, the value of
the amperian current per unit length is
Ja =

di
= M.
d

S-94

The quantity Ja is a surface current density with the unit A/m. When
the wire of the solenoid is thin and closely wound, the conduction current
in the individual turns may be replaced by a uniformly distributed surface
current as well. The value of this surface conduction current density is
Jf = nI.

S-95

This surface conduction current ows very close to the amperian surface
current. Application of Equation S-83 to the curve C in Figure S-9 then
yields
B = 0 (Jf + Ja ) = Bapp + 0 M = Km Bapp .

S-96

Removing Bapp from Equation S-93 and Equation S-96 gives

B = Km 0 H = H.

S-97

Substitution of Equation S-97 into Equation S-87 further shows that

M = (Km 1)H = m H.

S-98

The quantity m = Km 1 is the magnetic susceptibility of the material. In this paragraph and in Section 27-5 it is assumed that the magnetic
 and H
 in the same direction). In such materials,
material is isotropic (M
the latter two equations may be generalized to their vector forms
 = Km 0 H
 = H,

B
 = m H.
 = (Km 1)H

M

S-99
S-100
 and M
 expressed in terms of H

B

In the electrotechnical literature the relative permeability Km is usually

indicated by the symbol r .

SECTION 6 Local laws for the magnetostatic eld

33

 and B
 is that it is now
A benet of using two separate quantities H
relatively easy to extend the analysis at the beginning of Section 28-6 and
determine the self-inductance of a thin solenoid with a magnetic core. To
show this, we again assume that a conduction current I ows through a
solenoid with n turns per unit length. Then the magnetic eld strength H
inside the core has the constant value
H = nI.

S-101

Assuming we know of the magnetic material, the magnetic ux m through

the N = n turns of the coil is simply
m = BAN = HAN = n2 IA .

S-102

Dividing this equation by I yields for the self-inductance

L = n2 A .

S-103

 and B

Boundary conditions for H
Equations S-82 and S-85 are the basic local laws of magnetostatics. Unlike
their global counterparts, these local laws are only valid when the relevant
eld quantities are continuously dierentiable with respect to the spatial
coordinates. This need not always be the case. For example, at a boundary
between two media with dierent , some part of the eld quantities will
jump and the local laws will in general cease to hold. To fully describe
the behavior of the magnetostatic eld in congurations with jumps in the
medium parameters, the basic local equations must be supplemented by
boundary conditions. The purpose of these boundary conditions is to link
the eld quantities at both sides of a boundary.
 at a boundary where jumps.
First let us investigate the behavior of H
This is done by considering a small, rectangular loop around a part of the
boundary, as depicted in Figure S-10. The boundary is assumed to be locally
at. The loop extends into the media on both sides of the boundary. It

As before, for the analysis of the thin solenoid we only consider the scalar magnitude of
 and H
 inside the solenoid. This is allowed since these eld quantities
the eld quantities B
are parallel to the axis of the solenoid.

34

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

a
C1
b

C4

Ht1
Ht2

C3

Medium 1
1
Medium 2
2

C2
Figure S-10 Rectangular loop around a part of the boundary between two
dierent media.
has the sides a and b, and may be subdivided into parts C1 through C4 .
According to Equation S-84 we nd for the loop



 d +
H
C1

 d +
H
C3

 d +
H
C2

 d = If .
H

S-104

C4

Since we want to know what happens really close to the boundary, we take
the limit b 0. This means that we let the loop shrink around the consid remains nite near the boundary, we
ered part of the boundary. Since H
nd that

 d = 0,
S-105
H
lim
b0 C3

 d = 0.
lim
S-106
H
b0 C4

Let us assume there is no surface conduction current. Then the enclosed

current If becomes zero in this limit. Near the boundary we have



 d +
H
C1

 d = 0.
H

S-107

C2

Since this must hold for any length a, the contribution coming from each
part of C1 must exactly be cancelled by a contribution coming from the
corresponding part of C2 on the opposite side of the boundary. Because
C1 and C2 are directed in opposite directions, this is only possible if at the
boundary

SECTION 6 Local laws for the magnetostatic eld

35

Bn1
r

S1

Medium 1
1

S3

S2
Bn2

2
Medium 2

Figure S-11 Circular cylindrical box around a part of the boundary between
two dierent media.

Ht1 = Ht2 .

S-108

Boundary condition for H

This must hold for any direction of the loop, so it may be concluded that at
 is continuous. However, if there
a boundary the tangential component of H
is a surface conduction current, the above derivation is no longer valid and
 will jump at the boundary. Warning: the
the tangential component of H

analysis does not provide a statement about the normal component of H,
which will in general jump.
 at a boundary where
Second we will investigate the behavior of B
jumps. This is done by considering a small, circular cylindrical box (pillbox)
around a part of the boundary, as depicted in Figure S-11. The boundary
is assumed to be locally at. The box extends into the media on both sides
of the boundary. It has a radius r and a height h, and its surface may be
subdivided into the top S1 , the bottom S2 and the rim S3 . According to
Equation S-80 we nd for the box


Bn dA +
S1

Bn dA +
S2

Bn dA = 0.
S3

S-109

36

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Next we shrink the box around the considered part of the boundary by taking
 remains nite near the boundary, we nd that
the limit h 0. Since B

lim

h0 S3

Bn dA = 0.

S-110

Near the boundary we now have




Bn dA +
S1

Bn dA = 0.

S-111

S2

This must hold for any radius r, so also in the limit r 0. But in this limit
 may be considered constant
S1 and S2 become innitesimally small and B
over these surfaces. In that case, Equation S-111 may be replaced by
r 2 Bn1 r 2 Bn2 = 0.

S-112

The minus sign comes from the fact that on S2 the normal component Bn2
points to the inside of the box, while the normal component Bn in Equation
S-109 points to the outside. Dividing by r 2 shows that at the boundary
Bn1 = Bn2 .

S-113

Boundary condition for B

 is
It may be concluded that at a boundary the normal component of B
continuous. Warning: the analysis does not provide a statement about the
 which will in general jump.
tangential component of B,

Problems
6-1 Find the free current If through a square area 5 m on a side with
corners at (0, 3, 0), (0, 8, 0), (5, 8, 0) and (5, 3, 0) m, where we have a magnetic
 = 3y 3i A/m. Do this by
eld H

 s.
 =
 H
 and If =
a) using J
A J d

 dl.
b) using If = C H

SECTION 7 Local laws for the electromagnetic eld

37

6-2 A ferromagnetic medium (r = 175) of large extent has a uniform ux

density B = 2 T.
a) Find H inside a thin disk-shaped air cavity with at sides perpendicular

to B.

b) Find H inside a long needle-shaped air cavity with axis parallel to B.
6-3 The xy-plane forms the plane boundary between two isotropic media,
denoted by medium 1 (with r1 = 2, located at z > 0) and medium 2 (with
r2 = 6, located at z < 0). Just above the boundary, in medium 1, the
A/m. Calculate the
 = 3i + 2j 6k
magnetic eld strength is given as H
 just below the boundary.
magnetic ux density B

Local laws for the electromagnetic eld

In this section we will show how the integral theorems of Gauss and Stokes
enable us to nd the local Maxwell equations for the electromagnetic eld.
In essence, the approach is the same as for the electrostatic and the magnetostatic case.

Local Maxwells equations

When a magnetic eld changes in time, it causes an electric eld. This
phenomenon is called magnetic induction and is described by Faradays
law in Equation 28-5. Reversely, when an electric eld changes in time,
it causes a magnetic eld. This is due to the fact that a time-dependent
electric eld causes Maxwells displacement current, which leads to the
generalized form of Amp`eres law in equation 30-4. Due to the occurence
of magnetic induction and Maxwells displacement current, the electric eld
and the magnetic eld mutually inuence each other as soon as they are no
longer static. The combination of mutually coupled electric and magnetic
elds is called the electromagnetic eld. The basic equations of the electromagnetic eld are called Maxwells equations, which form the theoretical
basis of all electrotechnical applications.
Let us rst consider the global form of Maxwells equations. One version
may be found in Section 30-2 of Tiplers book. In these equations, only

38

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

 and the magnetic ux density B

 occur. In the
the electric eld strength E
electromagnetic literature, it is common practice to use an alternative version
 and the magnetic eld strength H

in which also the electric ux density D
show up. Traditionally the equations are presented in a sequence that diers
from Tiplers. Therefore we present Maxwells equations in global form as


d
Jn dA +
dt
S

 d =
H
C


Dn dA,

S-114

Amp`eres law or Maxwells rst equation Global form

 d = d
E
dt
C


Bn dA,

S-115

Faradays law or Maxwells second equation Global form


Dn dA =
S

f dV,

S-116

Gausss law or Maxwells third equation Global form


Bn dA = 0.

S-117

Gausss law for magnetism or Maxwells fourth equation Global form

A benet of this version is that all these equations are valid for all kinds
of material, while for example Equation 30-6d is only valid for vacuum.
 and E

The inuence of a material shows up in the relations between D




(Equation S-31), J and E (Equation S-74), and B and H (Equation S99). Such equations give the material dependent relations between the eld
quantities and are called constitutive equations.
Let us next derive the local counterparts of Maxwells equation in global
form. First we take Equation S-114 and substitute Stokes integral theorem
from Equation S-10. This gives




d





 n
dA =
dA+
dA. S-118
H d = ( H) n
J n
D
dt
C
S
S
S
Now we state that we only want to derive the local relations for a non-

SECTION 7 Local laws for the electromagnetic eld

39

moving situation. This implies that C and S do not move. Then there is
no motional emf (see Section 28-4), so the time dierentiation may be put
inside the surface integral and we arrive at



 d =
H
C

 H)
 n
dA =
(
S


 n
dA +
J


dD
dA. S-119
n
dt

Equation S-119 must hold for any surface S. This can only be achieved when
the integrands of all the surface integrals are equal. This gives

 H
 =J
 + dD .

dt

S-120
Amp`eres law or Maxwells rst equation Local form

Applying the same kind of analysis to Equation S-115, we nd


 E
 = dB .

dt

S-121
Faradays law or Maxwells second equation Local form

Subsequently we may apply Gausss integral theorem from Equation S-9

to Equation S-116 and Equation S-117. But the global form of Maxwells
third and fourth equation is equal to the global form of Gausss law for
 and B,
 respectively. Clearly, the same will apply to the corresponding
D
local equations. Therefore we give these equations without repeating their
derivation
 D
 = f ,

S-122
Gausss law or Maxwells third equation Local form

 B
 = 0.

S-123

Gausss law for magnetism or Maxwells fourth equation Local form

40

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

a
C1
b

C4

Et1
Et2

C3

Medium 1
1 , 1
Medium 2
2 , 2

C2
Figure S-12 Rectangular loop around a part of the boundary between two
dierent media.

 D,
 H
 and B

Boundary conditions for E,
The Maxwells equations S-120 through S-123 are the basic local laws of
electromagetics. Unlike their global counterparts, these local laws are only
valid when the relevant eld quantities are continuously dierentiable with
respect to the spatial coordinates. This need not always be the case. For example, at a boundary between two media with dierent , or , some part
of the eld quantities will jump and the local laws will in general cease to
hold. To fully describe the behavior of the electromagnetic eld in congurations with jumps in the medium parameters, the basic local equations must
be supplemented by boundary conditions. The purpose of these boundary
conditions is to link the eld quantities at both sides of a boundary.
 at a boundary where or
First let us investigate the behavior of E
jumps. This is done by considering a small, rectangular loop around a part
of the boundary, as depicted in Figure S-12. The boundary is assumed to be
locally at. The loop extends into the media on both sides of the boundary.
It has the sides a and b, and may be subdivided into parts C1 through C4 .
According to Equation S-115 we nd for the loop


 d+
E
C1

 d+
E
C3

 d+
E
C2

 d = d
E
dt
C4


Bn dA. S-124
S

Here S is a surface that has the loop as its boundary curve. Since we want
to know what happens really close to the boundary, we take the limit b 0.
This means that we let the loop shrink around the considered part of the

SECTION 7 Local laws for the electromagnetic eld

41

 remains nite near the boundary, we nd that

boundary. Since E

lim

b0 C3

 d = 0,
E

S-125

 d = 0.
E

S-126

lim

b0 C4

 remains nite near the boundary, we also nd that

Since B

lim

b0 S

Bn dA = 0,

S-127

This means that the enclosed magnetic ux becomes zero in this limit. This
is to be expected since the area A of surface S will become zero when b 0.
Near the boundary we then have



 d +
E
C1

 d = 0.
E

S-128

C2

Since this must hold for any length a, the contribution coming from each
part of C1 must exactly be cancelled by a contribution coming from the
corresponding part of C2 on the opposite side of the boundary. Because
C1 and C2 are directed in opposite directions, this is only possible if at the
boundary
Et1 = Et2 .

S-129
 General case
Boundary condition for E

This must hold for any direction of the loop, so it may be concluded that
 is continuous. Comparison
at a boundary the tangential component of E
with Equation S-40 shows that this boundary condition is the same as for
the static case. The analysis does not provide a statement about the normal
 which will in general jump.
component of E,
 at a jump in or follows from Equation
The boundary condition for D
S-116. As observed before, this equation is identical to Equation S-23.

42

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

Therefore we may conclude that the boundary condition is the same as

Equation S-45 of the static case
Dn1 = Dn2 .

S-130
 General case
Boundary condition for D

 is continuous. The tangential

At a boundary the normal component of D

component of D will in general jump.
 at a jump in follows from taking EquaThe boundary condition for H
tion S-114 and applying the same steps that led to the boundary condition
 It turns out that the boundary condition is again the same as Equafor E.
tion S-108 of the static case
Ht1 = Ht2 .

S-131
 General case
Boundary condition for H

This must hold for any direction of the applied loop, so it may be concluded
 is continuous. However,
that at a boundary the tangential component of H
 will
if there is a surface conduction current, the tangential component of H

jump at the boundary. The normal component of H will in general jump.
 at a jump in follows from S-117.
Finally, the boundary condition for B
As observed before, this equation is identical to Equation S-80. Thus we
may again conclude that the boundary condition is the same as Equation
S-113 of the static case
Bn1 = Bn2 .

S-132
 General case
Boundary condition for B

 is continuous. The tangential

At a boundary the normal component of B
 will in general jump.
component of B

APPENDIX A Proof of integral theorems

APPENDIX A

43

Proof of integral theorems

In Section 2 the integral theorems of Gauss and Stokes have been introduced without proof. Here the proofs of both theorems will be given.
Moreover, the physical meaning of these theorems will be explained.

Proof of Gausss integral theorem

To prove Gausss integral theorem and to understand what it means, it is
 v as a scalar quantity indicating the outow of
best to rst interpret
the vector eld. It can be obtained from the limiting behavior of the net
outow integral for a vanishing small elementary domain. To show this
we rst compute the net outow of the vector eld v over the innitesimally
small elementary domain dD in Figure S-13. The center of this elementary
By Taylors theorem, the
domain is given by r c = 12 dx i + 12 dy j + 12 dz k.

...
.........
.......
.. .... ..
...
...
..
....
...
...
...
....
...
..
.
.........................................................
.
.
.
...........................
.
.
...........................
..... ....
.
.
.
............................
...
..................
.
.
.
.
....
..
. .......
.....
.
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.... .
.
..........
...
.
.
.
.
.
..... ..
.
.
.
..
.... ..........
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.... ... .
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
....
.
...
.
....
.
...............................
.
....
.
............................. ...
..
.
....
...........................
.
.
....
............................
...
..
.
.
....
...........................
.
.
.
.
...
....
.
.
...................
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.........................
.
.
.......................
....
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
...........................
.
.
.
........................
....
.
.
...
.
........................ ..
.
.
.
....
............
.
.
.
.......................
.
....
.
.......................... .......
.
....
....
.
.
.
.
.
.........................
.
...
.
.
.
.
....
.
....
.
..............
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
....
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
....
.. .......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
.........
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
..........................................................
....
.
............................
....
. .......
.
..........................
.. .....
.
............................
.......
..........
.
.................
..
..............
......

dx

dS

~r c

dD

dz

dy

Figure S-13 Elementary domain dD with closed boundary surface dS in

three-dimensional space.

44

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

component vx is
vx (x, y, z) = vx (r c ) +

vx
vx
vx
(x 12 dx) +
(y 12 dy) +
(z 12 dz)
x
y
z

+ higher order terms.

S-133

The surface integral of the normal component vn (in the direction of the
outward normal) over the top surface {x = dx, 0 < y < dy, 0 < z < dz} of
the elementary domain is
 


 dy  dz
vx
1
dx dy dz
vx (dx, y, z) dA = vx (r c ) + 2
x
y=0 z=0
+ higher order terms.

S-134

The surface integral of the normal component vn (in the direction of the
outward normal) over the bottom surface {x = 0, 0 < y < dy, 0 < z < dz}
of the elementary domain is
 


 dy  dz
vx
1
dx dy dz
vx (0, y, z) dA = vx (r c ) 2

x
y=0 z=0
+ higher order terms.

S-135

The negative sign in front of the integral is coming in because the outward
pointing component vn for the bottom surface is vx . The sum of the surface
integrals over these two faces is therefore simply (vx /x) dx dy dz, to the
order of approximation considered here. The contributions to the other faces
depend on vy and vz and can be computed in a similar way. The net outow
integral from the elementary domain is therefore



vz
vx vy
 v ) dx dy dz,
+
+
dx dy dz = (
vn dA =
x
y
z
dS
S-136

in which dS denotes the boundary surface of the elementary domain dD.

The net outow integral per unit volume at an arbitrary point r is

vn dA
vx vy
vz
dS
 v .
=
+
+
=
S-137
lim
dV 0
dV
x
y
z

APPENDIX A Proof of integral theorems

45

Here dV = dx dy dz is the volume of an elementary domain dD around r . In

general the integral dS vn dA is called the ux of the vector eld v through
the surface dS.
Knowing all this, the proof of Gausss integral theorem is easy. Consider
the domain D with closed boundary S. All we have to do is to subdivide
D in elementary domains dD described above. Now in the interior of D the
outow through one side of an elementary domain is the inow (or negative outow) through the corresponding side of the neighbouring elementary
domain, so both contributions cancel each other. As a result of all these
cancellations, the total contribution from the inner boundaries between the
elementary domains is zero. Consequently, the total outow through all
boundaries dS is just equal to the total outow through the outer boundary
S. Adding Equation S-136 for all elementary domains dD in D then results
in Gausss integral theorem as stated in Equation S-9.

Interpretation of Gausss integral theorem

After the foregoing analysis it is not dicult

to see what Gausss integral

theorem means. On one hand, the expression S vn dA is the total outow of
a vector
eld through the closed boundary S of a domain D. On the other
 v ) dV is the integral of the outow of the vector eld per unit
hand, D (
volume of D. According to Gausss integral theorem, both expressions are
equal. Thus, loosely stated, the theorem says that the outow of a vector
eld through the closed surface of a volume must be generated in an equal
amount inside that volume.

Proof of Stokess integral theorem

To prove Stokess integral theorem and to understand what it means, it is
 v as a vectorial quantity indicating the circulation
best to rst interpret 
of the vector eld. It can be obtained from the limiting behavior of the
net circulation integral around a vanishing small elementary surface dS.
To show this we rst consider the innitesimally small elementary surface
{x = 12 dx, 0 < y < dy, 0 < z < dz}, which is perpendicular to i. The
situation is depicted in Figure S-14. The center point of this elementary
The circulation integral for
surface is given by r c = 12 dx i + 12 dy j + 12 dz k.

46

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

....
........
......
.. .... ..
....
...
...
...
....
...
...
....
....
...
.....
...
............
....
.......
..............
....
...
....
...
....
.
.
.
..
....
...
...
...
....
...
...
.
.. .... ..
......
......
.
......
r
...
....
...
....
....
.
.
....
...
....
.. .
.
....
.
...
...
....
...
..
..
...
....
...
...
.......
.......
......
..
...
..
.....
.....................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................
......
.........
........
........

d~`

dz

dC

~r c

dS

dy

Figure S-14 Elementary surface dS with closed boundary curve dC in threedimensional space. The arrows indicate the direction of integration over dC.
The surface is positioned in the plane x = 12 dx.
the path shown in Figure S-14 is
 dz
 dy

1

v d =
vy ( 2 dx, , 0) d +
vz ( 12 dx, dy, ) d
0
0
dC
 dz
 dy
1
vy ( 2 dx, , dz) d
vz ( 12 dx, 0, ) d . S-138

Substituting a Taylor series expansion similar to Equation S-133 for vy and

vz we nd
 
 

vy
vz
v d = vy (r c ) dy 12
dy dz + vz (r c ) dz + 12
dy dz
z
y
dC
 
 
1 vy
1 vz
dy dz vz (r c ) dz + 2
dy dz
vy (r c ) dy 2
z
y


vy
vz

dy dz
=
y
z
 v ) n
dy dz
= (

S-139

plus higher order terms. The last step follows from Equation S-12 and
is in this case i. Subsequently, the
the fact that the normal vector n

APPENDIX A Proof of integral theorems

47

Figure S-15 The contributions of the adjacent sides of the elementary surfaces cancel, leaving only the contribution from the outer boundary.
net circulation integral for the elementary surface perpendicular to j is

 v ) n
dx dz with n
= j.
(vx /z vz /dx) dx dz, which is equal to (
Likewise, the net circulation integral for the elementary surface perpendic is (vy /x vx /dy) dx dy, which is equal to (
 v ) n
dx dy
ular to k

= k. The net circulation integral per unit area at a point r is

with n

v d
dA
 v ) n
.
= (
S-140
lim
dA0
dA
is the unit normal
Here dA is the area of an elementary surface dS and n
vector of this elementary surface.
At this stage, the proof of Stokess integral theorem is easy. Consider the
surface S with closed boundary C and subdivide S in elementary surfaces
dS described above. Now in the interior of S the integral over one side of
an elementary surface is the negative of the integral over the corresponding
side of the neighbouring elementary surface, so both contributions cancel.
As a result of all these cancellations, the total contribution from the inner
boundaries between the elementary surfaces is zero. Consequently, the total
circulation along all boundaries dC is just equal to the total circulation along
the outer boundary C. This is depicted in Figure S-15. Adding Equation
S-139 for all elementary surfaces dS in S then results in Stokess integral
theorem as stated in Equation S-10.

Interpretation of Stokess integral theorem

After the foregoing analysis it is not dicult

to see what Stokess integral

theorem means. One one hand, the expression C v d is the total circulation

48

SUPPLEMENT Electromagnetic elds Local relations

of a vector
eld over the closed boundary C of a surface S. On the other

 v ) n
dA is the integral of the circulation of the vector eld
hand, S (
per unit area of S. According to Stokess integral theorem, both expressions
are equal. Thus, loosely stated, the theorem says that the circulation of a
vector eld along the closed boundary of a surface is equal to the sum of all
local circulations over that surface.

APPENDIX B Answers to problems

APPENDIX B

Answers to problems

 v = 1,
 v = 0
2-1 a)
 v = 0,
 v = 1k
b)
 v = 2,
 v = 0
c)

 v = 2j
d) v = 0,
2-2 a) [2x + 2yx]i x2j 6zk
b) 2y 8
c) 0
3-1 a) xy 2i + yx2j V/m
b) yes
c) 0 (x2 + y 2 ) C/m3
3-2 a) 0 V/m2
b) no
3-3 a) 15 pC/m2
b) 1.7 pC/m2
3-4
93 C
4-1 a) xj
b) 12 dR2
5-1
6 S/m
6-1
7275 A
6-2 a) 1.59 106 A/m
b) 9.09 103 A/m
6-3
0 [18i + 12j 12k] T

49