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University of Technology, Jamaica

LECTURE 4

TIMBER

Oct. 2015

Presented by: Mr. Milton McIntyre

Classification of trees
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Trees are classified as Exogen and Endogens.

Exogens are those that grow diametrically, by adding
new cells in a layer between the existing wood and the
bark. Almost all commercial wood are considered to be
Exogens.
Endogens are those that add new living fibre to the old
by allowing new fibre to intermingle with the old, thus
producing growth both diametrically and
longitudinally. Endogens are usually small plants eg:
corn, cane, bamboo and palm.

Structure of Exogens
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In the trunk there are three main

sections, the heartwood, which is
physiologically inactive,
the sapwood, where all conduction
and storage occurs, and the bark,
which protects the interior of the
tree trunk.
Wood is an anisotropic material.
Its anisotropic nature affects
physical and mechanical properties
such as shrinkage, stiffness and
strength.

Structure of Exogens
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Heartwood is the inner part of the trunk made of

dead tissue. Its primary function is to provide
mechanical support to the tree. Heartwood that is the
older wood and is darker, drier and harder than the
outer part.
Pith is the soft center of the log surrounded by the annual
rings. The number of rings approximately represents the
age of the tree.

Sapwood is the woody layer just beneath the

cambium layer and is used to transport moisture
through the tree.

Structure of Exogens
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The region of sapwood cells, which are often light in

colour, lies outside the heartwood cells. Sapwood is less
dense than heartwood and is less resistant to decay and
insect attack than heartwood, which is more durable
(not stronger) in use.
Bark is a flaky layer of corky material that protects the
tree. The inner bark, nearest the cambium, is alive
and provides protection around the tree.

Structure of Exogens
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The outer bark is not alive and protects the tree from
attack by various insects and diseases.
Cambium is a thin (microscopic) layer of wood cells that
exists inside the bark. The growth of wood takes place
continuously under the bark in the cambium layer resulting
in a ring known as Annual (growth) ring. The width of
ring depends on the rate of growth of the tree.

Structure of Exogens
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Wood is a natural, renewable, organic substance with a

wide variety of uses. Of particular interest are trees that
grow to sufficient height with diameters large enough to
be useful in the production of lumber and wood products

Wood typically consists of tiny, hollow, fibrous cells that

are composed of cellulose and lignin. The typical
composition of wood is 60% cellulose, 28% lignin, and
12% other materials. Lignin acts primarily as a cement to
hold the wood cells together, thus supporting the tree.
Cellulose is made up primarily of carbohydrates
produced by photosynthesis.

Types of Exogenous trees

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Wood is broadly classified

into 2 categories that is:
Hardwood Trees
trees with broad leaves
that shed in winter.
Example: Oak, Maple,
Aspen, beech, birch,
basswood, poplar, elm,
cherry, etc.

Types of Exogenous trees

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Softwood Trees
Any species that have
needlelike leaves (conifers)
and that are generally
evergreen.

Lumber Production
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http://youtu.be/w8pF4_HpD64

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OSt0TtkACHI&feature=related

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Sawn Lumber
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Cutting techniques
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Round logs are cut into regular, rectangular

pieces, which offer greater flexibility of use. The
different methods of cutting are:

Plain sawn (Flat)

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The most common method of

sawing ( found in most solid timber
flooring)
The most straightforward way to
cut rectangular-profiled timber
boards by cutting a log lengthwise
with a series of parallel cuts (which
is tangentially to a tree's growth
rings, creating the familiar "flameshaped" or "cathedral" grain)
It provides excellent yield, widest
boards and least waste.

Quarter sawn (edge)

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The method that cut logs into

quarters then sawing it
perpendicular (90) to the growth
rings.
Produces radial (vertical) grains.
This method yields fewer and
narrower boards per log than plain
sawing.
Most popular for decorative
applications such as cabinet faces.

Rift sawn
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Similar to quarter sawn (cut

perpendicular to the rings)
Produces narrow boards with
accentuated vertical or "straight"
grain patterns (more uniform).
It provides very poor yield and leaves
lots of waste. Therefore, not a very
popular method used.
Favoured for fine furniture and other
applications where matching grain is
important.

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Seasoning
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After cutting, lumber is seasoned. Seasoning is defined

as the process of controlled drying of lumber to
increase its structural properties. Lumber is dried to:
Reduce shrinkage while in use
Reduce checking and warping
Increase its mechanical properties
Increase its resistance to decay
Prepare it for further treatment with preservatives
Reduce its weight for transportation.

Seasoning
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Two methods are practiced;

Air drying
Kiln drying
Chemical

Timber
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Timber is one of the most popular material in light

construction because of :
a)
b)

c)
d)
e)

f)

g)

simplicity in fabrication
Lightness
Reusability
insulation from heat, sound & electricity
aesthetically pleasing appearance
resistance to oxidation, acid attack, salt
attack and salt water
environmental compatibility

Advantages
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Other advantages of using wood as an engineering

material include:
the low energy content needed for production,
the low cost of production,
wood is an environmentally friendly material,
wood is a renewable material. When trees grown in
sustainable forests are cut down, more trees are
planted, keeping the trees from extinction and
maintaining the levels of oxygen production by living
trees.

Advantages
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wood has a very high specific strength due to its low

density and reasonable strength,
woods low density also makes it easier to transport,
there are very low costs associated with the disposal of
wood,
wood is not electrically conductive,
most woods are non-toxic,
wood is low in thermal conductivity,
nails and screws do not measurably weaken wood, if put
in with care, showing that wood is very resistant to stress
concentrations.

Disadvantages
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However wood also has disadvantages as an engineering

material which generally stop its use as a high-tech material.
These include:
there is large variability in properties between species and,
depending on growing conditions and the position of the wood
within a trunk, within a species.
wood is dimensionally unstable, as water changes its
dimensions.
woods strength decreases when wet.
time-dependent deformation such as creep and visco-elasticity
occur in wood. Creep occurs due to movement of the noncrystalline (amorphous) sections of the cellulose microfibrils.

Disadvantages
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It is highly combustible.
It is susceptible to termites, woodworm and infestations.
It cannot be used at high temperatures.
It is susceptible to rot and disease.
It is highly anisotropic, although this can be limited by the
use of plywood. Plywood involves assembling layers of
wood with orthogonal grain orientation, decreasing the
anisotropy.

Mechanical Properties
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The mechanical properties of timber that are of

concern are:
Tensile

strength
Compressive strength
Shear strength
Bending strength
Modulus of Elasticity

Mechanical Properties
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Tensile strength
Wood

exhibits its highest strength values in tension

parallel to the grain. Tensile capacity perpendicular to
the grain is considerably lower than that of the parallel
grain. Variation in the grain, knots, and a different
moisture content certainly would produce different
values. The difference in strength is caused primarily by
the lack of primary lateral connections between the
individual longitudinal wood fibres.

Mechanical Properties
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Compressive strength
The

capacity of wood in compression parallel to the

grain is conditional to the ability of the wood cells to
resist buckling. As loading increases, the microscopic
buckling that occurs in the cell walls is magnified to the
point where failure will occur across the wood section.
Compression perpendicular to the grain causes
flattening of the wood cells, and a large amount of
deformation can occur without any clear maximum
load.

Mechanical Properties
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Shear

strength

Three basic types of shear can occur in wood: shear

parallel to the grain, shear perpendicular to the
grain, and rolling shear.
Shear parallel to the rain occurs in a plane parallel
to the wood grain, with the resulting sliding
occurring in the same direction.
Shear perpendicular to the grain occurs when
failure occurs in a plane normal to the grain.

Mechanical Properties
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Rolling shear also occurs in a plane parallel to he

grain but the direction of sliding is at right angles to
the grain in a plane parallel to the grain direction.
Wood

has a high resistance to shear perpendicular to

the grain, and usually some other form of failure occurs
before this type of shear failure occurs. Shear parallel
to the grain must be considered when designing sections
in flexure, and rolling shear must be dealt with when
designing sections using plywood.

Mechanical Properties
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Bending Stress

When loads are applied, structural members bend, producing

tension in the fibres along the faces farthest from the applied
load and compression in the fibres along the face nearest to
the applied load. These induced stresses in the fibres are
designated as bending stresses. Bending stresses in sections
are influenced by the fact that wood has different
characteristics in tension and compression.

Mechanical Properties
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The modulus of elasticity (E) measures the amount a

piece of lumber will deform in proportion to an
applied load under elastic range stresses. It is a
measure of stiffness and not a strength property.

Mechanical Properties
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Physical & mechanical properties of wood differ from

species to species & also within species. Among the factor
influencing its properties are:

Density
Moisture Content
Temperature
Grain structure
Position in tree
Condition of growth
Defects
Creep

Defects in Timber
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Lumber defects are nothing more than imperfections in wood.

Regardless of type of wood used, some or all of them are
usually a little less than perfect.
Defects can be either "man made" or naturally occurring. Man
made defects can be attributed to wood movement or a change
in moisture content.
Naturally occurring defects are more "organic. Natural defects
are always environmental, attributed by either soil composition,
changes in weather conditions, foreign invaders or growth
patterns.

Defects in Timber
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The common defects in timber are:

Knots, Blue Stain, Pitch, Spalt, Wormhole, Shake,
Checks, Split, Wane, Bow, Crook, Cup, Twist,
Machine burn
Read up on each wood defect.

Degradation/Decay of Timber
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Type

Agent

Environmental Factors

Biological

fungi (dry rot, wet rot, moulds and

others) bacteria; actinomycetes;
lichens, mosses and algae woodboring insect larvae
(woodworm, death watch beetle and
others) carpet beetle, moths, book lice
and silverfish termites

moisture and humidity

air movement
temperature
light
dust
food source

Chemical

acids, alkalis and solvents

pollution
remedial treatment

Physical

mechanical abrasion, general

handling and others, decomposition
by physical agents such as prolonged
heating, fire and moisture

normal use, visitor wear

accidental damage
sunlight, heating, fire, damp

Radiation

ultraviolet light

exposure to sunlight

Physical degradation
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Wood is a highly stable polymer, that does not degrade on its

own.
Exposure to sunlight causes a change in colouration heartwood lightens (mahogany, oak) some darken (teak)
Exterior exposure is the most severe & in a few months
weathering will take place
Light, rain & wind all contribute to the weathering process
silver grey appearance
Produces loss of surface integrity due to the breakdown of
lignin under the action of ultraviolet light

Physical degradation
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Further exposure will cause the shortening of the chain length

in the cellulose erosion of the cell wall will result
Timber becomes brittle & resistance to load is reduced as the
damaged lignin cannot fully transfer the stress
The surface is built to protect & filter the UV light thereby
slowing the effects of weathering. (slow process 1mm/20
years)
The application of surface protection is recommended
weathered surface must be cleaned prior to treatment

Physical degradation
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Timber heated to 120C for a period of about one

month will experience a loss in strength of about 10%
- small increases in temperature above this value will
accelerate the process
Browning of the timber takes place indicating the
thermal damage & a caramel like odour can be
detected degradation of the hemicelluloses
continued exposure will affect the cellulose
Timber is stressed under load for long periods
creep

Physical degradation
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Duration of load, creep & the associated loss of

strength with time 50 years of loading strength
approximately 50%
Designers apply time modification factors
Compression failure can occur naturally due to the
formation of kinks in the cell walls under high
compressive stress or as brittle heart due to growth
stresses in the centre of the trunk
Service conditions can induce over stressing of the cell
walls due to longitudinal compression
Results in reduced tensile strength & a major loss of

toughness

Chemical degradation
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Generally timber is highly resistant to various chemicals

Timber is more resistant to mild acids than cast iron or mild
steel
Timber has lower resistance to alkalis dissolves lignin &
hemicelluloses
Iron salts are acidic in the presence of moisture & leads to
hydrolytic degradation of the timber softening &
discolouration in the area of iron fastenings
Corrosion of certain metal fittings causes chemical decay of
timber nail sickness (chemical rot) electrochemical effect
controlled by the availability of oxygen

Biological degradation
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Wood being of organic

origin is a suitable food for
many organism
When the tree is alive it has
its own resistance (produces
certain chemicals)
After felling- undergo
deterioration.

Bacteria degradation
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Very slow degradation

Only few cellulytic bacteria can degrade wood
Contact with soil or water saturated conditions Favourable
Causes - Softening of surface layers

Excessive shrinkage on drying

Attack- mostly in Heart wood

Wood is called- Wet wood

Lower density, toughness, compression strength

But have higher permeability to preservatives

Bacteria- play a dominant role in rapid decomposition of fungus

attacked wood - Assignment

Effects of Decay and discolouration

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Distinct change in colour

Characteristic odour is given off by wood

Zonation lines may be formed by some fungi

Reduces strength, hardness, elasticity of wood

Decrease in specific gravity occurs

Treatment
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Timber needs to be chemically treated for two reasons:

To prevent destruction from fungi and insects
To inhibit combustion
Treatment for fungi and combustion is carried out with one of
the following types of chemicals:
Pentachlorophenol (Penta)
Creosote
Inorganic arsenicals (waterborne)
If protected from fire, insect & fungal attack, timber structures
can survive for extremely long periods (in excess of 2000
years)

Engineered Wood Products

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Lumber is the traditional form of application of

wood but recently several other products have
emerged.
Assignment

Wood Construction
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Some typical terms used in wood construction:

Rafters/Joists for roof/floor; a series of beams
parallel to each other that support floor or roof
loads.
Studs vertical slender member used as support for
loads bearing walls or partitions. Usually spaced at
16 or 24.
Stringer a cross beam supporting load from floor
or roof joists.

Timber
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For submission on October 21, 2015 by 3 pm.

1.
Write short notes on the different methods of seasoning lumber.
2.
Select any seven wood defect and write a short paragraph on
each.
3.
Write a short paragraph on the factors that influences the
properties of wood.
4.
Write short notes on the various types of biological
degradation/decay of wood.
5.
Identify and briefly state three products of wood that are used
extensively in the construction sector.
6.
Read up on the different types of wood treatments, including the
pros and cons associated with each..
No late submission will be marked.