Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
i^aaEaW3aad!i^:xeelfe/
The
original of this
book
is in
restrictions in
text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032226726
arY676
A
course
in
for the u
A COURSE
IN
BY
WILLIAM WATSON,
Ph.D.,
fellow of the ambrioau academy of auts and scrbnces; membek of the rational academy of
cheeboueg; of the fbench society of civil engineeks; of the peussian
society of industkial engineers; etc, etc
BOSTON:
CUPPLES, UPHAM,
AND COMPANY.
LONDON
LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO.
in the
year 1885, by
WILLIAM WATSON,
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington.
))
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Art.
Art.
1.
Ray
Shadoios.
Pencil of rays:
2-3.
4-8.
of liglit:
structions.
25.
shadow.
Problem
surface
34 - 36.
Axes
circle
upon the
Abridged constructions.
of
11.
To find the shadow of a rectanguabacus upon a cylindrical column, and
on the vertical coordinate plane:
Abridged
construction
Shadow of a point on a cylin:
der.
37.
(Fig. 19.)
spherical surface.
40.
Problem
14.
To
42.
43.
(Fig. 26.
surface of revolution.
41.
interior
(Fig. 17.
Problem
lar
38 - 39.
of a circle' situ-
shadow
find the
30.
(Figs. 7, 8.)
To
9.
23 - 24.
29,
(Fig. 13.)
plane
Abridged method
i?' and iJ" at 45 with GL.
(Fig. 6.)
Problem 2. To find the shadow on one of the
coordinate planes of a right line perpendicular to the other coordinate plane
Abridged
solution.
22.
28 -
(Figs. 1-5.)
21.
rior surface.
Problem!.
coordinate
20 -
18 - 19.
27.
16-17.
9-15.
26.
on a
(Fig. 21.)
Shadows of points on curved surfaces. Problem 15. To find the shadow of a given point
on the surface of a cone. (Plate I. Fig. 10.
Problem 16. To find the shadow of a given
point on the surface of a sphere.
(Fig. 28.)
Nature of the line of shade for surfaces of the
second order.
(Fig. 35.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
niv
Art.
Art.
44.
Method
of circumscribed surfaces:
Method
62.
V.)
Points of the line of shade on the apparent con(Fig. 6, Plate
of oblique projections.
45 - 47.
61.
Problem
cour.
shade of a torus
18.
To
find the
Abridged method.
Une of
(Fig. 41.)
(Figs.
63.
22, 23.)
48 - 51.
Problem
To
19.
Problem
ground
cones;
spheres; 3d,
Problem
20.
is
53 - 57.
66 - 67.
The
V. Fig. C.)
Problem 21. To find the shadow cast upon the
interior surface of a cone by the complete
58 - 59.
Expeditive
method of
and 40.)
Shadow of an abacus and a quarter
Problem 22.
round or
ovolo.
(Figs. 38
(Fig. 36.)
the shadow of a
Tangent
given helicoid:
68 -
69.
To
planes.
Problem
shade on the
28.
To
siurface of
Centre of radiation.
(Figs.
46,49.)
find the point of the line of shade situated
To determine
its
20, 4, 15.
helicoid.
coid:
of a horizontal
(Fig. 44.)
cornice.
parallel to
Problem
GL: Shadow
line,
65.
Fillet's
of a given
Problem 26.
To find the shadows cast by a
chimney and dormer window upon a sloping
roof.
it
shadow
64.
sur-
find the
2d,
(Fig. 27.)
52.
To
25.
second construction.
(Figs.
sur47,
50.)
70 - 73.
description.
respecting
its
nature,
medium; the
holds
its
is
it
is
course
we may adopt
invariably propagated
called a rai/
indefinite
shadow of
is
in the
upon
cast
it.
3.
The curve C
is
separates
into
two parts
viz.,
called a pencil.
In nature, light diverges in all possible direcfrom each luminous point, so that the pencils are all primarily diverging; but when the
luminous origin is very distant, as in the case of
a heavenly body, the rays in every pencil we
On account of
consider are sensibly parallel.
gent to
tions
sidered parallel
A
body
A -plane,
of rays
is
Any
Let Fig.
0,
OB"
Plate
I.,
illuminated by a pencil
direction
is
BODY.
at a point of
at
some point of
(Art.
Shadow of a hody.
we suppose any
the shadow of
B, be an opaque body
of
solar
rays whose
The portion
surface, as a screen S, to be
placed behind the body B, a part of S will have
a curve C.
to
cylindrical pencil,
If
SHADE
itself.
must be tangent
ray.
2.
in
is
or
The
called the
cast
upon
it
is
the shadow of
Line of shadow.
on
at
is
M.
is
the
excluded by B,
S.
The periphery C,
of
M,
or the
It
is
shadow
is
The two
6.
contact
of
hence the
7.
curve on a plane.
P by
Cj
then, 1st,
if
shadow on
its
the plane of
plane of
and
is
is
2d, if the
parallel to C.
The shadow of
8.
on a plane
Des. Geom.)
is,
;
the circumference of
circle
Denote by A and B two such diameters of the circle, and by Aj and Bj their respective shadows; draw tangents T and U at
the extremities of A then as T, U, and B are
parallel, their shadows Tj, Ui, and Bj will also
be parallel, and Ti and Ui will be tangent to the
ellipse of shadow at the extremities of the diameter Ai hence Ai and Bj are conjugate diameters
of the ellipse of shadow.
shadow.^
Shadow
9.
When
of a polyhedron.
B is bounded by planes,
B has the form of a
is
made up of planes
1. When the
When the plane cuts a
ExCBPTious.
curve.
2.
plane
is
In this
parallel to
the
Two
them
other.
to tangents
11.
LINES.
When
reduced to a
when one
of
vertices of the
is
becomes a single
shadow on a surface
ray,
and the
is
Thus, Fig.
1,
Plate
I.,
shadow of a on V.
The point Cj, Fig. 2, in which a ray R, drawn
through c, pierces the coordinate plane H, is the
shadow of c on H.
12.
The shadow of a right line on a plane is
determined by finding the shadow cast by any
two of its points on the plane thus the shadow
of the right luae A, Fig. 3, on V, is found by constructing the shadows of any two of its jDoints, as
a and h. Drawing rays through a and b, we have
theii- shadows ! and b^
and the line a^ 5j, or Aj
is the shadow required.
The two rays a ! and b b^ determine a plane
which
is
therefore the
of rays.
The shadow
S,
may
of a right line A, on
any surface
its
intersection with S.
of construction.
We
vertical,
jection.
and two to the horizontal plane of proConsequently R" and R* make angles
of 45 with the
is parallel
the
inter-
surface
line of shade.
co;
makes an angle of
4l^
If
oco^,
whence
perpendiculars to
distance
8
-f- Z,
8,
CO*
V^
tan e
-i|
1^2
0.707,
oc
Vs
sin e
-;=
1^3
0.577,
the shadow
cos 2^
cos ^
^
V3
-1^6
0.816,
sec
^ = *V6 =
1.225,
Peoblem
18.
3515' 52"
The angle
61
cosec^
1-732.
by
on the ray (R*, R"), and
revolTing this ray around ex untU it coincides
with the vertical plane V, whence we have
e.
ocG
14.
Advantages of assuming R* and R" at an
9 is easily constructed. Fig. 5,
assuming a point
(o*, o")
To show how
GL.
may
with GL,
we
to find the
the construction
shadow of
a;
we
was required
shadow
its
is
allel
by S, i^., Ga* = S. ConstrucLay off aPo = 8, draw through o a line parto GL, and set off on it a distance oai = 8
! is
coordinate plane)
tion
Pboblem
shadow
we have
the
shadow on one of
the required
J.
Aj to GL at x;
shadow
of
the
unlimited
line A.
Ai is
19.
Case 2d. Let B, Fig. 8, be the right Hne
perpendicular to V.
Construction.
Assume any point of B (as o*,
B"), and through it draw a ray its trace on V is
Oi, but B" is the trace of the line itself on V: therefore the required shadow is Bj.
In this case the
shadow on V of an unlimited line B perpendicu-
and
8,
erect a perpendicular
the
lar to
is
Problem
20.
3.
right prism,
plane.
1.
its
7,
shadow on V. Assume
any point (as w". A*) on A, and draw through it a
ray ; this ray has its vertical trace at Wj, which is
one point of the required shadow ; since A is parallel to V, its shadow on V must be parallel to
A and to A": therefore, drawing through % a
required to find
it is
^3
whence
plane.
Let A, Fig.
1st.
2.
to either coordinate
Case
viz.,
known.
is
9.
and
If
e*,
we pass
we per-
coordinate plane.
in
Let, Fig.
6,
it is
its shadow on H.
Rays making any angle whatever.
Draw through a, b, c, and d, rays, and their horizontal traces aj, Sj, Cj, and di will be the four an-
required to find
1st method.'^
shadows
and
We
see
have paral-
on H.
17.
method. R* and R" making angles of
45 with GL. Denote the given distance tc" by
make
8, and the length of the side a*6* by I;
lel
a*?i
=zB, no
aib^
e^d^
= OS :=l;
erect at n,
o,
and
s,
three
5''a'',
ay*, and
/*e''
5*0*,
c/'d'',
light
edges (mb",
The only
angle
The
is
e"').
the rect-
c"nld^.
shadow
line of
lines of shade
b, c, d,
and Qfn,
and
is
therefore,
(e*, c"),
we have
as
base
b^,
the prism
however,
itself.
is invisible,
The shadow
as
it is
hidden by
;:
b is ijO, invisible
is 5*0
Abridged construction.
be
ooi will
its
made
until
gen-
rays about
its
horizontal trace
ooj,
were
only required to find the shade and shadow on
the vertical coordinate plane ; R* and R" at 45
with GL.
cides vsdth
c falls at
= V)>
21.
Suppose, as
is
The
shade, as before,
visible
c'dHn.
is
The
on
GL
q,
the points
bi,Ci,di,ei,
shadow on the
22.
vertical plane.
Peoblbm
4.
of an oblique cone.
e2((?*(?2
c,
C2C1, ru^-y,
conjugate axis.
The angle
c^n,^;
c*ra
by
is equal to
S^e-^c^ of the rays with
hence the required semi-conjugate axis
:= C2W2 sin c^fi^n., i.e., r sin 6, denoting C2W2
r.
The
coin-
it
^^^ ^^^
is
ellipse,
with
its
centre at
<?i,
having for
its
conju-
OiW*
on perpendicular to Ix;
gate axis
O2W2
Oi
l\Xi
its
revolved position
and
Hence
Jij.
o^ni is
quired.
From
the figure
= 2r cosec
we have
n^Oi
0.
is
conjugate axis
make complementary
The
of shade, which
ellipse
having
circle,
is
of con-
the line
horizontally projected in an
drawn through c*
transverse axis. The conjugate
line l<^x
its
is
its line
axis passes
a,
we
R with
have 90
of shade with
of the circle
shall
find the
and therefore
with V.
If we
by i>, found as
angles
To
indicated by R.
is
H at
<^
as the angle
= c'f
conjugate
and the
1
we have cs as the required semiaxis which may be laid off in Fig. 11,
Fig. 11,
ellipse of
For brevity we
making an angle
shade.
The two
24.
= d cosec e = LlS2d
oiw,
Theorem
25.
Pkoblem
shadow of
edge of a hollow hemispherical shell upon its
26.
To find
6.
the
the
in-
terior surface.
in space
Binnet.
XT to be the plane of
the other.
hy'^
+ c%^ +
te;/
+ > + =
gy
cZ
oV-|-J)y+c'z2+rj;2/+m'j:24-?i'2/+p'x+8'2/+'-'2+(2'=0
The curve
If
(2)
(2
(3)
(i'
(3)
and
(4)
known
curve of intersection of
are identical, and consequently
(4)
7ia'\
Vj';
M';
Ap'; q
Ag';
= W;
(5)
and
(c
substitutions,
Ac')2^ +
{m
we have
- hn')xz +
(n
?in')yz +
lc.')z +
=
(m
Am')x +
(n
ln')y +
XY,
(r ?i.r')z
y,
and
ef is the transverse axis.* To find the semi-conjugate axis A'': Pass a vertical plane of rays
Join
0,
to both surfaces,
and
(?
cV
and
s'
27.
1^
a niche upon
{r-
Ir')
61
hence
its
The niche
Problem
c^x =: -Jc's
c**''.
To construct
7.
the
shadow of
interior surface.
(Fig. 12)
is
and horizontally in the semicircle d'Sih^, terminated by a quadrant of a sphere vertically projected in the semicircle dsf, and horizontally on
the base of the semi-cylinder. R" and R* are
assumed at an angle of 45 with GL. The line
of shadow is divided into three portions 1st, fx
cast by the shadow of the arc A upon the
2d, xd{ cast by A on the
spherical surface
cylindrical surface 3d, n-^d^ cast by the element
icCd, a'') on the cylindrical surface, fx (by Art.
26) is the arc- of an ellipse extending from /, the
;
z,
its
semi-axes
any point oi
(6)
common
(7)
known
zf,
xdi" as
one of
x,
may be found by
Sj"
having
^zf;
passing
a ray
of dn, a portion of
(^da",
;
a''),
is
in which the
cos 2^.
curve of
intersection lies; (7) is the equation of a plane, which, by its
combination with (1) or (2), will give another curve common
z
it is
(1)
XT.
we put
their
therefore, a semi-circumference
is,
cos 2^
This theorem is usually expressed thus, the surfaces being
understood to mean those of the second order
If one surface enters \interseets\ another in a curve of tlie
second order, it will leave it [intersect it again} in a curve of
This is a very well-kn()wn theorem of anathe same order.
The demonstration here given is due to M.
lytic geometry.
1
a^c", ed!^f.
(Art. 13).
When ive
1.
SHADOWS OF
28.
circles.
it is
often
{c/, e")
of a great circle.
positions,
Problem
29.
To find
9.
shadow of a
the
at 45 with
coordinate plane.
Let the
circle
and horizontally
Imagine a square
Pe".
in
circumscribed about
Ir
mr being
horizontal.
The shadow of
on the coordinate plane H (Art. 16)
is found by drawing K'mi and eVj parallel to R*,
e*mi perpendicular and equal to A*e^ and Wirj
parallel and equal to Pe* the middle points g, e,/,
k have ^i, ei, /j, ^, for their shadows. The shadow
of the inscribed circle is an ellipse tangent to the
parallelogram Prj at the points g^, ei,/i, k^, and having.^i/i and ej^ifor conjugate diameters (Art. 8).
To find the position and magnitude of the axes
the circle,
this square
of the
mn
Construction
of shadow.
ellipse
Lay
off
and produce me
The shadow
it.
The axes
by
SjSj,
Z1Z2,
Fig. 14.
from
and en
16) be the conjugate diameters, making a
Construction of the axes of an ellipse
30.
given angle
From
Let
diameters.
<>
ce
Construction
r,
with
c,
to
then no
equal to
is
i.e.,
no
We
a]
a'h' sin(a'
a'l
tan
in
a2
tan a
6'2
a'
ab
62
(2)
a'"2
+
+
a'
5,2
{,2
i/
+ a) =
,
tan
tana(l
a2
62
tan a tan
,.2^
-y^ _ 3\/">
ncr
whence y
or
i;2a-
whence
tan a
or
or
63026';
or ZzCn-,
=
=
=
en
ce
=
=
=
=b
62
(3)
00
den
a'6' sin
(J
een
a'
h'
(1).
cfr, cr
In the triangle
;
(2)
-y
i5 whence tan 2a
(1)
=
= 2
+ fr^
since In
elr,
= 5817' or 3143';
= o' = 45 + a 45
= a and a + 45 = a' =
yjef^
Va'^ cos^u
-1-
~cl-
-|-
whence a
6' sin ?
5'
s^Cif/i
5817'
ab
6'2
-5
a 3143';
- 3143' = 13ir;
In the triangle
2/"
2 V^,
11634' or
S2C,ei
then
a,
made by
'
sy/s
1
Sv/s
dn
nx
a'^
a'
nca
tano)
is
viz.,
a) =
+V/5'
,.,
tan a ^tan(45
of this construction
gate diameters
we have
inter-
2r2
angle nrc
3
cr,
3r2
r'-'
-6
_ =
to
position.'
a'6' sin(a'
l); 6
=
=
in
cl
ab
-a]
(3)
which
a = 2(v/5 +
b'i
2ab
5
and
^
a'h' sin(a'
nd
(1)
parallel
a
cos2(4
sin20 =
(rt+
6)2
(u
ez
a cos ^
zd
o sin
- 6'2 C0S2<J
+
=
cos u
-I-
6)2
{a
ah' sin
a
ih'
((!' -I-
COS U
'
-a'b
b
'
6' sin(j)2
6)-
31.
To
10.
of the upper
and
the
shadow
circle
1st,
of rays
on V.
visible
The
shadow
is
tr
by the semicircle
ter.
and
for a diameter
of
line
shadows
ce and c
their
also
besides
of these radii
e (I,
t,
will take c
(I, t")
(/, c").
we
ct
u, 2,
t'',
must be tangent
gli parallel to
c^i"
of
ellipse
parallel to
also
^ -_ tan y cz
a; u
y =
ab'
sinu a'b
5
cos a
(4)
we have
(a6'sin<j-a';>sin6))n;/
a^b''^
D2
_
-
a2(y2
b^a^-a'^)
D2
b^
a'^
b'^,
we have
(3).
tan(u
y) = ^;
Substituting in
(4)
2,
which
is
the values of
tan o
^j
a', 6', a, 6,
we have tan y
elements
maximum,
is
when
i.e.,
the plane of
R and R* at 45
Denote the radius of the base of the
cylinder by p then bp
-^p^ c''ei
p versin 45
Abridged construction.
32.
GL.
with
=p
c^yi
= py2
the angle
2p,
and with
c"
yicei
= 45
hence
be con;
shadow may
making
therefore
e'n
= 2y.
Simplified construction.
Lay
off
c't"
c'e",
allel to
GL
e"r
set off
g\ parand rp
y^
62
a'
draw
34.
or tan
(I, t"),
PnOBLEM
11.
1;
jpj-.
62
hence tan
- y)
D^
D2
the fol-
c^e,
and
c")
c^s
T>
since a'
GL
sin^u-2cn''+ a'V
D2
Hence we have
points (y,
33.
Ifi
nc^e'
hence
Substituting,
and
we have
(1),
62
tan^y _
we
structed as in Art. 28
(,'
Substituting in
a'.
corresponding tangents.
to
tji
To
also tangent at
and
05,
a,
given
or tan a
1 If the diameter
within O^.OOOS.
is 0"'.l,
tlien
V\;
of 0.05
is
accurate to
shadp:s
Let (Fig. 19)
and
a'e"
a''d
and shadows.
be the projections of
those of the semi-
p'^xi-''
cohimn.
The sJunhic of
1.
the edge
a" is
a''i,
it
obtained
this plane
have
and
this
zr'
erecting a perpendicular
and drawing yu at 45, Ave have m,. Drawing rays through b and e, we complete the outline
by drawing m,?)] parallel, and b^ei perpendicular,
respectively, to GL.
Shadoiu of a point on a cylinder. R" and
36.
45
with GL. We have seen (Art. 35)
R* at
that the shadow of a (Fig. 19) on the column
was !, which might be found as follows Draw
through a" a line parallel to GL, meeting the axis
at
a-,,
of the cylinder in
b'.
Set off
= a\
b'o
o is
the dis-
the centre
instead of below
The shadow
2.
curve
ai'7iy
V is Uibi,
that of ab on
a, u,
and
b,
obtained by
The curve
is,
in general,
an
ellipse.
of rays
(zz/, a;).
their
is
it
intersection,
where the
line of
of the cylinder.
The
line
therefore
is
of
and
the point
Problem
37.
indrical column
the
it.
12.
and of
To find
its
cylindrical abacus
the
also
column and on
with GL.
Pass a plane of rays through the axis of the
column
is eVj.
y''n^
Abridged construction.
35.
is its
c''s''
R' and R* at 45
horizontal trace
s,
Let
ing ik for
we
its
[If
we
I.,
makes an angle
of
the angle
cos ^
;,
The equation
45 with H.]
(
horizontal trace.
^,
,.
(2).
The equations
2/2
p2,
a'', ^8*,
S*,
etc.
line of
is
The
line of
by the arc
shadow
(y^w^", y''u''),
tending to a
a;2
z indeterminate (3).
abacus wn.
BRILLIANT POIKTS.
cos^^
rays
of
7/
l,
hence
is z
in (3),
y,
we
When
38.
is
usually reflected to
more
or
who thus
sees on S one
of
sides.
R and Z
N is found by bisecting the
The
directions of
R with Z
To find
13.
This example
is
tre e; R'
is
When
en
is
41.
to the cen-
Problem
40.
To find
14.
point on
brilliant
of
oz perpendicular to
GL
it
its
GL,
is
projection.
vertical
as
o,
draw a ray
ao
[Rotate ao about oz
Des. G-eom.~).
cides with
a'oz
H;
it
Any
oh.']
till
position
revolution,
coin-
it
oh' bisects
it
takes the
plane perpendicular to
oh,
Greom.),
Bes.
it
(Art. 133,
must be perpendicular
again,
the intersection of
n and
position
when
is
we
shall
now apply
Let
a.
pass a plane
traces,
to
the
and
o^s
which
os;
a,
Problem
16.
a^a'
a^a''
a/
is
revolution, a/
returns to
therefore, ce perpendicu-
M, and ex its
and nop being parallel,
M mvist be parallel
M with nop
G-eom.')
and sphere.
to the cone
vertical trace
We
STJEFACES.
on a surface of revolution.
Let the sui-face be given as in Fig. 21, to find
the
6' 14"i.
20
its
ecy
GL R a ray of light
coincide with
revolution,
is
6"o2
centre c being in
on a spherical surface.
is
liant point.
Peoblem
d"
point of contact
39.
Draw
V.
cide with
allel to nr'.
hrilliant points.
on opposite
and
is
but
nr' as its
revolved
<j>,
then tan ^
oa"
oa''cos45
V2,
45
b'o cos
tan 2 = cosec f - cot ^ = ^1 - V/i tan h''oz = -^^ ^^^-^pp
1 \/3-l
*
1
1
- ^ = 0.3660234 = tan of 20 0'
= -7= tan 5 = "7= V^
;
,-
14".
But
6*o
r>'oc
20
14".
10
shadow of
If the distance
a.
given, no construction on
nate plane
is
''
= 8 = cCa! be
tlie liorizontal
coordi-
44.
required.
We
43.
line of
is
made up
of
two elements
of the surface.
Problem
To find the
17.
line
of shade of a
is
may
and
Then the
ef as the respective lines of contact.
plane of rays tangent to the cone along an must
be tangent to the sphere at m, and, therefore, n is
a point of the line of shade of the sphere for a
:
plane curve.
similar reason, s
Let
luminous point,
and c the centre of the surface draw through s
and c a secant plane it cuts from the surface a
curve mdt. We obtain two points, m and t, of
the line of shade, by drawing the tangents sm and
St.
Draw the chord mt, and join s and c ; sc intersects the curve at x and the chord at n. Then
we know that the chord is parallel to the tangent
xy of the curve, and also that en X cs := W.^
We conclude from this, that, whatever secant
plane is drawn through cs, the point n is always
Proof.
s,
the same.
through n a right
but
all
line parallel to a
we draw
tangent at x ;
is
same
line of
shade.
rsnlc.
The method of
Fig. C, PI. v., C and
3d,
oblique
shadow on D.
For
Let,
projections.
on
C which
we
casts
on
an auxiliary plane P, the shadows Ci and Di of the
its
this
purpose
find,
x,
this plane is
is
order.
When
The
and
principle
if
the surface of
curve of shade
may
be thus enunciated: To
determine the shadow cast by one curve upon
45.
situated
is
mM
section
s is
of a cylinder circumscribing the surface and perpendicular to the plane of projection. Any curve,
as the line of shade, traced
tangent, in projection,
.to
is
cylinder
these
traces
are
the
11
drawing
parallel to om,
light.
and
will
Problem
46.
To find
18.
now
be applied in
a",
j8*,
7j*,
a*, *,
/3*,
and
rf are
found on X*
Problem
48.
19.
To find
have
a surface of revolution : general method.
shown, in the previous problem, how to find the
highest and lowest points of the line of shade,
and
0*),
becomes
parallel to
we have
tan-
the
revolution, x
and
S.
first cor-
Hence the
A.
arcs oA
and
and
ty
determine
It is required to find
as that situated
and
=
0^, Fig. 23, = oe =
In Fig. 22, oh
on.
horizontal projection.
line of shade,
49.
Draw
quired points.
If the circle of the gorge
G is
cos 45
vertical cylinder.
If
assumed
as the
cone becomes a
ments of shade on
will be A*
and
t'',
ele-
which will
=
dm cos 45 = .Tom.
o/B"
its
y.
its intersection
parallel.
also those
47.
the intersection of w8
We
28.
We
HP
S as
gS
torus.
points
we have
O.TojSft.
Hence
Draw
to
at
it
in a horizontal
12
is its
jection,
horizontal pro-
4,
which
in
it
inter-
whence we have,
Z2,
points
Remark
thus
Draw
The point
1.
viPy
a;"
may
parallel to R",
be determined
s, Sj, Sj, s^
12456789
Fillet'' s
vU'yo''
same
of 45 with
point
must meet
in the
x".
are at 45 with
Figs. 24
moving on the
centre
axis of
M, and
the radius
Problem
52.
is
a point of
is
This problem
19.
is
point ;
its
is 3*
rays
Sp.
To
W,
b,
a"2,
a^, bi,
on P.
Sj*
Let (Z,
ffj)
lel to
shadow:
for
the
quadrilateral
behind the
If b is
b^a^'a^'b^.
JVaj'Sj' equals
axis,
then
instead of below
x",
it,
should
as in the
figure.
X, Y, Z.
The shadows
circle.
If the circle
34,
shadow on
whose radius is the
V2
55.
is
a circle
= ab cos 45.
We
shall
rapid solutions of a
number
Let
of problems.
it
Imagine a diag-
bd
is
obtained as follows
DraAv
bt at 45,
and
zt
cir1
cumferences
as a diagonal plane.
ab, parallel to
tion 3"
M.
20.
of x on
des
This method
Beaux
is
due to M.
Arts, Paris.
Pillet,
the same
way
it
is
and
is
xys;
Ij
2,
quired.
M.
To find
of a cone.
Let
it
Draw
dd^ at 45,
with
as a centre
circle
this is
the base on P.
own
is
jects
a, we have X2 as its oblique projecon the base of the cone 0x2 is the oblique
projection of oa, and ofej that of its shadow. Drawing ^2^ at 45, we have ot the shadow of oa producing ax2 to r, we have r as the shadow of the point
a.
Draw oy2, 0%, and oy; then, drawing rays
through s and ^3, we have n and k as points of
the line of shadow.
Remark. The lowest point n may also be found
by drawing a line af making an angle with az,
and through its intersection s with oc a ray sn
intersecting the horizontal through / at n.
The
point I projected on the axis is symmetrical with
k hence it is found at the intersection of a horizontal line through k with oe (Art. 47).
59.
An abridged solution of Problem 12 is
shown in Fig. 40. The highest point b is found
by drawing a line mo, making an angle with xf;
ray through
tion
Application
66.
one of which
13
in
tangent to this
Ve have
circle,
is its
and
ar^
jection of the
it is
plane of rays
the ray
parallel to
67.
Application 3d.
projection
.of
The
n^
is
projection
is aJa'^a
that of
it
meets
it
at
at 45 parallel to
set off td
R*
draw nn^
at nj.
58.
Problem 21. To find the shadow cast
upon a hollow cone by the complete circle of its base.
Let the cone be given as in Fig. 38. For brevity,
shadow
of a point a
cuts
its
axis.
Any
plane of
is
vertically projected in ob
we have
xf.,
revolution,
drawing
dk
is
ed.,
rb
The
b.
its line
the oblique
and
shadow and the
here the ray becomes tangent to
line of shade
the curve of shadow. The curve of shadow is
tangent to sx., and falls between s and r; c is at
the same height as a. Any intermediate points,
if desired, may be found by the method explained
projection of the lower circle of the abacus,
is
the point
common
to this
in Art. 36.
60.
Peoblem
22.
quarter-round, or ovolo.
As an example
let it
For
and a cylinder
vn.
struction
2d,
14
R* and a ray
zPi parallel to
we haye /Sj at
drawing 6^3, we
fiP^^
viz.,
at
u,
90, at
3d,
inclined to
at an angle of 45.
If this plane
it
be-
intersections 3
and
32 of the
this
shadow
by taking the
auxiliary shadows
and
By symmetry,
1.
the point 1
is
an-
Remark
The edge
2.
at p, having
pw
for its
taken at
b,
this plane
has
6*0)*
(Ifc, &*)
X*
by a
horizontal plane ;
i is
it
X" and
cuts from
X meets
9.
Problem
23.
viz.,
outward as
fillet rn.
up
far
as J:
it
Bemarh
3,
We
The
method of the diagonal plane but as a verification, and to show the accuracy of the method, we
have drawn the plan, and passed a vertical secant
of the
abacus projected
shadow, meets the line of
and px.
Any
secting
pxiny;
ts cuts a circumference from the conge, a part of which is projected on the diagonal plane in the arc Yy, inter-
we have
conge
mined
ts by the ray /,
shadow of px on the
projecting y on
as a point of the
in the
sist, 1,
of the
respect to 4y.
the
portion of
4th.
horizontal plane
fillet
2,
py
and, 3, of a
li4,5.
curve
-the
umn,
6
Remark
.',
'^ifi^iy;
7,
15, 8.
3.
We
62.
to the
of a
ground
line.
given plane
given angle
pass through
a^m
is
coincides with
it
found at
is
aV
(making
45 with GL) for its revolved position making
the counter revolution, a/ returns to a;, which is
the projection on P of the shadow of a on
this
shadow therefore lies in a perpendicular xy to
a*ao, and also in cPy, the vertical projection of the
ray through a hence it lies at their intersection
Through y draw hn parallel to a^m ; then, since
y.
c^a^^ it
has
AqJ
= * =
8,
we have
termining immediately
is
the
a^b
GL
a", u,
its
B;
intersection
shadow required.
Peoblbm
63.
45 with
and 8.
draw bn,
with GL, and through
knowing
off
given horizontal
25.
circle
to
the
line,
Fig. 43
the chimney.
m in front
distance of
Make
of
l^m^
lay off
shows
= twice the
and o^u =
0(,e
2d,
draw
t-^
To find
shadow of
the
g'V; then 1
is
the
dormer window,
front of ^f,
and
right of
4(1
also the
same distance
to the
= twice
4olo,
and drawing
determined.
65.
The shadow of
and making a given angle with the horiR" and R* at 45 with GL.
Let (Fig. 44) ad be a square circumscribing the
given circle, and let a be the angle of the plane
with H. The shadow of the centre o is found at
OqO*
c/bi making an angle a
Oi by taking Oqo'
with aV, and o's at 45 with GL r^ti
ab
cfii
=. b'y
ab cos a whence we have the parallelogram (XiSicZ1^1, and su
ab sin a ; the inscribed
ellipse is the shadow of the given circle.
64.
PiEOBLEM 26. To find the shadows cast by
the chimneys and dormer window upon a sloping roof.
Let the roof be given as in Fig. 42 qrp =i a,
the angle of the roof with H.
ground
1st,
15
Peoblem
27.
To
find the
ym'
v',
To determine
the
shadow of
cornice.
tvf
is
shadows
zif
uv respectively.
draw
ca'
= ga'
shadows of
ac,
em'
a',
m',
me, and
'
16
THE HELICOID.
Properties of the warped
66.
respectively,
Jielicoid.
We
omissions,
is
dV
0)
hence
P
X Aa"
2ir
we have ||-
= ^ tan a =
pitch,
c.
we have
27rX At
If
by the arrows
= A tan
= cot
a,
whence At
the reduced
a.i
(o,
<?
Again,
if
fk be
AW
tt/
sufficient to
it is
upon
A*
of
fk,
dV
This relation
tlie
is
- At-c.
light
ray pierces
this
a*,
make
Oeom.
an angle
at
of D is Dj, found
through any point, as
gives Dj.
sxt'
sa;
= A =: ^, and
To
for differentiating
= subnormal
which every
xr" parallel
then h tan a =:
by m.
a,
Draw
axis.
and
D*, and
make od
a point of
its
line of shade.
have
-^
= ~;
but
o/i*
sf{'
sf tan a
hence ro
= sf cote;
oa^
oa"
oji"
od=.
c\
sf cot B
sf tan a
c cotO
= h cot 6 = m.
tan
The point
a*,
ment
assumed
ti/
/)
with
Draw through
draw At
perpendicular to
and a* then the perpendicular A*?/
dropped from P upon to* produced, is the horisufficient to
A/c*, to join
is
The shadow
coordinate plane.
by drawing a ray of
the helicoid,
R", R*,
Di
^ =: h
we put
on
a
Let aye, Fig. 46, be the directing helix,
given element making a given angle a. with the
axis (sf, o).
The direction of the light indicated
(2)
a''d''
To find
28.
t.
2ir
.
'
cZ* is
Peoblem
67.
From
Ag*
At
a"k"
perpendicular: hence,
cW ^
dV
becomes
and when a reaches k,
(j^k\ and the normal at
and
is
is
With
as a centre
the distance
c,
we can
ment whatever,
od joining
as D*,
by erecting a perpendicular
d, its intersection
M,
ence
D*,
is
is
which dr
ia
In
1032r03*4
s*,
way
this
crosses
the curve
obtained.!
Given
m, the position of
c,
r,
aeh.
it is
direction 1 dr
ever,
and
on
we
we
50,
as a centre
and
0,
arc lu
meeting
and a radius
at produced
coin-
making
4, all,
Comparing
how-
Figs. 46
Problem
70.
manner
when one
m
TO
??_ z=
Id
sm
<i>
or
P2ii
c sin
rl
j^ Cartesian coordinates,
+ c cos
x p cos
y
(p
v'x^
+ 2/2
(V'nH^',
The
Ip, ns, and l^pi.
denoted by R.
If we attempt to apply directly the method
the three helices
scribe
and
is
we
to to
we have
-^
"^^^l^
y^
m\x^
(a;^
E^m^ =
^j,
^,
by
ir.
we
This
Therefore, draw-
and drawing
we have
and draw
with s as a centre and a radius sr, draw the
ato
arc ro then with s as a centre and a radius si
Draw, in Fig. 51, ou
oV', describe the arc lu.
parallel to R*, and from u lay off the arc u^
lu. Fig. 52, and we have the point 4* of the line
of shade, whence we obtain the vertical projections 1", 4" on the vertical projection of the helix.
The points 2, 3, and 5 are obtained in the same
manner. Drawing oX perpendicular to ou, the
points 7* and 8* will be symmetric with 4* and 5*.
st parallel
ts
TTC
to
and
Z^w",
rs
and xr
= wro
parallel to R',
take
saz=.-n- y, oV^,
(jl-
cy
gives
X
cos
(m-y)\/x^
gener-
sm(j)
p siu
is
^V) moving
de-
join s
as Ih in Fig. 50.^
in the construction
j-ng*
to,
29.
ately determined.
triangles
dently loh
sr
in
different elements.
= =
and with
with oh an angle
2, situated on another element 2, is a second point. In the same way, by
drawing ad" and revolving it in the contrary
direction,
c,
triangle txr
1 is the horizontal
values of
r, ad'r'
2,
Fig. 47
69.
17
oa=c;
or
for
= <l>;^^^=sme;
= m;orl
(2)
e;
90
e.
(3)
The equations
p, i.e.,
lcol
p
2
The two
same
helix.
at,
we have tan y =
- e (3).
18
arc
The shadow
plane
which
4i, 7],
is
Shadow
1st,
is
To
cast
find the
by the curve
we
4, 5,
shown
as
4i 5i
R"
02*^0 parallel to
SHADOWS.
and
7i 8i
6wV;
sq parallel to h^a"
join o^d
hd
threaded screw
is
of
if
we
take ai
By
shown.
=p=
sr =
irh
Art. 71, os =. h
cot 6
and
sa
Trp;
we have
TTp
these,
at e;
it
= ;
ox
ij
=: h cot
0.
fore,
The curve
5
z/o
7 8
is
y on the upper
5" d"
ment
di,
ae,
The curve
not illuminated.
shadow
casts the
fillet.
Draw an
ele-
upper
71.
its
fillet
Fig. 48 shows
helix.
the
Ima-
is
draw
a^'s
with
as a centre and a radius
scribe an arc meeting vn in n; n is the
dicular
ou, deinitial
Shadow of a
73.
To show the form (not the position) of the
shadow of the outer helix phi, Fig. 51, we choose
at random a centre o, Fig. 53, and with a radius
draw ol and
ij. Fig. 52, describe the circle smz
OS parallel and perpendicular respectively to R*
draw sy parallel to ol, and ov parallel and equal
the shadow
= E.^
when
sg.
which r
cycloid, in
is
The equation
a* as the origin,
tively
02"fcoa'',
put r
of the curve
o*A;
0*6
n,
we have
mt
= %r^ =
-|-
ooa",
This
is
and
T respec=
'!^
tlie
n\,
of
or
reduced pitch
0ft cot 9
r sin ^ ;
a;
the equation of a curtate
For by construction
since
2
tan
!I
oa'-s
^^ = /o*
^, we have
==M
fo*
cot
e/
B.
= cot 9
The angle
(i6
6o*(Z
57 31' 06".
2
2
is
it
meets GL.
19
AND R* AT
45
represents an opaque body sepainto the illuminated portion and the shade ; C is the line of shade,
the shadow on S, and Cj the line of shadow.
Fig. 1.
To find the shadow of a on V. Denote Ga* by S. Lay off a^o
8, draw through o
a line parallel to GL, and set off on it a distance
8
oai
Ui is the shadow required.
Fig. 2.
To find the shadow of c on H. DeFig. 0.
by the curve C
rated
8,
8,
draw through x
and its extremity
jection.
= 0.3; cosec 6 =
= ^ exactly.
tan e
cos 26
1.73
sin 5
0.577
and
Fig. 5
os ^l; erect at n,
a*w =l8, no
0, and s, three perpendiculars to GL, and lay off
on the first the distance 8, on the second the distances 8 and 8 -|- Z, and on the third the distance
8 -\- 1: the extremities of these perpendiculars will
be the angular points sought ; viz., Ci, d^, a^ &i,
whence the shadow is known.
flAj" tiy I
Fig. 7.
^A*
S.
make
dicular Ai to
GL
unlimited line A.
at x;
Aj
is
on V. Let
of
erect a perpenthe shadow of the
Fig.
8.
To
find the
shadow of
The
on V.
as (o*, B") is
which
Oi,
The
prism on V.
The
GL
is c^OiJi*.
= e\ Fig. 11
oc
oa'
=
=
=
oa".
<j>
6.
its interior
be a semi-ellipse having
axes
when
ec*
35 14' 52".
and
c***
=:
for its
;:
20
Fig. 14.
The shadow
find the
of e
is Cj
shadow
SjSi
and
Z2^\
To
filso SiC^Ci
=y=
^nck^.
find the
=
nr = ce; join with and
and draw through n
a parallel nd to
intersecting
in
make ox =
= and join c with d and make ca =
and e6 = nx, then cJ and ca will be the new axes
;
r,
cl
cr,
0(^
ol,
a;
c?,
0%
= p;
making
c^gi
the
p\/2;
angle
=: 45
j/jcVi
We
^ If the diameter
within O^.OOOS.
is O"".!,
then
of O^.OS
is
we have
their
corresponding shadows
a,
/8,
S,
etc.
e'n
2p, and with c" as a centre describing the semi-circumference, xe^o, no, and nx are
the lengths of the axes of the ellipse of shadow,
and the angle wcV
2y.
b'o
accurate to
abacus wn.
Fig. 21.
To find the brilliant point d on a
surface of revolution,
ao is the incident, oz the
reflected ray, and ob the line bisecting the angle
aoz.
on and op are respectively perpendicular to
a'o and oJ*.
ce, perpendicular to op, gives r*,
which revolves to / w/ is. parallel to the tangent to U", passing through the revolved position
d" of the brilliant point d.
Fig. 26. To find the brilliant point on a spher;
ical surface.
Fig. 23.
_
line
We
tice.
Fig. 27.
To find the line of shade of any surface of revolution. Assume np as the circle of
contact of the surface with that of an inscribed
sphere, and at n' draw a normal rn'o" lay off iy
;= in", and draw yx" perpendicular to n^o^. a^ is
found on ey*. Through a/' draw a line perpendicular to R*, intersecting the circumference
^AgApA in the points 3* and 4*, which are the horizontal projections of 3 and 4, the points required.
In Figs. 24 and 25 we have a sphere and a surface of revolution with its inscribed sphere (p
being the assumed circumference of contact), both
illuminated by the same system of parallel rays
the projections of the circumferences of shade on
each sphere are ellipses similar both in form and
respecposition. Therefore drawing
and
tively parallel to op and pn, joining or and OA,
we determine 7 and S by drawing 07 and oS parallel to or and OA respectively.
Fig. 81.
To find the shadow of the circle
(^bd, al'nd^) on the surface of revolution.
To
;
PN
OP
is
21
Fig. 28.
To find the shadow of a point, a, on
the surface of a sphere.
Pass through a a plane of rays perpendicular
to V, intersecting the sphere in a circle having xz
for its diameter; rotating this plane about its
vertical trace a"z until it coincides with V, xa{z
is the revolved position of the circle, and a'z that
a* ; a{ is the revolved posiof the ray. a"a'
tion of the shadow of a upon the sphere making
the counter revolution, a/ returns to aj, which is
the shadow of a.
Fig. 29. The line of shade of an inscribed and
circumscribed surface. For example, let, Fig. 29,
a cone and cylinder circumscribe a sphere having
the circumferences be and ef as the respective
lines of contact.
Then the plane of rays tangent
to the cone along an must be tangent to the
sphere at n, and, therefore, w is a point of the
line of shade of the sphere
for a similar reason,
s is also a point of the same line of shade.
Remark. Fig. 29 illustrates the fact that when
two surfaces are tangent, the lines of shade are
not therefore tangent, as an and st make acute
angles with rsnk.
Fig.
The method of oblique projections. Let,
Fig. C, PI. v., C and
be two curves in space.
It is required to find the point on C which casts
ywl
ti/
zv'
uv respectively.
PilleVs method of casting shadows by means of a
diagonal plane.
a and
Fig. 33.
Shadow of a circle on the diagonal
plane.
Let the circle be parallel to H, and let it be
circumscribed by the square ad. Then we have
;;
22
the square a^d^ as its projection upon the diagonal plane and any side as a^h^
ah cos 45
a6 V'i hence its surface is one-half of that of
the original square, and the circle inscribed will
be one-half of the original circle.
If the circle had the position indicated in Fig.
34, having the diagonal plane passing through its
centre, the vertical projection of the shadow on
the diagonal plane is a circle whose radius is the
ah cos 45.
Fig. 45. Application 1st. Let it be required to
find the shadow of the circumference projected in
hd on the surface of revolution. Imagine a diagline
at i.
Fig. 38.
cast
circle
of
its hase.
shadow
the ovolo.
diagonal plane.
With w
23
m^ is the
l^^ is the shadow of l^
shadow of m i,Wi is the shadow of mn, and n^o^
is the shadow of the edge vertically projected at
n.
Lay off vx = ms. Fig. 43, and draw xz^ parallel to qr drawing a ray through t, we have t^ as
the shadow of t, and
parallel to ab, as the
shadow of the edge ms. Fig. 43.
parallel to rq
t-fi-^
draw
determined.
and drawing
THE HELICOID.
Fig. 49.
Let p
the pitch of the helix described by every point of om ; a, its angle with
the axis.
h tan
join
45 with
GL:
intersection y with bn
its
the
is
shadow required.
Fig. 44.
To find the shadow of the circle
inscribed in the square ad, on a plane passing
at an angle .
through GL, and inclined to
The shadow of the centre o is found at Oj by
taking o(j'
0(,o*
</bi making an angle a with
ab Ciby
b'y
a'c', and o's at 45 with
rit^
;
:= ab cos a whence we have the parallelogram
afiidiCi, and su =: ab sin a; the inscribed ellipse
is the shadow of the given circle.
To find the shadows cast by the chimFig. 42.
neys and dormer window upon a sloping roof.
a,
Let the roof be given as in the figure ; qrp
the angle of the roof with H.
Fig. 43 shows
1st, The shadow of the chimney.
twice the
the plan of the chimney. Make l^ms
distance of
in front of I lay off o^e and ou
0^0, and o^p". Fig. 48, and through y draw a ray
GL
and through e and u lines parallel to rq, meeting y^/i in yi and y^ y^ and y^ are the shadows of
the vertices of the conical chimney-pots, and Oy
and Oj the centres of the shadows of their upper
the shadows of these bases are ellipses
bases
yy-i,
Through
^o
and
wij
draw
lines
pitch,
we have
a.
ficient to
^ = A the reduced
To draw
at
li4.5.
we put
If
and
draw Ai
e perpendicular to AA;*, to
a* ; then the perpendicular W'y dropped
from ^*.upon
AP
m=
24
of
the shadows upon
projections (Art. 44)
the curves 4 5 and 7 8 are 4, 5, and 7i 8i these,
as shown in Fig. 54, intersect in a point yi therefore, drawing a ray through i/,, we determine the
ment
a second point.
o2, is
= ^
z/i7,.
The curve
7 8 is not illuminated.
the shadow 5 d^ y on the upper fillet.
To find any intermediate point as d' Draw an element ae ; its shadow is e'^h^ai, intersecting 4i 5i at
di, which, projected back by a reversed ray on to
ae, gives the required point J^ the shadow on the
upper fillet of a point of the curve 4 5.
Fig. 48. Shadow of a helix. Imagine the helix
to be illuminated by rays whose direction is indicated by the arrows the shadow of any point n
is Wi, and the curve of shadow ahijc is a curtate
cycloid described by the point a*, carried around
by the circle iqf rolling along the line ii'.
The curve
5,yo casts
''
and draw-
parallel to
it
:=
ire
and
?"",
^ -nm
rs
the jjoints
and 9.
Shadow
1st,
To
4i, 7],
cast
and
4, 7,
find the
by the curve
9,
4, 5,
shadow
we
cast
use the
= =
tions
Fig. 52,
in Fig. 52,
we have
ij
Win. Walsoji.
PI.
I.
Wm. Watson.
Fig. 11
.A.N/'
PLU.
Ii6. 13.
AVm-Watson.
Yi6. 19.
-^ kC
Fi^. 20
.'^^^,
PLm
SHADES
AJND
SHADOWS
pliy;
Wm. Walson.
Fig.b.
Fi^. 31.
P1.V.
Fig. 32.
PL VI
Will .Wat
son.
PLvn.
.F^
FiA.43.
ri6.4'4'
Wm.Watson.
Fid.
/fc6.
PI. Yin.
SHADfJS
Wm.Watsor
Fig. 51
V"--
AND SHADOWS.
PI. IX.
f^^
^;TWy^''=^fflMtaGSK