Concrete

Buildings and their Impact on the Environment
Introduction
While buildings and development provide countless benefits to society, they also have significant
environmental and health impacts. This summary presents some basic facts about those impacts.
Footnotes provide links to the sources of this information, which offer much more context and detail
on these issues.
EPAs Green Building Workgroup is composed of numerous EPA programs designed to address the
environmental impacts of the built environment.
General
In the U.S. there were 223,114 establishments/businesses in the building industry, representing
more than $531 billion in annual revenues, nearly $62 billion in annual payroll, and more than 1.7
million employees in 2002.
Residential Buildings
Nearly 128 million residential housing units existed in the U.S. in 2007. Approximately 7.188 million
new housing units were built between 2005 and 2009.
Commercial Buildings
Nearly 4.9 million office buildings existed in 2003 in the U.S.4 Every year, approximately 170,000
commercial buildings are constructed, and nearly 44,000 commercial buildings demolished (1995).
Schools
Nearly 84 million Americans (including 73.7 million students) spend their days in approximately
124,110 colleges, universities, public and private primary and secondary schools (2007).
Energy Use:
Buildings accounted for 38.9 percent of total U.S. energy consumption in 2005. Residential buildings
accounted for 53.7 percent of that total, while commercial buildings accounted for the other 46.3
percent.
Buildings accounted for 72 percent of total U.S. electricity consumption in 2006 and this number will
rise to 75% by 2025. 51 percent of that total was attributed to residential building use, while 49
percent was attributed to commercial building usage.
The average household spends at least $2,000 a year on energy bills over half of which goes to
heating and cooling.
Out of the total energy consumption in an average household, 50% goes to space heating, 27% to
run appliances, 19% to heat water and 4% goes to air conditioning.
Air and Atmosphere:
Buildings in the United States contribute 38.9 percent of the nations total carbon dioxide emissions,
including 20.8 percent from the residential sector and 18.0 percent from the commercial sector
(2008).
The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be 1.85.4F (13C)
warmer than its surroundings. In the evening, the difference can be as high as 22F (12C). Heat
islands can increase summertime peak energy demand, air conditioning costs, air pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions, heat-related illness and mortality.11 One study estimates that the heat
island effect is responsible for 510% of peak electricity demand for cooling buildings in cities.
Water Use:
Building occupants use 13 percent of the total water consumed in the United States per day. Of that
total, 25.6 percent is used by commercial building occupants, and 74.4 percent by homeowners
(1995).
Between 1950 and 2000, the U.S. population nearly doubled. However, in that same period, public
demand for water more than tripled! Americans now use an average of 100 gallons of water each day
enough to fill 1,600 drinking glasses
Faucets account for more than 15 percent of indoor household water usemore than 1 trillion gallons
of water across the United States each year. Showering accounts for approximately 17 percent of
residential indoor water use in the United Statesmore than 1.2 trillion gallons of water consumed
each year.15 A leaky faucet wastes gallons of water in a short period of time. A leaky toilet can waste
200 gallons per day.
Of the 26 billion gallons of water consumed daily in the United States, approximately 7.8 billion
gallons, or 30 percent, is devoted to outdoor uses. The majority of this is used for landscaping. 17 The
typical suburban lawn consumes 10,000 gallons of water above and beyond rainwater each year.18
Currently, about eight percent of U.S. energy demand goes to treating, pumping, and heating water
and is equal to enough electricity to power more than 5 million homes for an entire year. Water
heating accounts for 19 percent of home energy use and 13 percent of the average utility bill.
$4 billion is spent annually in the U.S. for energy to run drinking water and wastewater utilities. If
this could be reduced by just 10 percent through better efficiency, that could save $400 million a year.
Land Use:
Total land area in the U.S. is 2.3 billion acres. Urban land area quadrupled from 1945 to 2002,
increasing at about twice the rate of population growth over this period. Estimated acreage of rural
land used for residential purposes increased by 21 million acres (29 percent) from 1997 to 2002
(2002).
Indoor Environment:
General
On average, Americans spend about 90 percent or more of their time indoors.
Indoor levels of pollutants may be two to five times higher, and occasionally more than 100 times
higher, than outdoor levels.
Schools
In the mid-1990s, one in five of U.S. schools reported unsatisfactory indoor air quality, and one in four
schools reported ventilation as unsatisfactory.
Homes
In 1992, EPA estimated that nearly one out of every 15 homes had radon concentrations above the
EPA recommended action level.
Indoor Pollutants
Sources of indoor air pollution may include: combustion sources; building materials and furnishings;
household cleaning, maintenance, personal care, or hobby products; central heating and cooling
systems and humidification devices; and outdoor sources such as radon, pesticides, and outdoor air
pollution.
Many homes built before 1978 have lead-based paint, which can expose people to contamination
through paint chips, dust and contaminated soil.
Health Effects of Indoor Environmental Quality
Cancer:
EPA estimates that out of a total of 146,400 lung cancer deaths nationally in 1995, 21,100 (14.4%)
were radon related.
Environmental tobacco smoke (also referred to as secondhand smoke) is a known human carcinogen,
estimated to be responsible for approximately 3,000 lung cancer deaths in non-smokers each year as
well as posing significant respiratory health risks to young children, including bronchitis, pneumonia,
and asthma.
Asthma
Indoor contaminants such as dust mites, molds, cockroaches, pet dander, secondhand smoke and
some chemicals can trigger asthma attacks.
More than 20 million people, including over 6 million children, have asthma, accounting for over 10
million outpatient clinic visits, nearly 2 million emergency department visits and nearly 4,500 deaths
annually (2000).
Asthma is the most common serious chronic disease of childhood, and the third-ranking cause of
hospitalization among children under 15. In 2003, an estimated 12.8 million school days were missed
due to asthma. The estimated cost of treating asthma in those under 18 is $3.2 billion per year.
Materials and Waste:
The U.S. generated approximately 254 million tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) in 2007.
Excluding composting, the amount of MSW recycled increased to 63.3 million tons, an increase of 1.9
million tons from 2006. This is a 3 percent increase in the tons recycled.
MSW generation in 2007 was 4.62 pounds per person per day. The recycling rate in 2007 was 1.54
pounds per person per day.
Building-related construction and demolition (C&D) debris totals approximately 160 million tons per
year, accounting for nearly 26 percent of total non-industrial waste generation in the U.S. Combining
C&D with MSW yields an estimate that building construction, renovation, use and demolition together
constitute about two-thirds of all non-industrial solid waste generation in the US.
Sources of the building-related C&D debris wastestream include demolition (accounting for
approximately 48 percent of the waste stream per year), renovation (44 percent), and new
construction (8 percent).
An estimated 20 to 30 percent of building-related C&D debris is recovered for processing and
recycling. The materials most frequently recovered and recycled were concrete, asphalt, metals, and
wood.
Architects and builders typically do not design homes with easy renovation or deconstruction in mind.
The average U.S. family moves every 10 years.38 Homes often undergo many renovations over their
lifetimes, or complete building removal is carried out to make room for a newer home.
Storm Water Runoff:
Impervious surface coverage (paved or roofed surfaces where rain rainwater does not soak into the
ground) in the U.S. is 83,337 square km. This is an area as big as 75% of Ohio.
65% of this impervious area is due to transportation surfaces (roads, parking lots, sidewalks,
driveways, and 35% is due to roofs of offices, homes, stores and patios.
Buildings and the transportation infrastructure that serves them replace natural surfaces with
impermeable materials, creating runoff that washes pollutants and sediments into surface waters.
Urban runoff is the sixth leading source of impairment in rivers, ninth in lakes, and fifth in estuaries
(2002)
Aggregates
Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel or crushed stone that are an end product
in their own right. They are also the raw materials that, along with water and hydraulic binders, are an
essential ingredient in concrete. For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong
particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause the
deterioration of concrete.
Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete, are divided into
several distinct categories, and are either coarse or fine:
Coarse aggregates
Coarse aggregates are particles greater than 4.75mm, but generally range between 9.5mm to
37.5mm in diameter. They can either be from Primary, Secondary or Recycled sources. Primary, or
'virgin', aggregates are either Land- or Marine-Won. Gravel is a coarse marine-won aggregate; landwon coarse aggregates include gravel and crushed rock. Gravels constitute the majority of coarse
aggregate used in concrete with crushed stone making up most of the remainder.
Coarse Aggregates
Fine Aggregates
Fine aggregate are basically sands won from the land or the marine environment. They
are less than 4.75mm. Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed
stone with most particles passing through a 9.5mm sieve. As with coarse aggregates
these can be from Primary, Secondary or Recycled sources.
Sand
Posted by Toufik at 10:11 AM 0 comments
Labels: Aggregate
AGGREGATE ABRASION VALUE

This test helps to determine the abrasion value of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) 1963.
The apparatus used in this test are Los Angles abrasion testing machine, IS Sieve of size 1.7mm,
Abrasive charge 12 nos. cast iron or steel spheres approximately 48mm dia. and each weighing
between 390 and 445g ensuring that the total weight of charge is 5000 +25g and Oven.
Sample Preparation
The test sample should consist of clean aggregates which has been dried in an oven at 105 to 110oC
to a substantially constant weight and should conform to one of the gradings shown in the table
below:
Procedure
to
determine
Aggregate
Abrasion
Value
The test sample and the abrasive charge should be placed in the Los Angles abrasion testing machine
and the machine rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 revolutions/minute for 1000 revolutions. At the
completion of the test, the material should be discharged and sieved through 1.70mm IS Sieve.
Reporting of Results
i) The material coarser than 1.70mm IS Sieve should be washed, dried in an oven at a temperature of
100 to 110oC to a constant weight and weighed (Weight B).
ii) The proportion of loss between weight A and weight B of the test sample should be expressed as
a percentage of the original weight of the test sample. This value should be reported as,
Aggregate abrasion value = (A-B)/B x 100%.
Labels: Aggregate, Lab Tests
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

This test is done to determine the aggregate impact value of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part
IV) 1963. The apparatus used for determining aggregate impact value of coarse aggregates is
Impact testing machine conforming to IS: 2386 (Part IV)- 1963,IS Sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm
and 2.36mm, A cylindrical metal measure of 75mm dia. and 50mm depth, A tamping rod of 10mm
circular cross section and 230mm length, rounded at one end and Oven.
Preparation of Sample
i) The test sample should conform to the following grading:
- Passing through 12.5mm IS Sieve 100%
- Retention on 10mm IS Sieve 100%
ii) The sample should be oven-dried for 4hrs. at a temperature of 100 to 110 oC and cooled.
iii) The measure should be about one-third full with the prepared aggregates and tamped with 25
strokes of the tamping rod.
A further similar quantity of aggregates should be added and a further tamping of 25 strokes given.
The measure should finally be filled to overflow, tamped 25 times and the surplus aggregates struck
off, using a tamping rod as a straight edge. The net weight of the aggregates in the measure should
be determined to the nearest gram (Weight A).
Procedure to determine Aggregate Impact Value

i) The cup of the impact testing machine should be fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine
and the whole of the test sample placed in it and compacted by 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
ii) The hammer should be raised to 380mm above the upper surface of the aggregates in the cup and
allowed to fall freely onto the aggregates. The test sample should be subjected to a total of 15 such
blows, each being delivered at an interval of not less than one second.
i) The sample should be removed and sieved through a 2.36mm IS Sieve. The fraction passing
through should be weighed (Weight B). The fraction retained on the sieve should also be weighed
(Weight C) and if the total weight (B+C) is less than the initial weight (A) by more than one gram,
the result should be discarded and a fresh test done.
ii) The ratio of the weight of the fines formed to the total sample weight should be expressed as a
percentage.
Aggregate impact value = (B/A) x 100%
iii) Two such tests should be carried out and the mean of the results should be reported.

Aggregate Crushing Value

This test helps to determine the aggregate crushing value of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part
IV) 1963. The apparatus used is Cylindrical measure and plunger, Compression testing machine, IS
Sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm
Procedure
to
determine
Aggregate
Crushing
Value
i) The aggregates passing through 12.5mm and retained on 10mm IS Sieve are oven-dried at a
temperature
of
100
to
110 oC
for
3
to
4hrs.
ii) The cylinder of the apparatus is filled in 3 layers, each layer tamped with 25 strokes of a tamping
rod.
iii)
The
weight
of
aggregates
is
measured
(Weight
A).
iv) The surface of the aggregates is then leveled and the plunger inserted. The apparatus is then
placed in the compression testing machine and loaded at a uniform rate so as to achieve 40t load in
10
minutes.
After
this,
the
load
is
released.
v) The sample is then sieved through a 2.36mm IS Sieve and the fraction passing through the sieve is
weighed
(Weight
B).
vi) Two tests should be conducted.
Aggregate crushing value = (B/A) x 100%.
Grouting
Grouting is the injection of pumpable materials into a soil or rock formation under pressure to change
the physical characteristics of the natural formation.
Applications of Grouting
Mainlines and Pipe Joints
CIPP and Fold & Form Liners
Slip Lining
Point Repairs
Lateral Sealing
Manholes, Wet Wells and Lift Stations
Tunnels
Soil Stabilization
Grouting Materials
Hydrophilic Foams
Hydrophilic Gels
Hydrophobic Foams
Hydroactive Grouts
Chemically Activated Gels
Epoxies
Acrylamide
Acrylate
Urethane
Cementitious
Different Types of Grouting

Cementitious Grouting
Injection of micro fine cements and mixing of Portland, soil and/or fly ash with chemical grouts for
injection to eliminate infiltration and stabilize soil voids.
Patented method of sealing leaks by compressing a fluid sealant of ultrafine cement between
multiple everted tubes, forcing sealant into and through defects in pipe walls into soil voids. Flexible
tube(s) are everted and inverted simultaneously in the pipe to allow a slug of sealant to migrate.
Annular Space Grouting

Cementitious grouts to fill annular space between host pipe and liner
Grouting of annular space between thermoplastic panel and spiral wound liners to stabilize liner
Chemical Grouting
The injection of a multicomponent chemical grout through pipe defects around the pipe to seal the
leaks, fill voids and stabilize the ground around the structures.
Description: Two component chemical grouts mix within the void area created by the expansion of the
packer and the inside pipe wall. The grouts are forced through the defects of the pipe and gel to fill
voids, mix with the pipe bedding and surrounding soil. When mixed with the soil this gelled mass is no
longer 10% or 20% solids but more like 99% solids.
Pressure Grouting - A method of stabilizing or improving the density of a soil mass by filling in voids
through injecting a mixture of cement, sand and soil under high pressure.
Applications
Arresting Structural Settlement of existing Structures under floor slabs and footings.
Pressure Grouting for cavities and fissures.
Preventing collapse of Granular soils.
Increasing soil strength and rigidity.
Reducing/arresting ground movements.
Filling voids, cracks fissures in natural rock formations.
Curtain and compaction grouting for Dams and Reservoirs.
Geotechnical Considerations
Several conditions must exist in order for Pressure grouting to yield its best results:
Grout hole Location and Geometry.
Injection rates and Pressure.
Grout Properties: liquid, transition, set.
The grout injection rate should be slow enough to allow pore pressure dissipation.
Sequencing of grout injection is also important. If the soil is not near saturation, grouting can
usually be effective in most silts and sands.
Soils that lose strength during remolding (saturated, fine grained soils; sensitive clays) should be
avoided.
Greater displacement will occur in weaker soil strata.Exhumed grout bulbs confirm that grouting
focuses improvement where it is most needed.
Collapsible soils can usually be treated effectively with the addition of water during drilling prior to
grout injection.
Advantages of Pressure Grouting
Pinpoint treatment
Speed of installation
Wide applications range
Effective in a variety of soil and ground conditions
Can be performed in very tight access and low headroom conditions
Non-hazardous
No waste spoil disposal
No need to connect to footing or column
Non-destructive and adaptable to existing foundations
Economic alternative to removal and replacement of loose and low bearing soil
Able to reach depths unattainable by other methods
Enhanced control and effectiveness of in situ treatment with inflatable Packers
Minimal impact to surface environment
Low noise and vibration
Pressure Grouting Under Existing Foundation & Pressure Grouting Tools

Documentation During Testing and Sealing
Identification of sewer line tested
Pipe material, diameter and geographic location
Location of each joint or service connection

Test pressure used
Pass or fail identification of joint
Test pressure achieved & maintained for each joint passing
Air temperature at time of testing
Volume of grout placed per joint or service lateral connection
Daily gel time checks
Main line gel times generally should not be < 15 seconds
Lateral gel times generally should not be < 25 seconds
Weekly equipment pressure test results
Void Pressure Readouts

Void pressure readouts provide important data for operator and inspector
in determining grout necessary to effectively seal a leak.
Test Methods for Very Low Slump Concrete

Low slump concrete is desirable when concrete is placed in large open forms, or when the form is
placed on a slope. The concrete mix must be designed for these special applications.
Very low slump concretes are typically too stiff to be measured with test methods that consider the
ability of concrete to flow. Instead, tests for very low slump concretes generally attempt to simulate
the actual placement conditions for low slump concretes and measure more relevant properties like
compactability. The proctor test and the Kango hammer test utilize vibration to compact samples
whereas the intensive compaction test uses compression and shear forces.
These tests are generally simple to perform, although none can be used as a simple field quality
control device.
1.Proctor Test
The proctor test used for soils can also be used for lean, dry concrete mixes The test procedure for
concrete is the same test procedure commonly used for soils. Either the standard Proctor test or the
modified Proctor test can be used. Four to six samples, each with varying moisture content, are
compacted in a cylindrical mold using a drop hammer. The unit weight of each compacted sample is
plotted against moisture content to determine the maximum dry unit weight and corresponding
moisture content.
Advantages:
The test is appropriate for low slump concrete mixtures that cannot be tested with conventional
workability tests.
The test is simple and well known.
Disadvantages:
The test does not incorporate vibration, which is commonly used to compact low slump concretes.
The test is time consuming: performing the test requires four to six samples to be prepared to define
the unit weight versus moisture content curve.
2.Kango Hammer Test
The Kango hammer test attempts to measure workability by simulating the effect of vibration and
pressing on low-slump concretes. Concrete is placed in a cubic or cylinder mold in two to three
separate layers. A demolition hammer, which is mounted in a frame and equipped with a special bit
that fits the shape of the mold, applies a constant pressure and vibration to each layer of concrete.
After compaction of all layers, the density of the concrete specimen is
determined. The greater the density of the compacted concrete specimen, the greater will be the
compactability and workability of the concrete mix.
The particular demolition hammer typically used for this test method is manufactured by Kango
Advantages:
By using both vibration and pressure, the test accurately simulates field placement conditions.
The test is simple and easy to perform.
Disadvantages:
The particular hammer is not specified, making comparisons of the test results difficult.
The apparatus is larger than the proctor test and requires electricity.
3.Intensive Compaction Test
The intensive compaction test is a gyratory compactor used to measure the workability of concrete
mixtures with slumps less than approximately 1 cm. The test apparatus is a machine that applies
compression and shear forces to a concrete specimen while recording the density of the specimen. To
perform the test, the concrete to be tested is placed in a cylindrical mold, which is loaded into the test
apparatus. The mold is available in two diametersa 100 mm diameter mold is used for concretes
with maximum aggregate sizes of up to 20 mm while a 150 mm diameter mold is appropriate for
maximum aggregate sizes up to 32 mm. Two pistons at either end of the cylinder apply a compressive
force to the sample.
Simultaneously, the angle of inclination of the pistons rotates to apply a shearing motion to the
concrete. This compaction technique is represented in the Figure below . The pressure and speed of
rotation can be adjusted for each test; however, these variables are held constant during each test.
The volume of the sample, which is used to calculate density, is recorded continuously throughout the
test. The test is performed in 3-5 minutes.
Figure : Compaction of Concrete Sample in Intensive Compaction Device.

To determine the workability of a concrete mixture, the density of the concrete is plotted versus the
number of working cycles of the pistons. Concrete mixes are evaluated by comparing the density after
a certain number of cycles under a given pressure. Additionally, the performance of concrete
production machines can be evaluated by comparing the density achieved with a particular machine to
the density achieved with the intensive compaction test.
After the test, the sample of concrete can be removed from the cylinder mold and tested for
compressive or splitting tensile strength either in the concretes fresh or hardened state. The results of
the intensive compaction test show good correlation to the results of the Kango
hammer test and the Proctor test.
Although the larger 150 mm diameter model is too heavy and bulky for field use, the lightweight
version of the 100 mm diameter model weighs approximately 120 lbs and can be transported to a field
site. Electricity and compressed air are required to perform the test.
Advantages:
Research has shown that the test is capable of accurately measuring even small changes in mixture
proportions.
The test accurately simulates placement conditions for low slump roller-compacted concretes.
The test is fast and computer controlled.
The test can be used for research, mix proportioning, or quality control. The smaller 100 mm model
is feasible for field use.

Disadvantages:
The equipment is expensive, especially when compared to the proctor test. The 150 mm diameter
model is too heavy for field use.
The test does not incorporate vibration, which is commonly used in the placement of low slump
concrete.
Various Lab Test On Concrete

There are many tests which are conducted to check the quality of concrete. These tests are basically
divided into two categories
1. Various Lab Test On Fresh Concrete.
Under these, we have the following tests
a) Slump Test Workability
b) Compacting Factor
c) Vee- Bee Test
2.Various Lab Test On Hardened Concrete.
There are two kinds of tests which are done on hardened concrete. These are non destructive test and
destructive tests. In non destructive test, the sample is not destroyed and this test is very useful in
determining the strength of existing buildings or structures where as in destructive test a sample is
made and then destroyed to find out the strength of concrete.Compression test is the example of
destructive test. Here are the nondestructive tests.
a) Rebound Hammer Test
b) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY
This test is done to assess the quality of concrete by ultrasonic pulse velocity method as per IS: 13311
(Part 1) 1992. The underlying principle of this test is The method consists of measuring the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing through the
concrete being tested. Comparatively higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality is good in
terms of density, uniformity, homogeneity etc.
Procedure to determine strength of hardened concrete by Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.
i) Preparing for use: Before switching on the V meter, the transducers should be connected to the
sockets marked TRAN and REC.
The V meter may be operated with either:
a) the internal battery,
b) an external battery or
c) the A.C line.
ii) Set reference: A reference bar is provided to check the instrument zero. The pulse time for the bar
is engraved on it. Apply a smear of grease to the transducer faces before placing it on the opposite
ends of the bar. Adjust the SET REF control until the reference bar transit time is obtained on the
instrument read-out.
iii) Range selection: For maximum accuracy, it is recommended that the 0.1 microsecond range be
selected for path length upto 400mm.
iv) Pulse velocity: Having determined the most suitable test points on the material to be tested, make
careful measurement of the path length L. Apply couplant to the surfaces of the transducers and
press it hard onto the surface of the material. Do not move the transducers while a reading is being
taken, as this can generate noise signals and errors in measurements. Continue holding the
transducers onto the surface of the material until a consistent reading appears on the display, which is
the time in microsecond for the ultrasonic pulse to travel the distance L. The mean value of the
display readings should be taken when the units digit hunts between two values.
Pulse velocity=(Path length/Travel time)
v) Separation of transducer leads: It is advisable to prevent the two transducer leads from coming into
close contact with each other when the transit time measurements are being taken. If this is not done,
the receiver lead might pick-up unwanted signals from the transmitter lead and this would result in an
incorrect display of the transit time.
Interpretation
of
Results
The quality of concrete in terms of uniformity, incidence or absence of internal flaws, cracks and
segregation, etc,indicative of the level of workmanship employed, can thus be assessed using the
guidelines given below, which have been evolved for characterizing the quality of concrete in
structures in terms of the ultrasonic pulse velocity.
Test To Check Fineness Of Cement

FINENESS
So we need to determine the fineness of cement by dry sieving as per IS: 4031 (Part 1) 1996.The
principle of this is that we determine the proportion of cement whose grain size is larger then specified
mesh
size.
The apparatus used are 90m IS Sieve, Balance capable of weighing 10g to the nearest 10mg, A
nylon or pure bristle brush, preferably with 25 to 40mm, bristle, for cleaning the sieve.
Sieve shown in pic below is not the actual 90m seive.Its just for reference.
Procedure to determine fineness of cement

i) Weigh approximately 10g of cement to the nearest 0.01g and place it on the sieve.
ii) Agitate the sieve by swirling, planetary and linear movements, until no more fine material passes
through it.
iii) Weigh the residue and express its mass as a percentage R1,of the quantity first placed on the sieve
to the nearest 0.1 percent.
iv) Gently brush all the fine material off the base of the sieve.
v) Repeat the whole procedure using a fresh 10g sample to obtain R2. Then calculate R as the mean
of R1 and R2 as a percentage, expressed to the nearest 0.1 percent. When the results differ by more
than 1 percent absolute, carry out a third sieving and calculate the mean of the three values.
Report the value of R, to the nearest 0.1 percent, as the residue on the 90m sieve.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
Sieve analysis helps to determine the particle size distribution of the coarse and fine aggregates.This
is done by sieving the aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part I) 1963. In this we use different sieves as
standardized by the IS code and then pass aggregates through them and thus collect different sized
particles left over different sieves.
The
apparatus
used
are
i) A set of IS Sieves of sizes 80mm, 63mm, 50mm, 40mm,31.5mm, 25mm, 20mm, 16mm,
12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm,4.75mm, 3.35mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600m, 300m, 150m and 75m.
ii) Balance or scale with an accuracy to measure 0.1 percent of the weight of the test sample.
The weight of sample available should not be less than the weight given below:-
The sample for sieving should be prepared from the larger sample either by quartering or by means of
a
sample
divider.
Procedure
to
determine
particle
size
distribution
of
Aggregates.
i) The test sample is dried to a constant weight at a temperature of 110 + 5 oC and weighed.
ii)
The
sample
is
sieved
by
using
a
set
of
IS
Sieves.
iii)
On
completion
of
sieving,
the
material
on
each
sieve
is
weighed.
iv) Cumulative weight passing through each sieve is calculated as a percentage of the total sample
weight.
v) Fineness modulus is obtained by adding cumulative percentage of aggregates retained on each
sieve and dividing the sum by 100.
Reporting
of
Results
The
results
should
be
calculated
and
reported
as:
i)
the
cumulative
percentage
by
weight
of
the
total
sample
ii) the percentage by weight of the total sample passing through one sieve and retained on the next
smaller sieve, to the nearest 0.1 percent. The results of the sieve analysis may be recorded graphically
on a semi-log graph with particle size as abscissa (log scale) and the percentage smaller than the
specified diameter as ordinate.
AGGREGATE ABRASION VALUE

This test helps to determine the abrasion value of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) 1963.
The apparatus used in this test are Los Angles abrasion testing machine, IS Sieve of size 1.7mm,
Abrasive charge 12 nos. cast iron or steel spheres approximately 48mm dia. and each weighing
between 390 and 445g ensuring that the total weight of charge is 5000 +25g and Oven.
Sample Preparation
The test sample should consist of clean aggregates which has been dried in an oven at 105 to 110oC
to a substantially constant weight and should conform to one of the gradings shown in the table
below:
Procedure
to
determine
Aggregate
Abrasion
Value
The test sample and the abrasive charge should be placed in the Los Angles abrasion testing machine
and the machine rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 revolutions/minute for 1000 revolutions. At the
completion of the test, the material should be discharged and sieved through 1.70mm IS Sieve.
i) The material coarser than 1.70mm IS Sieve should be washed, dried in an oven at a temperature of
100 to 110oC to a constant weight and weighed (Weight B).
ii) The proportion of loss between weight A and weight B of the test sample should be expressed as
a percentage of the original weight of the test sample. This value should be reported as,
Aggregate abrasion value = (A-B)/B x 100%.
AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

This test is done to determine the aggregate impact value of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part
IV) 1963. The apparatus used for determining aggregate impact value of coarse aggregates is
Impact testing machine conforming to IS: 2386 (Part IV)- 1963,IS Sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm
and 2.36mm, A cylindrical metal measure of 75mm dia. and 50mm depth, A tamping rod of 10mm
circular cross section and 230mm length, rounded at one end and Oven.
Preparation of Sample
i) The test sample should conform to the following grading:
- Passing through 12.5mm IS Sieve 100%
- Retention on 10mm IS Sieve 100%
ii) The sample should be oven-dried for 4hrs. at a temperature of 100 to 110 oC and cooled.
iii) The measure should be about one-third full with the prepared aggregates and tamped with 25
strokes of the tamping rod.
A further similar quantity of aggregates should be added and a further tamping of 25 strokes given.
The measure should finally be filled to overflow, tamped 25 times and the surplus aggregates struck
off, using a tamping rod as a straight edge. The net weight of the aggregates in the measure should
be determined to the nearest gram (Weight A).
Procedure to determine Aggregate Impact Value

i) The cup of the impact testing machine should be fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine
and the whole of the test sample placed in it and compacted by 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
ii) The hammer should be raised to 380mm above the upper surface of the aggregates in the cup and
allowed to fall freely onto the aggregates. The test sample should be subjected to a total of 15 such
blows, each being delivered at an interval of not less than one second.
i) The sample should be removed and sieved through a 2.36mm IS Sieve. The fraction passing
through should be weighed (Weight B). The fraction retained on the sieve should also be weighed
(Weight C) and if the total weight (B+C) is less than the initial weight (A) by more than one gram,
the result should be discarded and a fresh test done.
ii) The ratio of the weight of the fines formed to the total sample weight should be expressed as a
percentage.
Aggregate impact value = (B/A) x 100%
iii) Two such tests should be carried out and the mean of the results should be reported.
Aggregate Crushing Value

This test helps to determine the aggregate crushing value of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386 (Part
IV) 1963. The apparatus used is Cylindrical measure and plunger, Compression testing machine, IS
Sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm and 2.36mm
Procedure
to
determine
Aggregate
Crushing
Value
i) The aggregates passing through 12.5mm and retained on 10mm IS Sieve are oven-dried at a
temperature
of
100
to
110 oC
for
3
to
4hrs.
ii) The cylinder of the apparatus is filled in 3 layers, each layer tamped with 25 strokes of a tamping
rod.
iii)
The
weight
of
aggregates
is
measured
(Weight
A).
iv) The surface of the aggregates is then leveled and the plunger inserted. The apparatus is then
placed in the compression testing machine and loaded at a uniform rate so as to achieve 40t load in
10
minutes.
After
this,
the
load
is
released.
v) The sample is then sieved through a 2.36mm IS Sieve and the fraction passing through the sieve is
weighed
(Weight
B).
vi) Two tests should be conducted.
Aggregate crushing value = (B/A) x 100%.
Workability of Fresh Concrete by Compacting

Factor Test
COMPACTING FACTOR
Compacting factor of fresh concrete is done to determine the workability of fresh concrete by
compacting factor test as per IS: 1199 1959. The apparatus used is Compacting factor apparatus.
Procedure to determine workability of fresh concrete by compacting factor test.
i) The sample of concrete is placed in the upper hopper up to the brim.
ii) The trap-door is opened so that the concrete falls into the lower hopper.
iii) The trap-door of the lower hopper is opened and the concrete is allowed to fall into the cylinder.
iv) The excess concrete remaining above the top level of the cylinder is then cut off with the help of
plane blades.
v) The concrete in the cylinder is weighed. This is known as weight of partially compacted concrete.
vi) The cylinder is filled with a fresh sample of concrete and vibrated to obtain full compaction. The
concrete in the cylinder is weighed again. This weight is known as the weight of fully compacted
concrete.
Compacting factor = (Weight of partially compacted concrete)/(Weight of fully compacted
concrete)
Workability of Fresh Concrete by Vee-Bee

Consistometer
VEE-BEE TEST
To determine the workability of fresh concrete by using a Vee-Bee consistometer as per IS: 1199
1959.
The
apparatus
used
is
Vee-Bee
consistometer.
Procedure to determine workability of fresh concrete by Vee-Bee consistometer.
i) A conventional slump test is performed, placing the slump cone inside the cylindrical part of the
consistometer.
ii) The glass disc attached to the swivel arm is turned and placed on the top of the concrete in the pot.
iii) The electrical vibrator is switched on and a stop-watch is started, simultaneously.
iv) Vibration is continued till the conical shape of the concrete disappears and the concrete assumes a
cylindrical shape.
v) When the concrete fully assumes a cylindrical shape, the stop-watch is switched off immediately.
The time is noted.The consistency of the concrete should be expressed in VB-degrees, which is equal
to the time in seconds recorded above.
Winsor Probe Concrete Test

This procedure I came across in one of the site.Just for info to Beginners. This test is called WINSOR
probe test.
When the concrete is done and its up and you want to know the strength of concrete with minimum
damage,this is the one of the test.
Engineer will select the location.In this case its in column.
They use this tool to drive the bolt type into the concrete. Then use a tool to measure the up stand
length,from that you can get the penetration depth.Through the depth of penetration the concrete
strength is being calculate.
Concrete Mix Design
Introduction
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative amounts with
the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and workability as
economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The proportioning of ingredient of
concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and the
hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable, it cannot be properly placed and compacted.
The property of workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance.
The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an index of its
other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water and
aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The cost of concrete is made up of
the cost of materials, plant and labour. The variations in the cost of materials arise from the fact that
the cement is several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as lean a mix as
possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to high shrinkage and cracking in the
structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete which may cause
cracking.
The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required for producing a minimum mean
strength called characteristic strength that is specified by the designer of the structure. This depends
on the quality control measures, but there is no doubt that the quality control adds to the cost of
concrete. The extent of quality control is often an economic compromise, and depends on the size and
type of job. The cost of labour depends on the workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix of inadequate
workability may result in a high cost of labour to obtain a degree of compaction with available
equipment.
Requirements of concrete mix design
The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix ingredients are :
a ) The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration
b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting equipment available.
c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give adequate durability for the
particular site conditions
d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature cycle in mass concrete.
Types of Mixes
1. Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and coarse
aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength are termed
nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a margin of strength
above that specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a
given workability varies widely in strength.
2. Standard mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength and may
result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive strength has been
included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard mixes.
IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15, M20, M25,
M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified
28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm2. The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond
approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.
3. Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix proportions
are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement content can be laid
down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with specific materials in mind
possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in the production of concrete with
the appropriate properties most economically. However, the designed mix does not serve as a guide
since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for the prescribed performance.
For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed in the codes
by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used only for very small jobs,
when the 28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm2. No control testing is necessary
reliance being placed on the masses of the ingredients.
Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions
The various factors affecting the mix design are:
1. Compressive strength
It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other describable
properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength required at a specific age,
usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix. The other factor affecting the
strength of concrete at a given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is the degree of
compaction. According to Abrahams law the strength of fully compacted concrete is inversely
proportional to the water-cement ratio.
2. Workability
The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size of the section to be
concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction to be used. For the narrow
and complicated section with numerous corners or inaccessible parts, the concrete must have a high
workability so that full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable amount of effort. This also
applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired workability depends on the compacting equipment
available at the site.
3. Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental conditions. High strength
concrete is generally more durable than low strength concrete. In the situations when the high
strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are such that high durability is vital, the
durability requirement will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.
4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate
In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement requirement for a particular
water-cement ratio, because the workability of concrete increases with increase in maximum size of
the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends to increase with the decrease in size of
aggregate.
IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the aggregate should be as large
as possible.
5. Grading and type of aggregate
The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified workability and water-cement
ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix which can be used. Very lean mix is not desirable since it
does not contain enough finer material to make the concrete cohesive.
The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the desired workability and
stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a satisfactory aggregate is the uniformity of the
grading which can be achieved by mixing different size fractions.
6. Quality Control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test results. The variation in
strength results from the variations in the properties of the mix ingredients and lack of control of
accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing. The lower the difference between the mean
and minimum strengths of the mix lower will be the cement-content required. The factor controlling
this difference is termed as quality control.
Mix Proportion designations
The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is in the terms of
parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of proportions 1:2:4
means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix contains one part of
cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate. The proportions are either by
volume or by mass. The water-cement ratio is usually expressed in mass
Factors to be considered for mix design
The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.
The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength of concrete.
Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as possible within the
limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.
The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to the size and shape
of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique used for transportation, placing and
compaction.
Procedure
1. Determine the mean target strength ft from the specified characteristic compressive strength at 28day fck and the level of quality control.
ft = fck + 1.65 S
where S is the standard deviation obtained from the Table of approximate contents given after the
design mix.
2. Obtain the water cement ratio for the desired mean target using the emperical relationship between
compressive strength and water cement ratio so chosen is checked against the limiting water cement
ratio. The water cement ratio so chosen is checked against the limiting water cement ratio for the
requirements of durability given in table and adopts the lower of the two values.
3. Estimate the amount of entrapped air for maximum nominal size of the aggregate from the table.
4. Select the water content, for the required workability and maximum size of aggregates (for
aggregates in saturated surface dry condition) from table.
5. Determine the percentage of fine aggregate in total aggregate by absolute volume from table for
the concrete using crushed coarse aggregate.
6. Adjust the values of water content and percentage of sand as provided in the table for any
difference in workability, water cement ratio, grading of fine aggregate and for rounded aggregate the
values are given in table.
7. Calculate the cement content form the water-cement ratio and the final water content as arrived
after adjustment. Check the cement against the minimum cement content from the requirements of
the durability, and greater of the two values is adopted.
8. From the quantities of water and cement per unit volume of concrete and the percentage of sand
already determined in steps 6 and 7 above, calculate the content of coarse and fine aggregates per
unit volume of concrete from the following relations:
formula-for-concrete-mix-design
where V = absolute volume of concrete
= gross volume (1m3) minus the volume of entrapped air
Sc = specific gravity of cement
W = Mass of water per cubic metre of concrete, kg
C = mass of cement per cubic metre of concrete, kg
p = ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume
fa, Ca = total masses of fine and coarse aggregates, per cubic metre of concrete, respectively, kg, and
Sfa, Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine and coarse aggregates, respectively
9. Determine the concrete mix proportions for the first trial mix.
10. Prepare the concrete using the calculated proportions and cast three cubes of 150 mm size and
test them wet after 28-days moist curing and check for the strength.
11. Prepare trial mixes with suitable adjustments till the final mix proportions are arrived at.
Labels: mix design
Mix Design For M35 Grade Of Concrete

The mix design for M35 Grade Of Concrete for pile foundations provided here is for reference purpose
only. Actual site conditions vary and thus this should be adjusted as per the location and other factors.
Grade of Concrete : M35
Characteristic Strength (Fck) : 35 Mpa
Standard Deviation : 1.91 Mpa*
Target Mean Strength : T.M.S.= Fck +1.65 x S.D.
(from I.S 456-2000) = 35+ 1.651.91
= 38.15 Mpa
Test Data For Material:

Aggregate Type : Crushed
Specific Gravity
Cement : 3.15
Coarse Aggregate : 2.67
Fine Aggregate : 2.62
Water Absorption:
Coarse Aggregate : 0.5%
Fine Aggregate : 1.0 %
MIX DESIGN
Take Sand content as percentage of total aggregates = 36%
Select Water Cement Ratio = 0.43 for concrete grade M35
(From Fig 2. of I.S. 10262- 1982)
Select Water Content = 172 Kg
(From IS: 10262 for 20 mm nominal size of aggregates Maximum Water Content = 186 Kg/ M 3 )
Hence, Cement Content= 172 / 0.43 = 400 Kg / M3
Formula for Mix Proportion of Fine and Coarse Aggregate:
1000(1-a0) = {(Cement Content / Sp. Gr. Of Cement) + Water Content +(F a / Sp. Gr.* Pf )}
1000(1-a0) = {(Cement Content / Sp. Gr. Of Cement) + Water Content +C a / Sp. Gr.* Pc )}
Where Ca = Coarse Aggregate Content
Fa = Fine Aggregate Content
Pf = Sand Content as percentage of total Aggregates
= 0.36
Pc = Coarse Aggregate Content as percentage of total Aggregates.
= 0.64
a0 = Percentage air content in concrete (As per IS :10262 for 20 mm nominal size of
aggregates air content is 2 %) = 0.02
Hence, 1000(1-0.02) = {(400 /3.15) + 172 +(Fa / 2.62 x 0.36)}
Fa = 642 Kg/ Cum
As the sand is of Zone II no adjustment is required for sand.
Sand Content = 642 Kg/ Cum
1000(1-0.02) = {(400 /3.15) + 172 +(Ca / 2.67 x 0.64)}
Hence, Ca = 1165 Kg/ Cum
From combined gradation of Coarse aggregates it has been found out that the proportion of 53:47 of
20 mm & 10 mm aggregates produces the best gradation as per IS: 383.
Hence, 20 mm Aggregates = 619 Kg
And 10 mm Aggregates = 546 Kg
To obtain slump in the range of 150-190 mm water reducing admixture brand SP430 from Fosroc with
a dose of 0.3 % by weight of Cement shall be used.
Hence the Mix Proportion becomes:
Cem
W/C
Water
Sand
20mm
10mm
Admix
400
0.43
172
635
619
564
1.2
0.43
1.6
1.547
1.36
0.003
Units Kg/ M3
Cement : Sand: Coarse Aggregates = 1 : 1.6 : 2.907

Labels: mix design
CONCRETE MIX DESIGN (GRADE M60)

(a) DESIGN STIPULATION:Target strength = 60Mpa
Max size of aggregate used = 12.5 mm
Specific gravity of cement = 3.15
Specific gravity of fine aggregate (F.A) = 2.6
Specific gravity of Coarse aggregate (C.A) = 2.64
Dry Rodded Bulk Density of fine aggregate = 1726 Kg/m3
Dry Rodded Bulk Density of coarse aggregate = 1638 Kg/m 3
Step-1
Calculation for weight of Coarse Aggregate:
From ACI 211.4R Table 4.3.3 Fractional volume of oven dry Rodded C.A for 12.5mm size aggregate is
0.68m3
Weight of C.A = 0.68*1638 = 1108.13 Kg/m3
Step-2
Calculation for Quantity of Water:
From ACI 211.4R Table 4.3.4
Assuming Slump as 50 to 75mm and for C.A size 12.5 mm the Mixing water = 148 ml
Void content of FA for this mixing water = 35%
Void content of FA (V)
V = {1-(Dry Rodded unit wt / specific gravity of FA*1000)}*100
= [1-(1726/2.6*1000)]*100
= 34.62%
Adjustment in mixing water = (V-35)* 4.55
= (34.62 35)*4.55
= -1.725 ml
Total water required = 148 + (-1.725) = 146.28 ml
Step-3
Calculation for weight of cement
From ACI 211.4R Table 4.3.5(b)
Take W / C ratio = 0.29
Weight of cement = 146.28 / 0.29 = 504.21 kg/m3
Step-4
Calculation for weight of Fine Aggregate:
Cement = 504.21 / 3.15*1000= 0.1616
Water = 146.28 / 1*1000= 0.1462
CA = 1108.13 / 3*1000= 0.3690
Entrapped Air = 2 / 100= 0.020
Total = 0.7376m3
Volume of Fine Aggregate= 1-0.7376
Weight of Fine Aggregate= 0.2624*2.6*1000= 683.24 kg/m3
Step-5
Super plasticizer:
For 0.8% = (0.8 / 100)*583.53 = 4.668 ml
Step-6
Correction for water:
Weight of water (For 0.8%) =146.28 4.668 =141.61 kg/m 3
Requirement of materials per Cubic meter
Cement = 504.21 Kg/m3
Fine Aggregate = 683.24 Kg/m3
Coarse Aggregate = 1108.13 Kg/m3
Water = 141.61 Kg/ m3
Super plasticizers = 4.6681 / m3

So the final ratio becomes
Cement : Fine agg (kg/m3) : Coarse agg (kg/m3) : Water (l/m3): Superplasticizer (l/m3)
1: 1.35 :2.19 :0.29 :0.8
Labels: mix design
Mix Design M-40 Grade

The mix design M-40 grade for Pier (Using Admixture Fosroc) provided here is for reference purpose
Parameters for mix design M40
Grade Designation = M-40
Type of cement = O.P.C-43 grade
Brand of cement = Vikram ( Grasim )
Admixture = Fosroc ( Conplast SP 430 G8M )
Fine Aggregate = Zone-II
Sp. Gravity Cement = 3.15
Fine Aggregate = 2.61
Coarse Aggregate (20mm) = 2.65
Minimum Cement (As per contract) = 400 kg / m3
Maximum water cement ratio (As per contract) = 0.45
Mix Calculation: 1. Target Mean Strength = 40 + (5 X 1.65) = 48.25 Mpa
2. Selection of water cement ratio:Assume water cement ratio = 0.4
3. Calculation of cement content: Assume cement content 400 kg / m3
(As per contract Minimum cement content 400 kg / m3)
4. Calculation of water: 400 X 0.4 = 160 kg Which is less than 186 kg (As per Table No. 4, IS: 10262)
Hence o.k.
5. Calculation for C.A. & F.A.: As per IS : 10262 , Cl. No. 3.5.1
V = [ W + (C/Sc) + (1/p) . (fa/Sfa) ] x (1/1000)
V = [ W + (C/Sc) + {1/(1-p)} . (ca/Sca) ] x (1/1000)
Where
V = absolute volume of fresh concrete, which is equal to gross volume (m3) minus the volume of
entrapped air ,
W = mass of water ( kg ) per m3 of concrete ,
C = mass of cement ( kg ) per m3 of concrete ,
Sc = specific gravity of cement,
(p) = Ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume ,

(fa) , (ca) = total mass of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate (kg) per m3 of
Concrete respectively, and
Sfa , Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine aggregate and Coarse aggregate
respectively.
As per Table No. 3 , IS-10262, for 20mm maximum size entrapped air is 2% .
Assume F.A. by % of volume of total aggregate = 36.5 %
0.98 = [ 160 + ( 400 / 3.15 ) + ( 1 / 0.365 ) ( Fa / 2.61 )] ( 1 /1000 )
=> Fa = 660.2 kg
Say Fa = 660 kg.
0.98 = [ 160 + ( 400 / 3.15 ) + ( 1 / 0.635 ) ( Ca / 2.655 )] ( 1 /1000 )
=> Ca = 1168.37 kg.
Say Ca = 1168 kg.
Considering 20 mm : 10mm = 0.6 : 0.4
20mm = 701 kg .
10mm = 467 kg .
Hence Mix details per m3
Cement = 400 kg
Water = 160 kg
Fine aggregate = 660 kg
Coarse aggregate 20 mm = 701 kg
Admixture = 0.6 % by weight of cement = 2.4 kg.
Recron 3S = 900 gm
Water: cement: F.A.: C.A. = 0.4: 1: 1.65: 2.92
Observation: A. Mix was cohesive and homogeneous.
B. Slump = 110mm
C. No. of cube casted = 12 Nos.
7 days average compressive strength = 51.26 MPa.
28 days average compressive strength = 62.96 MPa which is greater than 48.25MPa
Hence the mix is accepted.

Labels: mix design
Concrete Mix of All Grades

Concrete Mix Design
The mix design M-50 grade (Using Admixture Sikament) provided here is for reference purpose only.
Actual site conditions vary and thus this should be adjusted as per the location and other factors.
Admixture = Sika [Sikament 170 ( H ) ]
Sp. Gravity
Cement = 3.15
Minimum Cement (As per contract) =400 kg / m3
Mix Calculation: 1. Target Mean Strength = 50 + ( 5 X 1.65 ) = 58.25 Mpa
3. Calculation of water: Approximate water content for 20mm max. Size of aggregate = 180 kg /m3 (As per Table No. 5 , IS :
10262 ). As plasticizer is proposed we can reduce water content by 20%.
Now water content = 180 X 0.8 = 144 kg /m3
4. Calculation of cement content:Water cement ratio = 0.35
Water content per cum of concrete = 144 kg
Cement content = 144/0.35 = 411.4 kg / m3
Say cement content = 412 kg / m3 (As per contract Minimum cement content 400 kg / m3 )
Hence O.K.
5. Calculation for C.A. & F.A.: [ Formula's can be seen in earlier posts]Volume of concrete = 1 m3
Volume of cement = 412 / ( 3.15 X 1000 ) = 0.1308 m3
Volume of water = 144 / ( 1 X 1000 ) = 0.1440 m3
Volume of Admixture = 4.994 / (1.145 X 1000 ) = 0.0043 m3
Total weight of other materials except coarse aggregate = 0.1308 + 0.1440 +0.0043 = 0.2791 m3
Volume of coarse and fine aggregate = 1 0.2791 = 0.7209 m3
Volume of F.A. = 0.7209 X 0.33 = 0.2379 m3 (Assuming 33% by volume of total aggregate )
Volume of C.A. = 0.7209 0.2379 = 0.4830 m3
Therefore weight of F.A. = 0.2379 X 2.61 X 1000 = 620.919 kg/ m3
Say weight of F.A. = 621 kg/ m3
Therefore weight of C.A. = 0.4830 X 2.655 X 1000 = 1282.365 kg/ m3
Say weight of C.A. = 1284 kg/ m3

Considering 20 mm: 10mm = 0.55: 0.45
20mm = 706 kg .
10mm = 578 kg .
Increasing cement, water, admixture by 2.5% for this trial
Cement = 412 X 1.025 = 422 kg
Water = 144 X 1.025 = 147.6 kg
B. Slump = 120 mm
Hence the mix accepted.

Hence o.k.
V = [ W + (C/Sc) + (1/p) . (fa/Sfa) ] x (1/1000)
V = [ W + (C/Sc) + {1/(1-p)} . (ca/Sca) ] x (1/1000)
Where
entrapped air ,
respectively.
0.98 = [ 160 + ( 400 / 3.15 ) + ( 1 / 0.365 ) ( Fa / 2.61 )] ( 1 /1000 )
=> Fa = 660.2 kg
Say Fa = 660 kg.
0.98 = [ 160 + ( 400 / 3.15 ) + ( 1 / 0.635 ) ( Ca / 2.655 )] ( 1 /1000 )
=> Ca = 1168.37 kg.
Say Ca = 1168 kg.
20mm = 701 kg .
10mm = 467 kg .
Cement = 400 kg
Water = 160 kg
Recron 3S = 900 gm

B. Slump = 110mm
Concrete Mix Design M 20 Grade Of Concrete

1. REQUIREMENTS
a) Specified minimum strength = 20 N/Sq mm
b) Durability requirements
i) Exposure Moderate
ii) Minimum Cement Content = 300 Kgs/cum
c) Cement
(Refer Table No. 5 of IS:456-2000)
i) Make Chetak (Birla)
ii) Type OPC
iii) Grade 43
d) Workability
i) compacting factor = 0.7
e) Degree of quality control Good
Concrete Mix Design M-60
Dry Rodded Bulk Density of coarse aggregate = 1638 Kg/m3
(from I.S 456-2000) = 35+ 1.651.91
= 38.15 Mpa
Labels: concrete, m-20, mix design
Mix Design of M-50 Concrete
The mix design M-50 grade (Using Admixture Sikament) provided here is for reference purpose only.
Actual site conditions vary and thus this should be adjusted as per the location and other factors.
Admixture = Sika [Sikament 170 ( H ) ]
Sp. Gravity
Cement = 3.15
Minimum Cement (As per contract) =400 kg / m3
Mix Calculation: 1. Target Mean Strength = 50 + ( 5 X 1.65 ) = 58.25 Mpa
3. Calculation of water: Approximate water content for 20mm max. Size of aggregate = 180 kg /m3 (As per Table No. 5 , IS :
10262 ). As plasticizer is proposed we can reduce water content by 20%.
Now water content = 180 X 0.8 = 144 kg /m3
4. Calculation of cement content:Water cement ratio = 0.35
Water content per cum of concrete = 144 kg
Cement content = 144/0.35 = 411.4 kg / m3
Say cement content = 412 kg / m3 (As per contract Minimum cement content 400 kg / m3 )
Hence O.K.
5. Calculation for C.A. & F.A.: [ Formula's can be seen in earlier posts]Volume of concrete = 1 m3
Volume of cement = 412 / ( 3.15 X 1000 ) = 0.1308 m3
Volume of water = 144 / ( 1 X 1000 ) = 0.1440 m3
Volume of Admixture = 4.994 / (1.145 X 1000 ) = 0.0043 m3
Total weight of other materials except coarse aggregate = 0.1308 + 0.1440 +0.0043 = 0.2791 m3
Volume of coarse and fine aggregate = 1 0.2791 = 0.7209 m3
Volume of F.A. = 0.7209 X 0.33 = 0.2379 m3 (Assuming 33% by volume of total aggregate )
Volume of C.A. = 0.7209 0.2379 = 0.4830 m3
Therefore weight of F.A. = 0.2379 X 2.61 X 1000 = 620.919 kg/ m3
Say weight of F.A. = 621 kg/ m3
Therefore weight of C.A. = 0.4830 X 2.655 X 1000 = 1282.365 kg/ m3
Say weight of C.A. = 1284 kg/ m3

Considering 20 mm: 10mm = 0.55: 0.45
20mm = 706 kg .
10mm = 578 kg .
Increasing cement, water, admixture by 2.5% for this trial
Cement = 412 X 1.025 = 422 kg
Water = 144 X 1.025 = 147.6 kg
B. Slump = 120 mm
Hence the mix accepted.
We are thankful to Er Gurjeet Singh for this valuable information.
posted in Mix Design | 22 Comments
Hence o.k.
V = [ W + (C/Sc) + (1/p) . (fa/Sfa) ] x (1/1000)
V = [ W + (C/Sc) + {1/(1-p)} . (ca/Sca) ] x (1/1000)
Where
entrapped air ,
respectively.
0.98 = [ 160 + ( 400 / 3.15 ) + ( 1 / 0.365 ) ( Fa / 2.61 )] ( 1 /1000 )
=> Fa = 660.2 kg
Say Fa = 660 kg.
0.98 = [ 160 + ( 400 / 3.15 ) + ( 1 / 0.635 ) ( Ca / 2.655 )] ( 1 /1000 )
=> Ca = 1168.37 kg.
Say Ca = 1168 kg.
20mm = 701 kg .
10mm = 467 kg .
Cement = 400 kg
Water = 160 kg
Recron 3S = 900 gm

B. Slump = 110mm
We are thankful to Er Gurjeet Singh for this valuable information.
Concrete Mix Design M 20 Grade Of Concrete
1. REQUIREMENTS
a) Specified minimum strength = 20 N/Sq mm
b) Durability requirements
i) Exposure Moderate
ii) Minimum Cement Content = 300 Kgs/cum
c) Cement
(Refer Table No. 5 of IS:456-2000)
i) Make Chetak (Birla)
ii) Type OPC
iii) Grade 43
d) Workability
i) compacting factor = 0.7
e) Degree of quality control Good
Read the rest of this entry
Concrete Mix Design M-60
CONCRETE MIX DESIGN (GRADE M60)
Dry Rodded Bulk Density of coarse aggregate = 1638 Kg/m3
(from I.S 456-2000) = 35+ 1.651.91

= 38.15 Mpa

c) the A.C line.
Interpretation
of
Results
Posted by Toufik at 8:17 PM 0 comments

Labels: Lab Tests, NDT of concrete


c) the A.C line.

Interpretation
of
Results

Labels: concrete, NDT of concrete
Rebound Hammer Test

REBOUND HAMMER
Rebound hammer test is done to find out the compressive strength of concrete by using rebound
hammer as per IS: 13311 (Part 2) 1992. The underlying principle of the rebound hammer test is
The rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface against which its mass strikes.
When the plunger of the rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of the concrete, the pringcontrolled mass rebounds and the extent of such a rebound depends upon the surface hardness of the
concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the rebound is taken to be related to the compressive
strength of the concrete. The rebound value is read from a graduated scale and is designated as the
rebound number or rebound index. The compressive strength can be read directly from the graph
provided on the body of the hammer.
Procedure to determine strength of hardened concrete by rebound hammer.
i) Before commencement of a test, the rebound hammer should be tested against the test anvil, to get
reliable results, for which the manufacturer of the rebound hammer indicates the range of readings on
the anvil suitable for different types of rebound hammer.
ii) Apply light pressure on the plunger it will release it from the locked position and allow it to extend
to the ready position for the test.
iii) Press the plunger against the surface of the concrete, keeping the instrument perpendicular to the
test surface. Apply a gradual increase in pressure until the hammer impacts. (Do not touch the button
while depressing the plunger. Press the button after impact, in case it is not convenient to note the
rebound reading in that position.)
iv) Take the average of about 15 readings.
Interpretation
of
Results
The rebound reading on the indicator scale has been calibrated by the manufacturer of the rebound
hammer for horizontal impact, that is, on a vertical surface, to indicate the compressive strength.
When used in any other position, appropriate correction as given by the manufacturer is to be taken
into account.
Self-Compacting Concrete
Self Compacting Concrete Or Self Consolidating Concrete (SCC) is such type of concrete which is
having self compacting characteristics and additional strength benefits.
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) compacts itself without any vibration. Well proportioned SCC can
flow under its own weight through and around congested reinforcement, filling forms completely and
producing a void-free mass with little or no mechanical vibration.
Buildings made with self compacting concrete

Properties of SCC
Self-compactability
Avoidance of bleeding and segregation
Low shrinkage
Low permeability
Strength as needed
The use of self-compacting concrete, SCC, (including steel fibre reinforced self compacting
concrete, SFR SCC) will improve the quality of concrete structures by eliminating some of the potential
for human error. It will replace manual compaction of fresh concrete with a modern semi-automatic
placing technology.
However, this type of concrete needs a more advanced mix design than conventional concrete
and a more careful quality assurance with more testing and checking, at least during the start-up
period.
Before SCC is produced and used the mix has to be designed and tested to be sure that the mix
fulfils the demands regarding among others workability, segregation and passing ability. Suitable test
methods and criteria are presented below.
As SCC is very sensitive to water content the humidity of the aggregates have to be measured
carefully. If this is not possible the mix design must be more tolerant regarding the water content.
Instructions is made showing that water not unplanned is added to the SCC e.g. at cleaning of the
concrete mixer, the truck mixers or the concrete pumping system.
Transportation of SCC and SFR SCC has is made by trucks with rotating drums from production plant
to construction site if it is produced outside the construction site.
Mix design
Before any SCC is produced at the concrete plant or in a truck-mixer and can be used at the
construction site the mix has to be designed and tested to find suitable test results and other criteria.
During this evaluation stage the equipment at the plant and the local material used have to be tested
to find new recipes with the right mixing sequences and mixing times valid for the plant and the
material used at this specific plant. One way to improve the mix design is to use the Compressive
Packing Model developed at LCPC and presented in the End Product.
Note that different admixtures have various effects on hardening time and also can have influence
on the temperature development why this has to be checked especially under winter conditions. It is
also necessary to check that the admixtures not will cause any emission injurious to the health.
We have also found that different kinds of fines have various influences on the
strength, shrinkage and creep.
The following observations and tests need to be carried out for SCC and SFR SCC in addition to
tests for traditional vibrated concrete in the laboratory and, in the beginning of the use of SCC, on fullscale mock-ups or tests before a new mix design can be approved and used:
Homogeneity
Workability
Concrete workable for the required time (possible to use the concrete up to more than 90 minutes
after mixing)
Passing ability - depending on product, decide if needed. L-box is suitable for SCC and J-ring is
suitable for SFR SCC.
Slump-flow
T50
Segregation by e.g. Stability Sieving Test (GTM)
Early strength - depending on product, admixtures and temperature, decide if
needed Temperature development - depending on product and admixtures, decide if needed
Sensitivity to changes of material included in SCC
Form pressure, decide if needed
Possibility to pump the SCC, decide if needed. Check that the designed mix can be used, as the
slump-flow will decrease depending on the length of the piping.
The results from these tests shall be filed at the concrete plant that produces the SCC.
The different mix designs, including relevant tolerances or allowable variations, used at concrete
production shall be documented and saved by the actual concrete supplier and should at least contain:
Type and amount of: cement different aggregates fines admixtures

Amount of total water
Mixing times and sequences
Batch volume
Strength class
Slump-flow
Tests to be carried out during concrete production
Allowable variation of total water content in ready mix
Type and amount of steel fibers (when used).
Production at concrete plants or in truck-mixers

Before SCC is produced for delivery to construction sites it is necessary to carry out a training
program for all involved persons at the production plants so everybody has got education and
experience how to handle SCC and/or SFR SCC.
Receiving inspection of material
Receiving inspection and tests shall be carried out according to the quality plans valid for the
concrete supplier. Regarding admixtures the concrete supplier shall ask for and keep certificates
regarding the chemical content and showing that they not are hazardous.
Production of concrete
During the production at the concrete plant or in truck-mixer the normal quality control according to
the quality plans has to be fulfilled. When a concrete supplier starts to produce SCC for the first time it
is necessary to make detailed work instructions and educate all the operators at the plant or truckmixer and also the truck drivers and other involved in the process about this new type of concrete so
that everybody is aware of how to handle SCC during the production and delivery.
Before starting to mix SCC, the mixer has to be clean and moisten but no free water is allowed as
only some few liters can change the consistence of the mix. The type of mixer has effect on the
requirements of amount of water and superplasticiser.
When SFR SCC is produced the fibers must be introduced in the mixer taking precaution that they
are evenly distributed in the mix and no balling of fibers occur.
Therefore bundle-collated fibers will be used or the fibers will be introduced by means of fibre
separators.
Tests at concrete production
When tests on SCC are carried out according to norms and standards for traditional vibrated
concrete vibration shall not be used if this is mentioned in the procedures. During the first period (3
months or 1.000 m2 ), when producing SCC, more tests must be performed than normal until the
process is stable and the involved people are used to SCC.
There are also some tests that have to be carried out more often during the production of SCC
or are specific for SCC:
Moistness of sand and gravel has to be measured with an accuracy of measurement of = 0.5% to be
able to adjust the water added during the mixing. If the moistness of the aggregates is very stable it
is enough to measure the three first batches every shift and after that every tenth batch. If it not is
possible to measure the moisture content with this accuracy the mix must be designed to be more
tolerant regarding water content.
Grading curves for filler and fine aggregate have to be checked according to
specifications that usually have less spread than for traditional vibrated concrete.
Wattmeter readings for every batch to be able to know when the batch is ready. It is to day not
possible to use the wattmeter to adjust the water content in the SCC to reach the said slump-flow.
Slump-flow tests shall be made for every batch and compared with the wattmeter readings until the
mix is stable (5 consecutive batches). After that slump-flow tests shall be made at every shift for 3
consecutive batches at the start of production of SCC and thereafter for every 10th batch. Tolerance
for slump-flow is the decided concrete diameter 5cm. T50 shall be within tolerances according to the
mix design.
Segregation test for new mixes has to be made e.g. according to GTMs Stability Sieving Test until
the mix is stable for 3 consecutive tests and thereafter for every 10th batch.
L-box test shall be made for the same batches as for the slump-flow tests until the mix is stable.
After that the L-box tests shall be made at every shift for the first batch at start of production of SCC.
J-ring passing ability test is found better for testing on SFR SCC than L-box test. Suitable gap is 1 3 time the fibre length or representative for actual application.
Fibre distribution and fibre content of SFR SCC by Fibre Content Test shall be
made at the first batch at every shift on the fresh concrete.
Transportation
Before using SCC as a new product it is necessary to inform and teach all the involved truck-drivers
about SCC and how to handle this new type of concrete. It is also recommended to have a written
instruction for the truck-drivers describing how to handle SCC and SFR SCC.
The SCC shall be transported to the construction sites by trucks with rotating drums if it is
produced outside the construction site. The trucks used for transportation of SCC shall be suitable and
tested for this operation so that the SCC will keep the quality during the transport.
The truck-driver shall check the concrete drum, before filling SCC in it, and make sure that the drum
is clean and moist but without free water. Also concrete pumps and concrete bins shall be moist but
without free water.
SCC truck should be always rotated with low speed (not less than 1 rotations per minute) during
transport and waiting time. And it should be rotated with full speed (for modern trucks 10 20
rotations per minute) for at least 3 minutes at the construction site before delivery.
If the distance that the SCC has to be transported is so long that the workability will be influenced
than the admixtures have to be added at the site. This must in that case be tested and approved
during the mix design.
The delivery note shall contain the following information in addition to the normal information:
Slump-flow - target value
Remarks if any admixtures shall or may be added at the site before use
Production time (time when it was produced)
Type and amount of steel fibers (when used)
If the truck-driver shall or may add some admixtures or steel fibers at the site there shall be a
written instruction how to do this, which tests that shall be performed and how to complete the
delivery note.
If the steel fibers shall be introduced in the truck-mixer at site it must be checked that they are
evenly distributed in the mix and no balling of fibers occur. The same testing that normally is made at
the concrete plant has then also to be done at the site (J-ring, distribution of fibers and fibre content).
It is the truck-drivers responsibility to inform the site if the time from production to delivery at site
is longer than expected and in that way the SCC can be too old. Time for production shall always be
written on the delivery note.

Formwork
Normal quality control for formwork has to be taken care of according to the
contractors quality system.
As we have found that different kinds of form-oils have various influences on the surface quality of
the hardened concrete the type which is intended to be used need to be checked if the quality of the
surfaces is of importance.
As we have got different experience regarding form pressure the formwork has to be designed for
hydrostatic pressure if testing not has shown that the form pressure will be less than hydrostatic
pressure.
The site manager or the appointed responsible has to check the form regarding the possibility for
the concrete to reach all places without too long distance to flow or too high free fall and inform the
responsible person for the casting about the suitable placing points for the concrete.
Placing of concrete
1.General
When casting SCC or SFR SCC on construction sites the normal quality control according to the
contractors quality plans, procedures etc is valid.
When SCC or SFR SCC is used for the first time on a construction site by the labour
and staff it is necessary to perform a program with information and training about this new product
and to introduce the procedures so that everybody is fully informed of how to handle SCC during
receiving, casting and treatment after casting.
2.Receiving of SCC
When a truck arrives to the site and before the SCC is used one responsible person at the site has
to check the delivery note to see that the SCC is according to what is ordered and also check the SCC
visually to see if any segregation can be observed.
The responsible person shall also make a slump-flow test to find out if the SCC fulfils the
demands (T50, slump-flow, segregation etc) on the three first deliveries every day and after that on
every tenth delivery or as soon as he/she suspects that the slump-flow not is within the tolerances.
After this the SCC can be released for casting.
If the delivered SCC does not fulfill the demands the responsible person at the site contacts the
concrete plant to decide what to do with the delivery (reject and send it back or add some admixtures
and perform new tests).
3.Placing of concrete
Placing of concrete may not start until the test of slump-flow is carried out with acceptable result
and/or the SCC is released by the responsible person.
During the casting of SCC the operator responsible for placing the concrete has to check that the
opening of the pump hose or bucket is not more than 3 meter above the cast surface, limit the
distance that the concrete can flow to less than 10 meters from the placing point, if there not are any
obstacles as dense reinforcement or embedded items, and check that no segregation is observed.
If there has been an interruption in the placing of concrete and the SCC has started to stiffen it
can be necessary to wake up the concrete, to avoid pucker, by e.g striking a stick or a board into the
concrete several times to get it flowable again before continuing.
When the casting is big and covering a large construction it can be a good idea to use several
preplaced concreting pipes possibly with valves to control the flow and with an internal distance of 6 8 meters for the distribution of the SCC.
4.Curing and treatment after placing of concrete

The same type of treatment of the ready cast surfaces can be made as for traditional vibrated
concrete but steel-trowelling or vacuum sucking of the surface of slabs is difficult to do.
In the case of SFR SCC used in flooring applications, trowelling or other methods should be used to
ensure that no fibers would protrude from the surface. When using SCC plastic shrinkage can occur
due to lack of water separation, specially when the weather is warm and windy. Due to this it can be
necessary to shower the
Test methods
The following tests are, in addition to normal testing, useful during the development, the
production and the use of SCC:
Slump-flow and T-50
L-box
J-ring (SFR SCC)
Stability Sieving Test (GTM)
Fibre Content Test (SFR SCC)
Workability of Fresh Concrete by Slump Test

WORKABILITY
Slump test is used to determine the workability of fresh concrete. Slump test as per IS: 1199 1959
is followed.The apparatus used for doing slump test are Slump cone and Tamping rod.
Procedure to determine workability of fresh concrete by slump test.
i) The internal surface of the mould is thoroughly cleaned and applied with a light coat of oil.
ii) The mould is placed on a smooth, horizontal, rigid and nonabsorbent surface.
iii) The mould is then filled in four layers with freshly mixed concrete, each approximately to onefourth of the height of the mould.
iv) Each layer is tamped 25 times by the rounded end of the tamping rod (strokes are distributed
evenly over the cross section).
v) After the top layer is rodded, the concrete is struck off the level with a trowel.
vi) The mould is removed from the concrete immediately by raising it slowly in the vertical direction.
vii) The difference in level between the height of the mould and that of the highest point of the
subsided concrete is measured.
viii) This difference in height in mm is the slump of the concrete.
The slump measured should be recorded in mm of subsidence of the specimen during the test. Any
slump specimen, which collapses or shears off laterally gives incorrect result and if this occurs, the
test should be repeated with another sample. If, in the repeat test also, the specimen shears, the
slump should be measured and the fact that the specimen sheared, should be recorded.
Stress Strain Relationship

Tensile Testing
One basic ingredient in the study of the mechanics of deformable bodies is the resistive properties of
materials. These properties relate the stresses to the strains and can only be determined by
experiment.
One of the simplest tests for determining mechanical properties of a material is the tensile test. In this
test, a load is applied along the longitudinal axis of a circular test specimen. The applied load and the
resulting elongation of the member are measured.
Sometimes, the process is repeated with increased load until the desired load levels are reached or
the specimen breaks.
Load-deformation data obtained from tensile and/or compressive tests do not give a direct indication
of the material behavior, because they depend on the specimen geometry.
However, using the relationships we previously discussed, loads and deformations may be converted
to stresses and strains
=P/A
=/L
= normal stress on a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the specimen
P = applied load
A = original cross sectional area
= normal strain in the longitudinal direction
= change in the specimens gage length
L = original gage length
The resulting stress-strain curve or diagram gives a direct indication of the material properties.
Note: Stress-strain diagrams are typically based upon the original cross sectional area and the initial
gage length, even though these quantities change continuously during the test. These changes have a
negligible effect except during the final stages of the test.
Aluminum Alloy
Load-deformation data Stress-strain data
Engineering stress and engineering strain are computed using the original specimen dimensions.
Ductile Material Test Specimen

True stress and true strain are based upon instantaneous values of cross sectional area and gage
length.
As shown in the previous diagram, the initial portion of the stress-strain diagram for most materials
used in engineering structures is a straight line. For the initial portion of the diagram, the stress is
directly proportional to the strain . Therefore, for a specimen subjected to a uniaxial load, we can
write
= E
This relationship is known as Hookes Law and was first recorded by Robert Hooke.
Note: Hookes Law describes only the initial linear portion of the stress-strain curve for a bar
subjected to uniaxial extension.
The slope of the straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram is called the Modulus of Elasticity or
Youngs Modulus.
E = /
(normal stress strain)
G = /
(shear stress strain)
E = Elastic Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity
G = Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
Material Properties
PL Proportional Limit - Stress above which stress is not longer proportional to strain.
EL Elastic Limit - The maximum stress that can be applied without resulting in permanent
deformation when unloaded.
YP Yield Point - Stress at which there are large increases in strain with little or no increase in
stress. Among common structural materials, only steel exhibits this type of response.
YS Yield Strength - The maximum stress that can be applied without exceeding a specified value
of permanent strain (typically .2% = .002 in/in).
U Ultimate Strength - The maximum stress the material can withstand (based on the original
area).
Material Properties
E Modulus of Elasticity - Slope of the initial linear portion of the stress-strain
diagram. The modulus of elasticity may also be characterized as the stiffness or ability of a material
to resist deformation within the linear range.
E (Steel) 30 x 106 psi
E (Aluminum) 10 x 106 psi
Et Tangent Modulus - Slope of the stress-strain curve above the proportional limit.
There is no single value for the tangent modulus; it varies with strain.
G Shear Modulus - Slope of the initial linear portion of the shear stress-strain
diagram.
G (Steel) 12 x 106 psi
G (Aluminum) 4 x 106 psi
Percent Elongation - The strain at fracture in tension, expressed as a percentage = ((final gage
length initial gage length)/ initial gage length) x 100. Percent elongation is a measure of ductility.
Percent Reduction in Area - The reduction in cross-sectional area of a tensile
specimen at fracture = ((initial area - final area)/ initial area) x 100. Percent reduction in area is also a
measure of ductility.
Isotropic Isotropic materials have elastic properties that are independent of direction. Most
common structural materials are isotropic.
Anisotropic Materials whose properties depend upon direction. An important class of anisotropic
materials is fiber-reinforced composites.
Homogeneous A material is homogeneous if it has the same composition at every point in the
body. A homogeneous material may or may not be isotropic.
Materials may be divided into two broad categories (ductile materials and brittle
materials).
Ductile Material Materials that are capable of undergoing large strains (at normal temperature)
before failure. An advantage of ductile materials is that visible distortions may occur if the loads
before too large. Ductile materials are also capable of absorbing large amounts of energy prior to
failure. Ductile materials include mild steel, aluminum and some of its alloys, copper, magnesium,
nickel, brass, bronze and many others.
Brittle Material Materials that exhibit very little inelastic deformation. In other words, materials that
fail in tension at relatively low values of strain are considered brittle. Brittle materials include concrete,
stone, cast iron, glass and plaster.
Failure Modes
Brittle materials fail due to tensile (normal) stresses and rupture occurs along a
surface perpendicular to the load. Ductile materials usually fail on planes that correspond to the
maximum shear stresses (45). A cup and cone failure is typical for ductile materials with the sides of
cup and cone inclined at approximately 45 to the specimen axis.
Poissons ratio The ratio of lateral or transverse strain to the longitudinal strain.
V=- t /a
v=-y /x=-z /x
y = z = - vx/E
Poissons ratio for most materials ranges from 0.25 to 0.35.
Cork 0.0
Steel = 0.27 0.30
Aluminum = 0.23
Rubber 0.5 (limiting value for Poissons ratio)

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Buildings and their Impact on the Environment

AGGREGATE ABRASION VALUE

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

Procedure to determine Aggregate Impact Value

Posted by Toufik at 1:49 AM 0 comments

Aggregate Crushing Value

Different Types of Grouting

Annular Space Grouting

Pressure Grouting Under Existing Foundation & Pressure Grouting Tools

Location of each joint or service connection

Void Pressure Readouts

Test Methods for Very Low Slump Concrete

Figure : Compaction of Concrete Sample in Intensive Compaction Device.

is feasible for field use.

Various Lab Test On Concrete

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

Test To Check Fineness Of Cement

Procedure to determine fineness of cement

AGGREGATE ABRASION VALUE

AGGREGATE IMPACT VALUE

Procedure to determine Aggregate Impact Value

Aggregate Crushing Value

Aggregate crushing value = (B/A) x 100%.

Workability of Fresh Concrete by Compacting

Workability of Fresh Concrete by Vee-Bee

Winsor Probe Concrete Test

Concrete Mix Design

Mix Design For M35 Grade Of Concrete

Test Data For Material:

Cement : Sand: Coarse Aggregates = 1 : 1.6 : 2.907

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN (GRADE M60)

Super plasticizers = 4.6681 / m3

Mix Design M-40 Grade

(p) = Ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume ,

Posted by Toufik at 7:17 AM 0 comments

Concrete Mix of All Grades

Say weight of C.A. = 1284 kg/ m3

Mix Design M-40 Grade

Observation: A. Mix was cohesive and homogeneous.

Concrete Mix Design M 20 Grade Of Concrete

Mix Design of M-50 Concrete

Say weight of C.A. = 1284 kg/ m3

Water: cement: F.A.: C.A. = 0.4: 1: 1.65: 2.92

(from I.S 456-2000) = 35+ 1.651.91

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

Posted by Toufik at 8:17 PM 0 comments

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method

Procedure to determine strength of hardened concrete by Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.

Pulse velocity=(Path length/Travel time)

Posted by Toufik at 6:58 AM 0 comments

Rebound Hammer Test

Buildings made with self compacting concrete

Type and amount of: cement different aggregates fines admixtures

Production at concrete plants or in truck-mixers

written on the delivery note.

4.Curing and treatment after placing of concrete

Workability of Fresh Concrete by Slump Test

Stress Strain Relationship

Load-deformation data Stress-strain data

Ductile Material Test Specimen

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