UNIT 1 METAL CUTTING AND CHIP

FORMATION

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives

1.2 Material Removal Processes

1.3 Chip Formation
1.3.1

Deformation in Metal Machining

1.3.2

Chip Types

1.3.3

Types of Cutting

1.3.4

Mechanics of Chip Formation

1.3.5

Geometry of Chip Formation (Orthogonal Cutting)

1.4 Force Analysis

1.5 Velocity Relationships
1.6 Shear Strain and Shear Strain Rate
1.7 Shear Angle Relationships
1.8 Summary
1.9 Key Words
1.10 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into four categories, viz., primary
(casting, forging, moulding, etc), secondary (machining, finishing, etc.), tertiary
(fabricating processes like welding, brazing, riveting, etc.), and fourth level processes
(painting, electroplating, etc.). Secondary manufacturing processes are as important as
any other level processes. These processes involve removal of material in the form of
chips or otherwise, to give the desired shape, size, surface roughness, and tolerance on
the workpiece obtained from the primary manufacturing processes. The machined
components can be used as it is, or one can be assembled (sometimes using fabricating
processes) and if required, given an aesthetic look by electroplating, painting, etc. This
block/unit will discuss the fundamentals of traditional material removal processes (nontraditional material removal processes are discussed in Block 4). This unit will discuss
basic principles of metal cutting including mechanics of chip formation, velocity and
force analysis, and some of the models proposed to evaluate the shear angle relationships.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to

understand classification scheme for various types of material removal processes,

identify various types of metal cutting processes, types of chip formed,

mechanism of chip formation and geometry of chips,

analyse forces and velocities in cutting process, and

know various schools of thought regarding shear angle relationships.

Theory of Metal Cutting

1.2 MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

Material removal processes can broadly be divided into two categories : traditional and
advanced (non-traditional). Each of these categories can be further sub-divided into bulk
removal processes (or cutting) and finishing processes. The classification of various types
of material removal processes is shown in Figure 1.1(a). This unit will discuss only the
basics of traditional cutting processes.
Traditional Cutting
Traditional cutting processes can be classified as those which produce parts having
surfaces of revolution and those which produce prismatic shapes. Another scheme
for the classification of metal cutting processes is provided in
Figure 1.1(a). This classification is based on the type of motion imparted to the
work and tool. Cutting tools used for material removal are classified in two
categories : single point cutting tool and multi-point cutting tool (cutting tools
having more than one cutting edge). The following section discusses how material
removal takes place by using a single point cutting tool. Similar principles are
applicable to the multiple point cutting tools as well.

Figure 1.1(a) : Classification of Material Removal Processes

The process of metal cutting is effected by providing relative motion between the
workpiece and the hard edge of cutting tool. Such relative motion is produced by a
combination of rotary and translating movements either of the workpiece or of the
cutting tool or both. Depending on the nature of the relative motion, metal cutting
process is called either turning or planning or boring, etc.
For different types of operations, one needs to have different types of machine
tools. For example, lathe for turning, planer for planning, grinder for grinding, etc.
Some of these machines (say, lathe, boring m/c, and drill) generate surfaces of
revolution whereas others (planer, milling m/c, and shaper) make prismatic (or flat
surfaces) parts. With the help of different types of tools, a lathe can perform
various kinds of operations (Figure 1.1(b)).
Conventionally, the translatory displacement of the cutting edge of the tool along
the work surface during a given period of time is called feed( f ), while the
relative rate of traverse of work surface past the cutting edge is designated as the
cutting velocity or simply speed (Vc).
In case of single point turning, Vc is the peripheral velocity of the rotating
workpiece in meters per minute. In case of slab milling, it is the peripheral velocity
of the milling cutter in meters/minute.
6

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

Figure 1.1(b) : Various Operations that can be Performed on a Lathe [Kalpakjian, 1989]

Table 1.1
Operation

Motion of Job

Motion of Cutting Tool

Turning on a
lathe

Rotary motion of the

work

Axial movement of the tool

Boring on a
lathe

Work rotation

Axial tool movement

Drilling on a
drill machine

Fixed

Rotations as well as
translatory feed

Planning

Translatory

Intermittent Translation

Milling

Translatory

Rotation

Grinding

Rotary/Translatory

Rotary

Figure of Operation

Theory of Metal Cutting

1.3 CHIP FORMATION

1.3.1 Deformation in Metal Machining
Figure 1.2 shows a schematic diagram of material deformation during cutting, and
subsequently removal of the deformed material from the workpiece by a single point
cutting tool. Because of the relative motion between the tool and the workpiece, material
ahead of the tool face (rake face) is compressed (elastically and then plastically). Further,
movement of the tool into the workpiece deforms the work material plastically and
finally separates the deformed material from the workpiece. This separated material
flows on the rake face of the tool called as chip. The chip near the end of the rake face is
lifted away from the tool, and the resultant curvature of the chip is called chip curl.

Figure 1.2 : Schematic Diagram of Chip Deformation

The study of the mechanism of chip formation involves deformation process of the chip
ahead of the cutting tool. Theoretical study of the material deformation in metal cutting is
difficult and therefore experimental techniques have been resorted to for analyzing the
process of deformation in chips. The methods commonly employed for this purpose are :
(i)

Use of movie camera for taking pictures of chip.

(ii)

Observing grid deformation during cutting.

(iii)

Examination of frozen chip samples obtained by the use of quick-stop

device.

Experimental study of chip deformation process has revealed that :

(i)

During machining of ductile materials, a plastic deformation zone is formed

in front of the cutting edge (Figure 1.2).

(ii)

The distinctive zone of separation between the chip and workpiece where
deformation gradually increases towards the cutting edge is called the
primary deformation/shear zone. In shear zone extensive deformation
occurs. The width of shear zone is very small.

(iii)

The plastic deformation involved in the formation of chips affects the

hardness of material (strain hardening). Strain hardening increases when a
layer undergoes deformation in the shear zone.

1.3.2 Chip Types

The type of chip obtained from a machining process is characterized by a number of
parameters e.g., the type of tool-work engagement, work material properties and the
cutting conditions.
Ernst has classified the chips obtained in machining processes into three categories :
8

Type 1 : Discontinuous chip,

Type 2 : Continuous chip, and

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

Type 3 : Continuous with built-up edge.

When ductile materials at high cutting speed are cut by a single point cutting tool, ribbon
like continuous chip (Figure 1.3(a) and 1.3 (b)) is obtained. The conditions that promote
formation of continuous chips in metal cutting are sharp cutting edge, low feed rate (or
small chip thickness), large rake angle, ductile work material, high cutting speed, and low
friction at chip-tool interface. As shown in Figure 1.2, major deformation takes place in
primary shear deformation zone (PSDZ) resulting in the formation of chip. Due to ductile
nature of work material and reasonably high temperature in the PSDZ, the deforming
material flows on the rake face of the tool as continuous mass rather than the one
fractured/ruptured at small distances at the underneath of the chip as in discontinuous
chip.
Continuous chip results in good surface finish, high tool-life, and low power
consumption. But disposal of large coiled chips is a serious problem, for many industries
where tons of chips are produced every week. To get rid of this problem various types of
chip breakers are used which are in the form of step or groove on the rake face of the
tool (Figure 1.4). The chip strikes with this step/groove and gets broken in the form of
small segments. Disposal of such small chips is not a problem.
If the friction between tool and chip while machining ductile materials is high, some part
of the chip gets welded to the rake face of the tool near its cutting edge. The welded
material is extremely hard and its size keeps on increasing with time. Because of the
hardness of the adhered materials onto the cutting edge, it participates in cutting to a
certain extent. That is why it is named as built up edge (Figure 1.5). As the size of the
BUE grows larger, it becomes unstable and it breaks. Some part from the broken BUE is
carried away by the chip as well as on the machined surface (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 : Different Kinds of Chips : (a) Continuous; (b) Photograph of Continuous Chip;
(c) Continuous Chip with Built Up Edge; and (d) Discontinuous Chip

The chip with the adhered parts of the BUE is known as continuous chip with BUE. The
adhered parts of the BUE on the machined surface make the machined surface rough, but
the BUE protects the actual cutting edge of the tool from wear. Thus, cutting with BUE
enhances the tool life (or tool cuts longer before regrind).
9

Theory of Metal Cutting

Figure 1.4 : Different Types of Chip Breakers

Figure 1.5 : Development of Built Up Edge [Rao, 2000]

Discontinuous or segmented chips are produced while machining brittle materials or

ductile materials at low speeds and high friction conditions. The basic difference between
the mechanism of formation of discontinuous chip and continuous chip is that, instead of
continuous shearing of the material ahead of the cutting tool, rupture occurs
intermittently producing segments of chip (Figures 1.3 and 1.6). These chips are smaller
in length hence easy to dispose off, and give good surface finish on the workpiece.
Discontinuous chips are formed when cutting brittle materials, or cutting ductile
materials at low speed, or cutting with tools of small rake angle.

(a) Tear Type

(b) Shear Type

Figure 1.6 : Hypothesized Discontinuous Chip Formation [Rao, 2000]

1.3.3 Types of Cutting

Principally, there are two types of cutting :
(i)
(ii)

Orthogonal cutting, and

Oblique cutting.

Orthogonal Cutting
Orthogonal cutting operation is the simplest type of cutting operation, in which
the cutting edge is straight, parallel to the original plane surface of the workpiece
and perpendicular to the direction of cutting, and in which the length of the cutting
edge is greater than the width of the chip removed (Figures 1.7(a) and (b)). This
orthogonal cutting is also known as Two Dimensional (2-D) Cutting. A few of the
cutting tools perform orthogonally, such as lathe cut-off tools (Figure 1.7(a)),
straight (not helical) milling cutters, broaches, etc.

10

In actual machining, majority of the cutting operations (turning, milling, etc.) are
three dimensional (3-D) in nature and are called as oblique cutting. In oblique
cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is inclined to the line normal to the cutting
direction, and this angle is known as angle of obliquity. This is also called the
inclination angle, i (Figure 1.7(c)). Oblique cutting can be defined as the cutting

operation in which the cutting edge is straight and parallel to the original surface of
the workpiece, but is not perpendicular to the cutting direction, being inclined to
it. An angle of interest in this case is the chip flow angle, c which is defined as
the angle measured in the plane of cutting face between the chip flow direction and
the normal to the cutting edge (Figure 1.7(c)). Both i and c are zero in case of
orthogonal cutting. The certain practical limitations to orthogonal cutting are
mitigated by three dimensional tooling.

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

Figure 1.7 : (a); (b) Orthogonal Cutting System; and (c) Oblique Cutting System

Generally for the mathematical analysis of the mechanics of metal cutting, orthogonal
cutting is considered because it is simpler than the oblique cutting. The results so
obtained can be used for oblique cutting operations.

1.3.4 Mechanics of Chip Formation

Plastic deformation is the main factor that governs formation of chips. Initially,
researchers (Merchant and others) proposed that deformation of the material takes place
along a plane (called shear plane) just ahead of the cutting tool and runs up to free
surface of the workpiece (Figure 1.8(a)). Once the deforming material crosses the shear
plane, it slides along the rake face of the tool due to the velocity of cutting tool (relative
motion between the tool and workpiece). This hypothesis of a shear plane is useful from
the analysis of metal cutting point of view but has theoretical drawbacks. Here, the
transition from the un-deformed to the deformed material takes place along a shear plane
by changing cutting velocity from Vc (velocity of tool with respect to workpiece) to Vf
(chip velocity relative to the tool). For this change to take place, the acceleration across
the plane (plane thickness equal to zero) has to be infinite. This also applies to the
stress-gradient across the shear plane. Due to the above anomaly, researchers (Oxley and
others) experimentally studied the deformation zone by freezing the cutting process with
the help of a quick stop device. When they studied the deformed zone under a
microscope, they found that the deformation takes place within a finite zone (thin or thick
depending upon various governing parameters). This is called as primary shear
deformation zone (PSDZ) (Figures 1.8 (b) and (c)). They also found that under certain
machining conditions, deformation also takes place at the tool-chip interface
11

Theory of Metal Cutting

(Figures 1.8 (b) and (c)). This deformation is known as secondary shear deformation
zone (SSDZ).

Figure 1.8 : (a) Shear Plane; (b) Primary and Secondary Shear Deformation Zone in Chip Formation;
and (c) Frozen Chip Obtained by a Quick Stop Device

1.3.5 Geometry of Chip Formation (Orthogonal Cutting)

Figure 1.9 shows a simple geometry of chip formation in case of continuous chip
(type 2). The uncut chip thickness tu (equal to feed in turning) is deformed to give chip
thickness tc which experiences two velocities Vf (chip sliding velocity) and Vs (shear
velocity) along the tool face and shear plane, respectively. From this geometry, it is
possible to calculate the shear angle () in terms of measurable or known quantities tu, tc
and .

Figure 1.9 : Geometry of Continuous Chip Formation

From right angle triangles, ABC and ABD (BD is perpendicular to AD drawn from B),
AB = tu /

12

sin

= tc / sin (90 ( )) = tc / cos ( )

Also,

AB

tu
sin
=
tc
cos ( )

tu
is called chip thickness ratio or chip thickness coefficient (rc) which can be written
tc

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

as

1 cos cos + sin sin

=
sin
rc

1 = rc cot cos + rc sin

or,
or,

rc cos = (1 rc sin ) tan

r cos
tan = c

1 r c sin

. . . (1.1)

To determine the shear plane angle () for a given cutting condition the chip thickness

t
ratio rc = u , should be known. But to determine tc with a micrometer is somewhat
t

inaccurate. Hence, an indirect approach to this problem is to assume that the density of
metal during the cutting process does not change. Hence, the volume of uncut chip is
equal to the volume of metal removed (or deformed chip). Since the width of chip (b) is
equal to the width of metal being cut (in orthogonal cutting), therefore :
bLc tc = Lu tu b (volume constancy condition)

Lc tc = Lu tu

or,

tu Lc
=
tc Lu

t
L
rc = u = c
tc Lu

. . . (1.2)

where, Lc is length of chip, and Lu is corresponding length of material removed from the
workpiece (or uncut chip length). Lc can be easily measured, and it (Lc / Lu) will give
more accurate results than (tu / tc) because of the difficulties and inaccuracies involved in
the measurement of thickness of the deformed chip (tc).

1.4 FORCE ANALYSIS

Let us analyse the forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting. These are shown in
Figure 1.10 (a) and are as follows : Force, Fs, is the resistance to shear of the metal in
forming the chip. Fs acts along the shear plane. Force, Fn, is normal to the shear plane
and is a backup force on the chip provided by the workpiece. Force N acting on the chip
is normal to the cutting face of the tool and is provided by the tool. Force F is frictional
resistance offered by the tool to the chip flow. The latter force acts downwards against
the motion of the chip as it slides upwards along the tool face.
Figure 1.10 (b) shows the free body diagram of the forces acting on the chip. Forces Fs
and Fn are represented by the resultant R, and F and N are replaced by the resultant R'.
This means that only two combined forces are acting on the chip, i.e., R and R'. There are
external couples on the chip which curl it, and they may be negated in this approximate
analysis. If equilibrium is to exist when a body is acted upon by two forces, they must be
equal in magnitude, and be collinear. Hence, R and R' are equal in magnitude, opposite in
direction and collinear (Figure 1.10).

13

Theory of Metal Cutting

Figure 1.10 : (a) Force Components Acting on a Chip; and (b) Free Body Diagram of a Chip

Figure 1.11 shows a composite diagram in which the two force triangles of
Figure 1.10, have been superimposed by placing the two equal forces R and R' together.
Since the angle between Fs and Fn is a right angle, the intersection of these forces lies on
the circle with diameter R as shown. Also, F and N may be replaced by R to form the
circle diagram (Figure 1.11).

Figure 1.11 : Force Circle Diagram

The horizontal cutting force Fc and vertical force Ft can be measured in a machining
operation by the use of a force dynamometer. The electric strain gauge type of transducer
is used in the dynamometer. After Fc and Ft are determined, they can be laid off as in
Figure 1.11 and their resultant is the diameter of the circle. The rake angle can be laid
off, and the forces F and N can then be determined. The shear plane angle can be
measured approximately from a photomicrograph or by measuring tc and tu, or length of
chip and corresponding length of unmachined chip (discussed elsewhere).
From Figure 1.11, the following vector Eqs. can be written

R' = F + N


R = Fs + Fn = Fc + Ft = R'

Merchant represented various forces in a force circle diagram in which tool and reaction
forces have been assumed to be acting as concentrated at the tool point instead of their
actual points of application along the tool face and the shear plane. The circle has the
diameter equal to R (or R') passing through tool point.
After Fc, Ft, and are known, all the component forces on the chip may be determined
from the geometry. For instance, the average stress on the shear plane can be determined
by using force Fs and the area of the shear plane. Another useful quantity is the
coefficient of friction () between the tool and chip. Using force circle diagram, it can be
shown that
14

and,

F = Ft cos + Fc sin

. . . (1.3)

N = Fc cos Ft sin

. . . (1.4)

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

Then, the coefficient of friction () is calculated as

= tan =

F Ft cos + Fc sin
=
N Fc cos Ft sin

. . . (1.5)

where, is the friction angle.

F + Fc tan
= t
Fc Ft tan

or,

. . . (1.6)

We can also write :

= tan 1 ()
F + Fc tan
= tan 1 t

Fc Ft tan

. . . (1.7)

From Figure 1.11, we get :

Fs = Fc cos Ft sin

. . . (1.8)

Fn = Ft cos + Fc sin
Fn = Fs tan( + )

. . . (1.9)

Also, from Figure 1.11,

Fc = R cos ( )
Fs = R cos ( + )

or,

Fc
cos ( )
=
Fs cos ( + )
Fc = Fs

cos ( )
cos ( + )

. . . (1.9(a))

Shear plane area is equal to :

t b
As = u
sin

. . . (1.10)

If be the shear strength of the work material, then,

t b
Fs = u
sin

. . . (1.11)

Substituting in Eq.(1.9 (a)), we get

t b cos( )
Fc = u
sin cos( + )
hence,

R=

tu b
sin cos( + )

. . . (1.12)

. . . (1.12(a))
15

Theory of Metal Cutting

From Figure 1.11,

Ft = R sin( )
=

(From Eq. 1.12(a))

t u b
sin ( )
sin cos ( + )

. . . (1.13)

From Eqs. (1.12) and (1.13), we can write :

Ft
= tan ( )
Fc

. . . (1.14)

From the above analysis, unknown forces in the force circle diagram and the value of
coefficient of friction can be calculated provided Fc, Ft, , tu and tc are known measured.
During machining operations, chips are formed as a result of plastic deformation. Hence,
chips experience stresses and strains. At shear plane, two normal forces simultaneously
act, i.e., Fs and Fn. Shear stress () can be found as
Mean shear stress

( F cos Ft sin )
F
() = s = c
sin
As
btu

Mean Normal stress () =

Fn
As

= ( Ft cos + Fc sin )

sin
btu

. . . (1.15)

. . . (1.16)

where, As = Shear plane area = b tu / sin .

1.5 VELOCITY RELATIONSHIPS

Since the chip is thicker than the uncut chip, the velocity of the chip as it moves along the
tool face must be less than the cutting speed (assuming volume constancy during cutting,
and width of cut before machining and after machining remains same). Different
velocities during cutting can be estimated as follows :
Assume that the cutting velocity of the tool relative to the workpiece is Vc which is
known before hand. The chip slides along the cutting (rake) face of the tool with a
velocity relative to the tool equal to Vf (chip flow velocity). The newly cut chip elements
move relative to the workpiece along the shear plane with a velocity equal to Vs (shear
velocity). From the principle of kinematics that the relative velocity of two bodies (here
tool and chip) is equal to the vector difference between their velocities relative to the
reference body (the workpiece). Employing this principle, Figure 1.12 has been drawn.
Using sine rule, from ABC, we get :
Vf
Vc
Vs
=
=
sin (90 ( )) sin sin (90 )

or,

. . . (1.17)

Vf
Vc
V
=
= s
cos( ) sin cos

The chip flow velocity along the tool rake face is given by
Vf =

Vc sin
=Vc . rc
cos ( )

whereas the shear velocity Vs is obtained as :

16

. . . (1.18)

Vs =

Vc cos
cos ( )

. . . (1.19)

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

Figure 1.12 : Velocity Relationship

1.6 SHEAR STRAIN AND SHEAR STRAIN RATE

Since most practical cutting processes are geometrically complex, let us first study the
orthogonal machining and extend the theory of orthogonal cutting to more complicated
cutting process involving oblique cutting. Due to simplicity and fairly wide applications,
the continuous chip without BUE has been most extensively studied. There are
conflicting evidences about the nature of the deformation zone in metal cutting. This has
led to two basic schools of thought in the approach to the analysis.
Many workers, such as Piispanen, Merchant, Kobayashi and Thomson have favoured the
thin plane model while Palmer and Oxley, and Okushima and Hitomi have based their
analysis on thick deformation region (Figure1.8). Experimental evidences indicate that
the thick zone model may describe the cutting process at low speeds, but at high speeds
most evidences indicate that a thin shear plane is approached. Thin zone model is more
useful in practical cutting and its analysis is simpler hence it has received more attention.
Thin Zone Model

Merchant developed an analysis based on the thin shear plane model. He made the
following assumptions :

The tool tip is sharp and no rubbing or ploughing occurs between the tool
and the workpiece.

The deformation is two dimensional, i.e., no side spread.

The stress on the shear plane is uniformly distributed.

The resultant force R on the chip applied at the shear plane is equal, opposite
and collinear to the force R' applied to the chip at the tool-chip interface.

Strain and strain rate are determined as follows :

To derive an expression for shear strain, the deformation can be idealized as a
process of block slip (or preferred slip planes), as shown in (Figure 1.13). Shear
strain () is defined as the deformation per unit length.
=

s AB AD DB
=
=
+
y CD CD CD

= tan ( ) + cot
=

sin ( ) cos
+
cos ( ) sin

sin ( ) sin + cos cos ( )

sin cos ( )

cos ( + )
cos
=
sin cos ( ) sin cos ( )

. . . (1.20)

17

Theory of Metal Cutting

or,

cos
sin cos ( )

. . . (1.21)

Figure 1.13 : Strain and Strain Rate in Orthogonal Cutting

Strain may also be expressed in terms of the shear velocity (Vs) and the chip velocity (Vf)

Vs
Vc sin

(from Eq.(1.19))

Therefore, shear strain rate ( &) in cutting is given by

s

d y s 1
&=
=
=
t
dt
t y

&=

Vs
Vc cos
=
y cos ( ) y

. . . (1.22)

y is mean thickness of PSDZ .

1.7 SHEAR ANGLE RELATIONSHIPS

A number of attempts have been made to study the mechanics of cutting process. In
designing a metal cutting operation, it would be helpful to predict the position of the
shear plane (angle ). Attempts have been made to derive a fundamental relationship of
the shear plane angle in terms of rake angle () and friction angle (). Several theories
have been proposed to establish a relationship between , and . Some of the theories
have been discussed below.
Ernst-Merchant derived a relationship using the minimum energy criterion, that is, the
shear plane is located where the least energy is required for shear. The derivation of
Ernst-Merchant equation is based on the following assumptions :

18

(i)

cutting is orthogonal,

(ii)

the shear strength of the metal along the shear plane is independent of the
magnitude of compressive (normal) stress acting on that plane,

(iii)

the chip is continuous type with no built up edge, and

(iv)

the energy of separation of chip elements is neglected and the minimum

energy criterion establishes the plane on which shearing deformation occurs.

As the cutting progresses in the beginning, the cutting force (Fc) increases gradually, the
shear stress on various planes ahead of the tool also increases. However, the shear stress
will not be same on all the planes ahead of the tool because the shearing components of
the forces on the planes are not the same, nor is the extent of areas the same. On one of

the planes, however, the shear stress will be greater than on any other plane, and as Fc is
further increased, the shear stress will reach the yield strength in shear of the material
being cut and plastic deformation will occur along that plane, thus forming the chip. The
cutting force required to cause shear deformation along that plane will then be the lowest
cutting force. Once the shear deformation begins along one plane, the cutting force
cannot exceed that minimum value.

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

To determine shear-plane angle , express the cutting force Fc in terms of , differentiate

it with respect to , equate the derivative to zero, and solve it for the angle as follows :
Fc = Fs

tu b
cos ( )
cos ( )
=

cos { + ( )} sin cos ( + )

(Eq.1.12)

Here, except all other parameters can be taken as constant during machining (assuming
that no strain hardening takes place). It would give the condition for the minimum energy
if the derivative of Fc with respect to is equated to zero.

cos cos ( + ) sin ( + )

d Fc
= tu b cos ( )
= 0
d
sin 2 cos 2 ( + )

Therefore,

cos cos ( + ) sin sin ( + ) = 0

or,

cos (2 + ) = 0

or,

(2 + ) =

Hence,

1
( )
4 2

. . . (1.23)

where, , and are shear angle, friction angle and rake angle, respectively.
Eq. (1.23) indicates that the shear angle is a unique function of the tool rake angle and
the angle of friction in metal cutting.
Merchant further introduced a modification to this theory and assumed that the shear
strength of a polycrystalline metal is affected by temperature, rate of shear, shear strain
(plastic) and the stress acting normal to the shear plane. While it is known that the normal
compression stress on a plane does not affect the shear strength of a single crystal
however, the shear strength of polycrystalline material is affected. The modified Eq. is
=

C 1
( )
2 2

. . . (1.24)

where, C depends on the slope of the shear strength vs. compressive stress curve for the
given material. 'C' is also known as machining constant.
In 1949, another approach to the analytical solution of the shear plane angle was made by
Lee and Shaffer. They assumed that the material being cut behaves as an ideal plastic
which does not strain harden. It was assumed that the shear plane coincides with the
direction of the maximum shear stress (Figure 1.14). Based on these assumptions, they
applied slip line field theory and derived the relationship given by Eq. (1.25).
=

+ ( )
4

. . . (1.25)

As a modification, later on Lee and Shaffer considered the effect of a small built up edge
or nose, and its effect on the stress field referred to above and arrived at an expression for
the shear angle () which included an additional angle , which depends on the size of
the built up edge,

19

Theory of Metal Cutting

+ ( ) +
4
In 1952, Shaw, Cook and Finnie extended the Lee and Schaffer theory by further
analytical and experimental investigations, and arrived at the following relationship :
=

+ ( ) +
4
While deriving the above relation, they assumed that the shear plane is not a plane of
maximum shear. Here, is established by the analytical method and it is not constant.
is the angle between the shear plane and the direction of the maximum shear stress. To
determine the value and sign of the , it is necessary to draw the Mohrs circle diagram.
=

Figure 1.14 : Shear Plane Model of Lee and Shaffer

Based on the experimental study of the mechanics of chip formation and the flow of
grains in the material during cutting, Palmer and Oxley observed that the deformation
does not take place along a plane, rather it takes place in a narrow wedge shaped zone.
But for analytical simplicity, it was considered as a parallel sided shear zone
(Figure 1.15).

Figure 1.15 : Shear Zone Model by Oxley

A further contribution towards the solution of this problem was made by R Hill in 1954,
who analyzed the state of stress at the shear zone, using a new principle On the limits set
by plastic yielding to the intensity of singularities of stress. But in 1959, Eggleston,
Herzog and Thomsen tried to show by their test results that none of the three Eqs. (by
Ernst and Merchant, Lee and Shaffer, and Hill) was correct which implies that metal in
the shear zone under the existing conditions of stress, high rates of strain and elevated
temperature does not behave as ideal plastic solid. Since no single criterion is applicable
to the shear angle relationship in metal cutting, and since a satisfactory theory has not
been advanced at present to explain the experimental observations adequately, the
challenge exists for a closer solution to the problem of angle relationship. This problem is
so tedious because the complexity is created by the simultaneous presence of so many
variables at a time, for example :

20

(i)

plastic deformation,

(ii)

work hardening,

(iii)

external and internal friction,

(iv)

temperature effect,

(v)

diffusion,

(vi)

oxidation, and

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

(vii) local heating, etc.

Example 1.1

Show that in case of ideal orthogonal cutting operation the shear strain undergone
by the chip during its removal from the workpiece would be minimum if the chip
thickness ratio is 1.
Solution

In Figure 1.13 the shear strain in general and shear strain in cutting are shown.
Here, s is in the direction of force, y is in the direction to the force.
Shear strain in another term of interest is associated with the cutting process. The
shear strain is defined as
=

s
and hence in cutting (Figure 1.13),
y

s AB AD DB
=
=
+
= tan ( ) + cot
y CD CD CD

We want the condition when should be minimum. Hence, differentiate with

respect to and equate the derivative equal to zero.

d d
= {tan ( ) + cot } = 0
d d

sec 2 ( ) + ( cos ec 2 ) = 0
sec 2 ( ) = cos ec 2

or,

sin 2 = cos 2 ( ) .

Take the under root to both sides,

sin = cos ( )
or,

sin = cos ( )

. . . (A)

= cos cos + sin sin

1 = cos cot + sin

. . . (B)

Question is that at the condition (A) whether the chip thickness ratio is 1 or not.
We know that chip thickness ratio is given by

t
sin
c = u =
tc cos( )
If,

= 1,

then

1=

sin
cos ( )

sin = cos ( )

. . . (C)

By comparing Eqs. (A) and (C), we find that both are the same. Hence, it is proved
that shear strain will be minimum only when the chip thickness ratio is unity.
21

Theory of Metal Cutting

Example 1.2

In orthogonal turning operation with +10 back rake angle tool, the following
observations were made: cutting speed =160 m/min, width of cut = 2.5 mm,
Fc = 180 kgf, Ft = 50 kgf, deformed chip thickness = 0.27 mm, tool chip contact
length = 0.63 mm and feed rate = 0.20 mm/rev.
Determine the following : chip thickness ratio, shear angle, friction angle, resultant
force, shear force and shear strain.
Solution

(i)

t
0.20
= 0.74
Chip thickness ratio, rc = u =
tc 0.27
rc = 0.74

(ii)

-1 r cos
Shear angle, = tan c

1 rc sin

0.74 cos 10

= tan-1 1 0.74 sin 10

= 39.94o
F

(iii) Friction angle, = tan-1 = tan-1 N

F Ft + Fc tan
=
N Fc Ft tan

50 + 180 tan 10
180 50 tan 10

= 0.477
-

= tan 1 (0.477)
= 25.52o

(iv) R =
=

Fc
cos( )

180
cos(25.52 10)

R = 186.81 kg

(v)

FS = R cos ( + )
= 186.8 cos (39.9 + 25.5 10)
FS = 106.07 kg

(vi)

Shear strain = tan ( ) + cot

= tan 29.9 + cot 39.9
= 0.575 +1.196

22

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

= 1.771
Example 1.3

A cylindrical bar has a blind hole of 15 mm diameter. Its face is being turned
(facing operation) from inner diameter to the outer periphery (Figure given below)
at a speed of 600 RPM, feed = 0.20 mm/rev., and depth of cut =1.0 mm. Calculate
the cutting speed (m/s) and total volume removed at the end of 15s.

Solution

Arrow in the figure shows the tool movement.

Revolution/second (Ns) = 600/60 = 10
To find,
(i)

V15 = cutting speed at the end of 15 seconds of facing operation.

(ii)

V15 = volume of material removed at the end of 15 seconds.

(i)

Vt =

D s t
1000

where, Ns t = 15 10=150 rev.(# of revolutions made by the the work

at the end of 15s)
Vt = cutting speed at time 't'
D = d + 2f Ns t (Figure above)
D = Diameter of the workpiece at which the tool tip will be after the
time of machining =15s. In one revolution of the workpiece, the
diameter at which the tool will be cutting, will increase by 2f. (or in
one revolution the diameter to which the tool tip reaches is increased
by 2f).

where,

f feed rate

D15 = 15 + (2 0.20 10 15)

= 75 mm

V15 =

75 10
1000

V15 = 2.36 m/s

(ii)

Volume of the material removed in 15s.

23

Theory of Metal Cutting

V15 = total area machined depth of cut

(D2 d2) 1 mm3

4

(752 152) 1
4

V15 = 4241 mm3

Example 1.4

During orthogonal turning of a pipe of 100 mm diameter, the rake angle of the tool
was 20o. The ratio of the cutting force to feed force was 3.0.The feed rate, depth of
cut and chip thickness ratio were 0.275, 0.687 and 0.4 respectively. With the help
of a dynamometer, feed force was measured as 460 N. Workpiece was rotating at
450 revolution per minute. Determine chip velocity, shear strain, shear strain rate
and mean width of PSDZ.
Solution

We know from Eq.(1.12) that

Vf
Vc
Vs
=
=
sin(90 + ) sin(90 ) sin

Vf = Vc

sin
sin (90 + )

. . . (A)

Vs = Vc

sin (90 )
sin (90 + )

. . . (B)

But, we do not know the values of and Vc. They can be evaluated as follows :
tan =

rc cos
1 rc sin

0.4 cos 20
1 0.4 sin 20

= 0.436
-

= tan 10.436
= 23.54o
Vc =

DN
100 450
=
1000
1000

Vc =141.37 m/min

Substitute the values of and Vc in Eqs.(A) and (B).

Vf =

141.37 sin 23.54

sin (90 + 20 23.54)

Vf = 56.56 m/min

Vs =

141.37 sin(90 20)

sin (90 + 20 23.53)

Vs = 133.11 m/min

We also know,
24

. . . (C)

. . . (D)

 = tan ( ) + cot

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

= tan (23.54 20) + cot (23.54)

= 2.357

Vc cos
ds. cot ( )

. . . (E)

Here, we do not know the value of ds. Using Lee and Shaffers theory, ds can be
derived as [Jain and Pandey, 1980]

ds =

f sin (90 + )
sin
sin (45 + )
2 2

0.275 sin (90 + 20 25.54)

2 2 sin (25.54) sin (45 20 + 25.54)
1

ds 0.324 mm

Therefore, from Eq. (E)

cos 20
141.37 1000

0.324
cos (23.53 20)

= 6830 s-1
Note that the shear strain rate in metal cutting is very high as compared to the one
obtained in classical deformation test.
Example 1.5

Prove that the specific cutting pressure in an ideal orthogonal cutting is given by
cot , provided 2 + = /2 holds good ( shear stress).
Solution

From Eq. (1.12),

F
Specific cutting pressure = c
btu

. . . (A)

t b
cos( )
Fc = u .
sin cos( + )

. . . (B)

( ) + 2 = /2

. . . (C)

It is given that,
Substitute the value of ( ) from (C) in (B),
t b cos ( / 2 2)
Fc = u .
sin cos ( + / 2 2)
t b sin 2
= u .
sin sin

Sp. cutting press

t b sin 2 1
= u .
.

sin

=
Sp. cutting press

sin

btu

2 sin cos
sin sin

= 2 cot

proved

Example 1.6

25

Theory of Metal Cutting

Following data were recorded during orthogonal machining :

Bar diameter = 40 mm, depth of cut = 0.125 mm, length of chip obtained
= 62.5 mm/rev, horizontal cutting force = 220 kgf, vertical cutting force = 85 kgf,
= 7, spindle speed = 500 RPM.
Find out friction angle, chip thickness ratio, shear angle, chip velocity and shear
velocity.
Solution

t
l
62.50
Chip thickness ratio = u = c =
tc lu
lu

. . . (A)

We know, undeformed chip length

lu = D Nr

= 40 1
= 120.66 mm
From (A), rc = 62.5/120.66 = 0.479
rc = 0.479

From Eq. (1.1),

r cos
= tan1 c

1 rc sin

Substitute the values,

= tan1 0.494 0.526
0.939

= 27.7
=

Ft + Fc tan
Fc Ft tan

(Eq. 1.7)

Substitute the values in the above equation

=

85 + 220 tan 7 o
220 85 tan 7

= 28.12

Cutting velocity, Vc =
=

DN

1000
40 500
1000

Vc = 62.83 m/min

Vf = Vc

sin
cos( )

= 62.83

0.465
0.935

Vf = 31.22 m/min.

26

0.53

Vs = Vc

sin (90 )
sin (90 + )

= 62.83

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

sin (90 7)
sin (90 + 7 27.7)

Vs = 66.66 m/min.

SAQ 1
Write the most appropriate option from the given ones
(i)

In actual practice, chip thickness ratio is

(a) > 1, (b) < 1, (c) = 1.

(ii)

In oblique cutting, the number of forces that act on the tool are
(a) one, (b) two, (c) three, (d) none of these.

(iii)

Which of the following is the chip removal process?

(a) rolling, (b) extruding, (c) die casting, (d) broaching, (e) none of these.

(iv)

Time taken to drill a hole through a 2.5 cm thick plate at 3000 RPM at a
feed rate 0.025 mm/rev. will be
(a) 20 s, (b) 10 s, (c) 40 s, (d) 50 s.

(v)

Shear plane angle is the angle between

(a) shear plane and the cutting velocity vector, (b) shear plane and tool face,
(c) shear plane and horizontal plane, (d) rake face and vertical plane.

(vi)

In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge should be

(a) straight, (b) parallel to the original plane surface of the workpiece,
(c) normal to the direction of cutting, (d) all of these, (e) none of these.

(vii) Continuous chip with BUE

(a) yields good surface finish, (b) yields poor surface finish, (c) has no effect
on surface roughness.
(viii) The ratio of cutting velocity to chip velocity is usually
(a) >1, (b) <1, (c) = 1.

1.8 SUMMARY
Various types of metal cutting processes can be classified in two types: orthogonal and
oblique cutting. During cutting, depending upon the type of workpiece material and
machining conditions, one of the three types of the chips will be obtained (continuous,
continuous with BUE, or discontinuous). Chip formation takes place due to the shearing
action. In the process of chip formation, various types of forces act simultaneously.
Magnitude of force decides the power requirement. Chip velocity can be theoretically
evaluated using the analysis presented in this unit. One of the important parameters is
shear angle, which can be determined theoretically or experimentally. Two schools of
thought prevail regarding PSDZ thin zone model and thick zone model other than shear
plane.

27

Theory of Metal Cutting

1.9 KEY WORDS

Chip

: It is the material which is separated from the

workpiece when the tool moves into the
workpiece.

Primary Shear Deformation

Zone (PSDZ)

: Finite zone (thin or thick depending upon

various governing parameters) within which

deformation takes place.

Secondary Shear Deformation
Zone (SSDZ)

: Deformation which takes place at tool-chip

interface.

Orthogonal Cutting

: Two dimensional (2-D) cutting in which cutting

edge is straight, parallel to the original plane
surface of the workpiece and perpendicular to the
direction of cutting.

Oblique Cutting

: Cutting operations are 3-D in nature. In this type

cutting edge at the tool is inclined to the line
normal to the cutting direction.

1.10

ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
(i)

(b)

(ii)

(c)

(iii)

(d)

(iv)

(a)

(v)

(a)

(vi)

(d)

(vii) (a)
(viii) (b)

EXERCISES
Q 1. (i)

(ii)

Derive a relationship to calculate shear angle in terms of measurable/known

parameters.
Draw force circle diagram proposed by Merchant for orthogonal cutting
conditions showing different forces acting on tool, chip, and work system.
From the diagram, derive the expression for
(a)

shearing force on the shear plane,

(b)

friction force on the tool face in terms of cutting force, thrust force,
rake angle, and shear angle.

(iii)

Define orthogonal cutting. Draw Merchant's force circle diagram for the
orthogonal cutting.

(iv)

Using the Figure in Q.1 (ii) (a), derive the expression for friction force.
What are the factors which affect the formation of different types of chip
obtained in cutting.

28

(v)

Determine the condition when

1

= tan

Metal Cutting and

Chip Formation

(rc)

where, is the shear angle and rc is the chip thickness ratio.

(Hint : in the original Eq., Substitute tan = rc) (Ans. = 0)
(vi)

Determine the condition for which chip flow velocity is equal to the cutting
velocity, assuming = 0. (Ans. = 45o)

(vii) Find the ratio of Fc / Ft for an imaginary case of machining if = = /4.

Q 2. Mild steel rod is being turned at the speed of 27.3 m/min. Feed rate used is
0.25 mm/rev, and deformed chip thickness is equal to 0.30 mm. Rake angle and
shear angle of the tool are 20o and 30o, respectively. Calculate the shear flow
velocity.
Q 3. For orthogonal cutting of a M.S. rod, the following data are obtained : width of
cut = 0.125'', feed = 0.007'' per rev., = 15o, = 30o, and machining constant,
C = 70o.The dynamic shear strength of the work material = 80000 lb/in2.
Calculate Fc and Ft.
Q 4. During orthogonal cutting of a tube at 100 m/min, the tangential force
(in the direction of cutting velocity) measured by the 3-D dynamometer is
200 kgf, and the axial force is 100 kgf. Assume the rake angle as 10o. Calculate the
work in shearing the metal if the shear angle = 30o. Also, derive the velocity
relationship used.

29

Theory of Metal Cutting

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Armarego, E. J. A. and Brown, R. H. (1969), The Machining of Metals, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Jain, V. K. and Pandey, P. C. (1980), An Analytical Approach to the Determination of
Mean Width of Primary Shear Deformation Zone (PSDZ) in Orthogonal Machining,
Proc. 4th International Conference on Production Engineering, Tokyo, pp 434-438.
Kalpakjian, S. (1989), Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., New York.
Pandey, P. C. and Sing, C. K. (1998), Production Engineering Science, Standard
Publishers Distributors, Delhi.
Rao, P. N. (2000), Manufacturing Technology : Metal Cutting and Machine Tools, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi.
Shaw, M. C. (1984), Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford, Clarendon Press.

30