Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Jh
ha
The Greeenery –a jou
urnal of Enviro
onment and B
Biodiversity 7
7(1) Septembeer 2009
Climate Chan
nge Induced Potential Im
mpacts (eco‐‐physiologiccal) on Insecct‐Pests in
Nepale
ese Forests: A Synopsis ffor Future R
Research and
d Management
Bidyaa Nath Jha122
1
Officer, Depaartment of FForest Research and Survvey, GPO 3339,
Asst. Research O
Kathmandu, Nep
m pal.
2
Reseearch Studennt, Faculty o
of Life Sciencces, Universitty of Copenh
hagen, Denm
mark.
Email: bnj@dsr.liife.ku.dk; biddyanathjha@ @yahoo.com m
Editoors
Asso.. Prof. Keshaav Dutta Awaasthi PhD;
Prof. Abhoy Kumar Das;
Prof. Mohan Krishna Balla;
Muktti Ram Subed di;
Prakaash Singh Thapa;
Manisha Shrestha
©Self‐Help Environment Awaareness Cam mp (SHEAC),
Instittute of Foresstry, Pokharaa, Nepal
PO Box 43, Pokhaara, Nepal
Contaact +977 614
430090; 4311689 Fax: +977 061-4300387
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The Greenery –a journal of Environment and Biodiversity 7(1) September 2009
Climate Change Induced Potential Impacts (eco‐physiological) on Insect‐Pests in
Nepalese Forests: A Synopsis for Future Research and Management
Bidya Nath Jha
Asst. Research Officer, Department of Forest Research and Survey, GPO 3339, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Research Student, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
Email: bnj@dsr.life.ku.dk; bidyanathjha@yahoo.com
Abstract:
This study aims at reviewing the available literatures on the eco‐physiological impacts of climate change on forest
insect‐pests and its hosts. Methodology adopted for preparing the paper is the critical review of literatures
available in Copenhagen University’s Life library databases. Withstanding with the global projections of climate
change, Nepal will experience a noticeable rise in temperature and changed rainfall pattern throughout the
country in years to come. These changes can create mixed eco‐physiological impacts over the insect‐pests of
Nepalese Forests. In the light of statistics on prevailing climate, projected climatic conditions and forest trees and
associated insect‐pests in Nepal; the insect‐pests’ invasion seems to be obvious than before. Altered climatic
trends invite conditions like expansion of natural range by forest insect‐pests adapting to new environment.
Insect‐pests can also switch their host by turning themselves polyphagous to meet the nutritional requirement in
new climatic conditions. Besides, advancing their physiological and phenological processes and reducing the
vulnerability of being predated are other potential impacts that can happen to insect plant interaction in the
future climatic scenarios. These changes in turn are expected to hinder the vital forestry functions through pest
damage including carbon dioxide sequestration capacity of forests in Nepal.
Key Words: Climate change, eco‐physiological impacts, range extension, phenology, insects‐pests, diapause,
Nepal, morphogenesis
BACKGROUND:
Insects‐pests are one of the major ecological components of forest ecosystem but their contributions and
ecological roles in global change and forestry have often been overlooked and neglected. The contribution and
ecological processes associated with forest insect‐pests are both positive and negative for the forest ecosystem.
To illustrate, these groups contribute to the natural regeneration of plant through its remarkable role in
pollination. On the other hand, they are also responsible for commercial loss through tissue damage of woody
component of forests and significant reduction of forest’s natural capacity to fix the atmospheric carbon dioxide
in multiple ways. Many studies from different part of the world suggest that in subarctic, boreal and temperate
forests the average consumption form insect herbivory ranges from 1‐10% of foliage of dominant tree species. In
specific case of temperate broadleaved forests, for example, an average of 7.1% of damage is reported by forest
insect‐pests (Coley and Barone, 1996).
History of extreme outbreaks of the insect‐pests in different forest types of the world in last century have
compelled the scientists to study the associated link between climate change and outbreak events in the course
of time. Due to sharp variations in altitude from South to North, Nepal offers luxurious microclimatic gradients to
different genera and species of forest insects‐pests in Nepal. Thapa (1997) has enumerated approximately over
five thousands of insect species from Nepal. A larger number of forest pests are reported to damage both natural
and plantation forest of Nepal. Although numerous published and unpublished literatures exists about the
incidental outbreaks of forest pest epidemics in Nepal and outside in recent years (Jackson, 1987; FAO, 2003;
Jakob et al., 2007; FAO, 2007; FAO, 2009), its’ link with climatic variables and statistics on the damage
assessments are lacking in Nepal. Another group of studies of recent decades on plat‐pests interactions (Coley
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and Barone, 1996; FAO, 2007; FAO, 2009) mostly conclude that damages of woody plants by these organisms are
going to increase with altered temperature and precipitation regimes in years to come.
Therefore, this study aims at evaluating the available studies on the climate change impacts on forest insects‐
pests’ eco‐physiology. The intention is to elaborate a research and management dimension in plant and insects‐
pests interaction which Nepalese forests may face in different climatic predictions for the future. This paper is
based on the assumptions that scientific study of climate change impacts over forest insect‐pests’ eco‐physiology
on the other part of the globe can also be generalized in Nepalese conditions with some case specific exceptions.
Nonetheless, majority of review is based on the studies conducted in similar conditions throughout the world
rather than being confined to Nepalese forests. One of the many bases for adopting this approach for the study is
the revelation that Nepal’s climatic trends are not surprisingly dissimilar to rest of the world especially Northern
Hemisphere (Shrestha et al.,1999).
METHODOLOGY:
This review is based on the desk study of different literatures from secondary, published and unpublished
sources available either in print or digital media into the LIFE library databases of Copenhagen University,
Denmark. The first step was to establish different search parameters for the literature hunt with coined study
objectives for the writing. The search parameters or terms were exclusively applied into the different LIFE library
database system for finding out the available resources (Annex 1). Out of the massive hits found, selected
number of relevant literatures especially international journal articles, books and research papers were
scrutinized and ranked for the review purpose. Objective oriented classification of literatures was performed and
ultimate review sources were achieved. Priority for the review was given for those articles or research papers
which were appearing relatively recent, studied from the primary sources of information and the study area was
Nepal or the vicinity or from similar conditions. Consultations from the lecturers (2), library staffs (3) and
graduate scholars (2 Ph D; and 5 M.Sc.) were other sources of information for further literature and information
for the review.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
Past and projected climate Trends in Nepal:
An intensive analysis of maximum number of meteorological data of years between 1971 and 1994 (collected
from 49 numbers of meteorological stations from mid hills and mountains and 14 number of stations from Terai
and Siwaliks) reveals that the much discussed climate change (especially increase in temperature) is taking place
in more than anticipated rate in the case of Nepal (Shrestha et al., 1999). The rate of temperature increase per
0 0 0
year were found to be 0.06 C to 0.12 C in case of mid hills and mountain and 0.03 C for the case of lowland
Nepal (Shrestha et al., 1999). The temperature differences are higher and pronounced in the dry winter spell
than the monsoon and pre monsoon records. Before the year 1978, temperatures of the five development
regions, national average and individual stations were mostly constant or decreasing, however, after 1978 the
general trend for all regional, national and stations temperature were found increasing. This study also found
that the seasonal and spatial distribution of warming trends in Nepal has also a considerable bearing upon the
monsoon circulation of the country (Shrestha et al., 1999; Shrestha et al., 2000). Moreover, the relatively long
temperature records of Kathmandu Valley (since 1921) demonstrated the same pattern of warming trends as
observed in Northern Hemisphere by different studies, which in turn indicates that there exists relationship
between global climate change to Nepal’s warming trend (Shrestha et al., 1999). Temperature trend analysis for
South Asia (IPCC, 2007), which also bears an indirect implication for Nepal’s temperature trend, has been
reproduced in Figure 2.
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Table 1: Temperature Trend of Nepal (Positive Numbers for Increasing trend and negative numbers for
decreasing trends)
Mean Temperature Trend in Nepal by Regions 1977‐1994 (0 C)(Shresta et al., 1999)
Temperature variations in table 1 have also been supported by other studies in Nepal and in the vicinity. Sano et
al. (2005), for instance, has found that winter temperature has been significantly increasing in western Nepal
since last 400 years based on his dendrochronological analysis of Abies spectabilis tree rings. Similarly Liu and
Chen (2000) also fortified the above trends with their respective studies into the Tibetan Plateau (other side of
Himalayas) from the analysis of climatic records of more than four decades.
Figure 1: Temperature Trend (Annual Mean Maximum) in Nepal (Shrestha et al 1999, in WWF, 2005)
Based on the historical changes in global climate, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has made
scientific predictions for the climatic anomalies under different emission (Low and High) conditions and time
horizons (base years long term: 2080; medium term: 2050 and short term: 2020) for global geographical areas on
the earth (IPCC, 2007). Although IPCC report (IPCC, 2007) have not included climatic prediction exclusively on
Nepal, but predictions for the country has been made into the broader framework of South Asian region. Also,
this report includes the vulnerability analysis on South Asian level for the climate change impact on different
areas. Biodiversity has been identified as one of the most vulnerable sector with ‐2 vulnerability score and with
very high confidence level for prediction to be impacted by these predicted climatic anomalies.
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Table 2: Predicted variation in precipitation for South Asea
Predicted Change in Precipitation(%) for South Asia (IPCC, 2007)
Figure 2: Predicted Variation in Temperature for South Asia
In addition to IPCC projection, Nepal specific predictions have also been made recently through adopting a
number of climate prediction models (Agrawala et al., 2003). The brief, the result for the projection of
temperature and precipitations have been reproduced in table 3:
Table 3: Predicted variations in Temperature and Precipitation in Nepal
Predicted Change in Climatic Variables for Nepal (Agrawala et al., 2003)
Temperature (0 C ) Precipitation (%)
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Climate Change Impacts on Forest Insect‐Pests
As with the other biological organism, the life cycle of forest insect‐pests are highly dependent on the climatic
conditions of a particular locality, with well defined threshold levels of survival or maximal growth and
development. Numerous studies (Beeson, 1941; Nair, 2007; Evans, 2008) describe the critical climatic variables
which have deterministic role in the survival and growth of forest insect‐pests with respect to its stages of life
cycle. In brief, most of the studies so far conducted, have agreed that the expected climatic changes are going to
promote the life cycle, growth and development of the majority of forest insect ‐pests in general. With special
reference to Nepal conditions, following are some of the most visible potential impacts that climate change may
cause on the forest insect‐pests and the respective hosts (Nair, 2007; Evans, 2008):
Range extension of Forest Insects‐Pests:
The most pronounced impact of increased temperature over the insect‐pests is their migration towards the
northern forest habitats. Although climate change impacts on forest insects and their migration pattern has not
been studied in Nepal, there are number of international examples which can be used to simulate the forest
conditions in Nepal. For instance, a survey conducted by Permesan and Yohe (2003) on the insect reciprocation
of climate change concluded that among the surveyed species 80% of the surveyed species sifted their natural
range towards the north‐ with an average rate of 6 km in 10 years. Similarly, Evans (2008) presented the specific
case of Pine processionary moth’s (Thaumetopoea pityocampa) northward journey from periphery of Orleans to
as north as Fontainbleau in France. It shifted its natural range of occurrence by 87km since 1972 to 2004, with
accelerated rate of travel in last ten years (56km). Using the historical data of 100 years, Jepsen et al. (2008) have
recently documented how two species of forest insect ‐pests, viz. Operophtera brumata and Epirrita autumnata
shifted their range in last two decades in sub‐arctic birch forest of Norway. These studies coincide on a
conclusion that the changes in global climate have promoted forest insect ‐pests to expand their range towards
the direction of the higher altitudes and latitudes. Importance of the knowledge from these studies in Northern
Hemisphere could be related to Nepalese contexts because of Nepal’s similarity in climatic change trends with
Northern Hemisphere (Shrestha et al., 1999).
Range Jump and Accommodation:
Range jump is another sort of phenomenon associated with forest insect‐pests in the advent of climate change.
Forest/plant product trades are one of the main causes among others that carry the high risk of ‘range jump’ or
‘accommodation’ of non native species into the Nepalese forest areas. There are numerous examples where
seeds are imported for the plantation activities in Nepal e.g. Eucaplytus specie and Leucaena species from
Australia, Cryptomeria species from Japan and many more from India including Tectona grandis, Dalbergia Sissoo
and Acacia catechu (Jackson, 1987). In new climatic conditions in the future, there will be no wonder if the Asian
long horn beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), (many broadleaved based) which is native to the regions of Japan,
China and Korea and has already found in US and Canada through trade (Bond, 2008; FAO, 2009), or other similar
destructive pests, will be brought to Nepal through plant product transactions (especially seeds) from other
region or countries.
Impact on Insects‐Pests Phenology:
Climate change conditions may impact to advance some of the phenological and life cycle processes in forest
insect‐pests. Permesan and Yohe (2003) found in their study that about 87% of inventoried insect species
showed advancement in certain phonological processes like flowering or spring migration due to the past change
in the climate. Number of eggs per generation laid by Hoplocerambyx spinicornis (a serious threat to Shorea
robusta trees in Nepal) ranges 100‐300 and viability of the eggs ranges between 75% and 100% depending on
temperature and moisture conditions (Beeson, 1941; Nair, 2007). Warming induced conditions can create
favourable microclimatic conditions to realize this destructive pests’ higher range of viability (i.e. 100%) in Nepal.
Besides, the larval phase which is responsible for main damage in the wood and remains for 6‐10 months can be
prolonged if temperature conditions are favours in the future.
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Climate change is also going to impact the relationship of forest‐pests with its natural enemies through reducing
the risky stages of being predated, e.g. larva and pupation, through the enhanced speed of life cycle. Relative
warming in winter (as predicted) advances the early stages (winter dormancy; eggs and transition between
dormancy and active stage) and therefore reduces the chances of being predated (Bernays, 1997; Evans, 2008).
Developing host generality over the host specificity in Forest Pests:
There are a number of forest insects in Nepal which shows the characteristics feature of depending on only one
host tree species e.g. Hoplocerambyx spinicornis (Sal Borer). However, due to reduced nutritional value
(especially Nitrogen compounds) of tree leaves in response to elevated temperature and carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, the probability of a specific pest to switching its host, i.e. turning from monophagous to
polyphagous, becomes higher (Battisti, 2008; Hunt et al., 2006)
Impacts on Insects‐Pests Physiology:
Global warming can impact the reproductive, survival, growth and development potential of forest pests. The
rise of temperature may significantly enhance the reproductive capacity in forest pests by advancing their life
cycle activities and shortening the gap between each stage. Yamamura and Kiritani (1998) mentions that a rise of
0
2 C temperature (which is predicted for Nepal for next 50 years) may give rise of one to five additional pest
generations per year, and in case of different species of aphids, the rate becomes higher. A number of forest tree
species have already been reported to be damaged by different species of aphids in Nepal e.g. Alnus nepalensis,
Picea smithiana and Acer Oblongum (Jackson, 1987).
Winter mortality in insect‐pests is common phenomena because of the low temperature. Reduction in winter
cold is removing the major control factor of insect‐pests in altitudinal and latitudinal temperate region
(Harrington et al., 2008). Many high altitude (above 2000m) forest pests based on Willow, Birch, Ash, Spruce and
other high altitude coniferous and broadleaved species of Himalayas shows this remarkable dormancy period
between December to Mid March (Beeson, 1941; Nair, 2007). Impact of increased winter temperature on green
spruce aphid (Elatobium abietinum) population have been studied with most recent data set of 41 years in South
England (Westgarth‐Smith et al., 2007).This study found that if the winter temperature is going to increase by 2‐
0
3 C, which also is the predicted rise in temperature for next 50‐100 years in Nepal (Shrestha et al, 1999), the
aphid may realize its biotic potential of reproduction and cause spruce epidemics in that area in years to come.
The Forest Research (2008) of UK Forestry Commission point out that in case of an outbreak of spruce aphid, the
growth of invaded tree may reduce upto 30% in a year, and in case of realized biotic potential, the damage may
yield more than being expected.
Many of insects‐pests, especially from middle to higher altitudes and latitudes, have a pronounced characteristic
of suspending their metabolic activities temporarily during their life cycles due to a process being known as
diapause. The stage is further characterized by decreased level of morphogenesis, increased level of
environmental resistance, and reduced consumption of plant material by the pests (Tauber et al., 1986). Climate
change (raised temperature) may act as external environmental stimulation for breaking the diapause stage in
forest insect‐pests in advance and activate their physiological processes so that more consumption of plant tissue
becomes obvious (Battisti, 2008).
Impacts on Hosts
The availability of extra level of atmospheric carbon dioxide due to climate change enhances the foliar growth in
trees which further imbalances the natural carbon nitrogen (C/N) ratio. An experimentation on Impact of
endemic insect herbivory on structure and productivity of vegetation in Northern Europe found that plant grown
in elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration have lower nitrogen concentrations and higher concentration of
non structural carbohydrates (Kozlov, 2009). This change induced nitrogen deficiency and imbalances in other
nutritional value of the forest vegetation become insufficient to meet the metabolic requirement of
phytophagous insects (pests) qualitatively. This in turn forced them to consume more quantities of vegetative
materials to fulfil their nutritional demand to compensate reduced food quality (Ayres and Lombardero, 2000;
Kozlov, 2009; Battisti, 2008;).
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The climate change induced drought is reported to develop a kind of stress gradient, and decline in the stomatal
conductance of the forest trees which make them more prone to the insect‐pests attack (Scarr, 1998). Sal
(Shorea robusta) trees, for example, have been found to be more attacked on the nutrient (including water) poor
sites e.g. ridges and sandy soils than on ambient conditions by Sal borer (Hoplocerambyx spinicornis) (Jackson,
1987; Nair, 2007). In the condition of summer drought, which is a predicted condition in Nepal; many Ips species
(64 worldwide) (FAO,2009), the pine bark beetles, are expected to invade the coniferous plantations in the
subtropical to lower temperate regions of Nepal. Khote Salla (Pinus roxburghii) forest are highly susceptible to
increased damage by this kind of beetle mostly because it has most of its area under high prone zone for
summer drought as predicted by above mentioned sources in Nepal.
CONCLUSION:
Climate change is occurring in an alarming rate and at an extent that researchers used to anticipate for Nepal. It
has variety of direct and indirect bearings over the abiotic and biotic systems of Nepal. Higher climatic variations
and the resultant forest types of Nepal offer home for a vast number of forest insect‐pests. These tiny creatures
have often not been given due attention by the researches despite the fact that damages caused by these
organisms are significant and increasing. Forest based insect‐pests and its extent, magnitude and frequency of
damages and it’s relation with climatic variations need to be assessed scientifically before any serious damage is
caused in forests of Nepal. Prediction for temperature rise and altered precipitation pattern in Nepal should be
taken as one of the potential threats for the commercial objectives of forestry in Nepal. Host changing and
realization of biotic potential by destructive forest pests may give rise to serious economic and ecological threat
in multiple ways in Nepalese forestry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My special thanks go to the Professor Niels Strange for encouraging me for this writing. The supportive hands of
LIFE library staffs for searching and availing the required articles in print are also highly acknowledged. I am also
humbly thankful to SHEAC Team and the president for providing me the opportunity to publish in the reputed
‘Greenery’.
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Appendix 1: The summary of database search records for different search parameters
Database/Search Search terms/parameters Resulting Number of useful
Location numbers of references
references
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