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Types of deformation
ELASTIC (temporary deformation) -Small deformations are elastic, meaning the rock
will return to its original shape when the stress is removed.
DUCTILE & BRITTLE - Larger deformations, the deformations that produce mountains
and faults, are permanent.
Parts of a fold
Axial plane as the imaginary surface that divides a fold as symmetrically as
possible, one limb on each side.
Fold axis is the line made by the length-wise intersection of the axial plane
with beds in the fold
Limbs correspond to the two sides of an anticline or syncline
Types of folds
Symmetrical folds – axial plane is vertical
Asymmetrical folds – beds in one limb deep more steeply than those in the
other limb
Overturned folds – both limbs tilted beyond the vertical in the same direction
Recumbent folds – horizontal axial plane
Assymetrical Fold Recumbent fold (upper right)
Fold Nomenclature
Monocline – bend in a gently dipping
horizontal strata
Anticline – an arch in the form of an
inverted letter U
Syncline – an arch shaped like the letterU
Brittle deformation
Rocks under surface conditions also deform plastically but once elastic limit is exceeded, the
rocks will behave like a brittle solid and fracture
Joint = break in rock mass in which sections on each side of the break DO NOT move
relative to each other
Fault = break in rock mass in which sections on either side of the break move relative
to each other
Fault Nomenclature
hanging wall, foot wall
Summary
Type of Stress Ductile Deformation Brittle Deformation
Compressional Folding Reverse Fault
Extensional Thinning Normal Fault
Shearing Shearing Strike Slip Fault
What is an active fault? There is evidence to show that it has moved in the past
10,000years.
PHILIPPINE FAULT is a left lateral fault
What is an earthquake?
intense ground shaking caused by sudden release of energy
can be generated by bomb blasts, volcanic eruptions and sudden slippage along faults
a geologic hazard for those living in earthquake-prone areas
also provided valuable information about the Earth’s interior
Parts of an earthquake:
Fault
hypocenter/focus- source of earthquake; point in a fault plane where slippage occur
Epicenter- point on the surface directly above focus
Locating the epicenter: at least 3 seismic graph is needed, their intersection is the
epicenter of the earthquake.
( )µ
Vp =
Vs = 1/ [µ/ρ]2
where K = incompressibility
µ = rigidity
ρ = density
Boundaries/discontinuities
Mohorovicic discontinuity- between lithosphere and astenosphere
Guttenberg discontinuity- between mantle and outer core
Lehmann discontinuity- between outer core and inner core
Lecture 13: Plate Tectonics
Continental Drift Theory
Introduced by Alfred L. Wegener in his book “The Origin of Continents and Oceans”
in 1915
200 mya, all the continents were joined into a supercontinent (Pangaea) and started
to drift apart (first into Laurasia and Gondwana) until their present position today
Evidence for continental drift:
fit of the continents (especially when joined at the continental shelf)
fossils (Mesosaurus, Lystrosaurus, Cynognathus, Glossopteris)
rock type (rocks found in one continenet closely match those rocks found in the
matching continent); structures and mountain belts
paleoclimate (layers of glacial deposits found in S. Africa and S. America, India
and Australia and there are coal deposits in Antarctica. Why? Ans. Antarctica
must have been situated closer to the equator, in a more temperate climate
where lush, swampy vegetation could grow)
Sea Floor Spreading - process in which the ocean floor is extended when two plates
move apart in mid-oceanic ridges
Habang lumalayo sa mid-ocean ridges, tumatanda ang rocks
New material is being formed along mid-oceanic ridges
If new crust is being created along mid-oceanic ridges, does this mean that the Earth
is expanding? (Recall Wilson Cycle)
Wilson cycle- oceanic crust subducts and destroyed in subducting zones
Paleomagnetism
Magnetic minerals in rocks align themselves in the direction of the existing magnetic
field at the time they were formed
Rocks formed at the same time - record of magnetic field should be the same
Evidence for continental drift:
rocks of the same age at different places point to different locations of magnetic
north;
rocks of different ages in the same place shows that the magnetic north have
moved through time (polar wandering);
It would make more sense if the magnetic north did not move but rather, the
continents have moved!
The concepts of continental drift, sea floor spreading and paleomagnetism gave rise to
the plate tectonics concept
Plate Tectonics
Unifying theory of geology
All geological features and processes are related
Concepts were drawn together in 1968
Lithosphere is made up moderately rigid plates (may consist of oceanic or continental
lithosphere)
7 major plates (N America, S America, Antarctica, Eurasia, Africa, Australia, Pacific)
Plate boundaries
convergent – plates move toward each other;
oceanic-continental (volcanic arc)
continental-continental (mountain range) (orogenesis)
oceanic-oceanic (island arc) i.e. Philippines
divergent – plates move away from each other; mid-oceanic ridge
transform – plates slide past each other (strike-slip faults)
*Plate boundaries are locations of volcanism and earthquakes (Why do you think so?)
Relative dating
Putting rocks and events in their proper sequence of formation
Dating of rocks and rock units with the use of fossils and correlation of different strata
Does not require numerical ages of rocks or fossils or events
Steno’s Laws
Law of Superposition
When examining an undisturbed sequence of stratified rocks, the oldest
strata will be at the bottom and the youngest strata will be on the top of
the sequence.
Law of Original Horizontality
Most layers are deposited horizontally or subhorizontally
Sedimentary beds which are inclined at an angle must have undergone
deformation after they had been deposited and lithified
Law of Lateral Continuity
Sediments would spread out until they thin out at the edge of the
depositional basin, stop at a depositional barrier or grade into another
type of sediment (indicative of a change in the depositional
environment)
Cross-cutting relationships
When a fault or intrusion cuts through another rock, the fault or
intrusion is younger that the rocks which it cuts.
Principle of Inclusions
The rock mass containing the inclusion is younger than the rock that provided
the inclusion.
Unconformity
Any significant break in time within a stratigraphic column.
Gaps in the rock record representing
a long period during which deposition ceased, erosion removed
previously formed rocks and then deposition resumed
a period of non-deposition.
Types:
Angular Unconformity - Tilted or folded sedimentary rocks that are
overlain by younger, more flat-lying strata.
Disconformity - Strata on either side of the unconformity are
essentially parallel with a distinctly recognizable surface
Paraconformity - Beds above and below are parallel and the
unconformity is identified by some evidence such as lack of certain
diagnostic zone fossils in some horizon
Nonconformity - Older metamorphic or igneous rocks are overlain by
younger sedimentary strata
Principle of Faunal Succession
Fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order.
Thus, any time period can be recognized by its fossil content.
Correlation
To show correspondence in character and in stratigraphic position (International
Stratigraphic Guide)
To demonstrate correspondence between geographically separated parts of a
geologic unit (North American Stratigraphic Code)
Based on similarity of lithologic and paleontologic features
Types of fossilization
1. Preservation of unaltered body parts:
a. Hard parts – usually shells, bone, teeth or pollen
b. Soft tissue – by mummification or freezing
2. Chemical alteration of hard parts:
a. Carbonization – soft tissues preserved as thin carbon film
b. Recrystallization – conversion of a mineral polymorph to another
(e.g. aragonite → calcite)
c. Replacement – dissolution of original material and precipitation of new
mineral
d. Permineralization – porous material filled with secondary materials
e. Petrification – replacement of wood
3. Imprints of hard parts in sediment or trace fossils:
a. Mold – dissolution of shell
b. Cast – filling of mold
c. Borings and burrows – worms, clams and other invertebrates burrow into
rocks and sediments
d. Coprolites – fossil excrement
e. Gastroliths – smooth, polished stones found in the abdominal cavities of
dinosaur skeletons
Oldest human fossil - complete skeleton of a 3-year-old female; remains found in Africa
are 3.3 million years old, making this the oldest known skeleton of such a youthful
human ancestor (Australopithecus afarensis) (Reported in Nature by Zeresenay
Alemseged (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology) and Fred Spoor
(University College London) and others
Uses of fossils?
tracing the evolutionary history of extinct as well as living organisms;
reconstructing paleoclimates and paleoenvironments ;
providing the source of energy resources (e.g. oil, gas, coal)
Absolute dating
Numerical dating of rocks, minerals and fossils; Utilizing radioactive isotopes
Radioactive isotopes
variants of the same atom but with different mass numbers (number of protons?
neutrons? electrons?)
Undergo spontaneous breaking apart (decay) of certain unstable atomic nuclei
Unstable parent isotope decay into stable daughter isotope
Half – life – the length of time required for one-half of the nuclei of a radioactive
isotope to decay
* After 1 half life, 50% of the parent and 50% of
the daughter isotope is present.
*After 2 half-lives, 25% of the parent and 75%
of the daughter is present and so on…
Most minerals which contain radioactive isotopes (except C14) are in igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
K40 is usually found in potassium feldspar, muscovite and amphibole.
Uranium may be found in zircon, uraninite, apatite and sphene.