Brick 002

Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 1
LE 05/15

Brick 002:
NAME: __________________________________
What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units
Dimensional Analysis and Data Processing
Sophomore Topics B and C

Block System: 005-026

Dimensional analysis and unit conversions

In introductory chemistry, you should have learned a simple method for converting units, commonly known
as dimensional analysis. This method employed multiplying measured quantities by unity fractions in
order to cancel the starting units, replacing them with desired units. Hopefully, you can recall the following:

Lets say I wanted to convert 3 hours into minutes. First, write out the problem.
3 = ?
Next, write out what the problem gives you, and put it over the number 1.
3
1
Following that, write a fraction line next to it, and think about what units to cancel. I want to get rid of hours
and replace it with minutes. I know that there are 60 minutes in one hour, so I can write that. I put hours on
the bottom of the second fraction, and minutes on the top. This has the effect of canceling the units I dont
want, and replacing them with the units that I do want. Remember, the numerator of the second fraction
(60 minutes) and the denominator (1 hour) must be equal for this procedure to work.
3
60

= ???
1
1
If I stop there, I will have created an arrangement of fractions that, when combined together, will convert 3
hours into minutes. The units have cancelled, so all that is left is to plug numbers into a calculator and
perform a mathematical operation to get a numerical answer. Rather than combining numbers and dealing
with the rules of fraction math, or using the parenthesis function on your calculator to keep numerator and
denominator separate, it is easier to simply multiply the numbers on top and divide the numbers on the
bottom.
3
60

= 3 60 = 180
1
1

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 2
LE 05/15

This method works whether the units in question are getting bigger or smaller:

Here is the calculation of how many feet are in 6 inches, requiring the division function.
6
1

= 6 12 = 0.5
1
12
12 inches ends up in the denominator. Therefore it is divided in order to get the proper answer of 0.5 feet.

Also, the same method works for multiple-step conversions:

Okay, now lets say I wanted to convert 4 hours into seconds. This is a slightly more complex problem, but it
begins the same way. To start out, write out what the problem gives you, and put it over the number 1.
4
1
Write a fraction line next to it, and think about what units to cancel.
4
? ? ?

1
1
I want to get rid of hours and replace it with seconds, but I dont know how many seconds are in one hour. I
do know that there are 60 minutes in one hour, so I can do that, canceling the units as I go.
4
60

1
1
If I stop there, I will have converted 4 hours into minutes. A quick glance back at the problem tells me that I
have to keep going until I have seconds as my units. So, I continue on, canceling minutes with seconds, just
like I canceled hours earlier.
4
60
60

1
1
1
Finally, multiply all the fractions together, and get the answer.
4
60
60

= 4 60 60 = 14400
1
1
1
Again, this method works because the units are properly canceled. Each of the conversion fractions written
has a numerator that is mathematically equal to its denominator. 60 minutes is the same as 1 hour. 60
seconds is the same as 1 minute.

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 3
LE 05/15

The method works for squared and cubed units:

However, what happens if we want to solve the following problem?

1 2 = ? 2
What is a square foot? What are square inches? These are units commonly associated with the
measurement of area. Area can measured my multiplying the length of a region by its width. The units are
also multiplied, and can be rewritten in the following way for clarity.
1 2 =

This now presents itself as a two-step conversion problem. In order to convert square feet to square inches,
feet must be converted to inches twice.
1 2
=
1

1
12
12

= 1 12 12 = 144 2
1
1
1

And it works for compound units:

Lets say I wanted to convert 30 miles per hour into feet per second:
30
5280
1
1

= 30 5280 60 60 = 44
1
1
60
60

And, of course, it works for metric units:

Convert 75 kg into cg:

75
100

= 75 100 0.001 = 7500000

1
0.001

It is certainly important to remember the important metric base numbers:

0.001 kX = 1 X = 10 dX = 100 cX = 1000 mX

with X representing any unit of measurement, like meters, grams, or liters.

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 4
LE 05/15

Units for volume can be measured in cubic meter units (cm3, m3) or liter units (mL, L). These important
metric volume unit conversions should be known:

1 L = 1 dm3

or

Perform the following unit conversions. Show all work:

50 dollars = ? quarters

4500 inches2 = ? feet2

100 miles per hour = ? inches per second (1 mi = 5280 ft)

1 mL = 1 cm3

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

750000 cL = ? kL

200 m = ? dm

860 mm = ? dm

600 cg = ? mg

308 m3 = ? L

64.67 dm3 = ? cL

Page 5
LE 05/15

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 6
LE 05/15

Density
In chemistry, density is the relationship between a substances mass and its volume. Density is
characteristic of a given substance, and does not depend on the size of the sample. Mathematically, density
can be expressed as follows:

Because density is equal to mass divided by volume, the units for density are the units of mass divided by
the units for volume. Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimeter, or grams per liter. The
following table contains the densities of some common substances. Note that different units are used to
quantify the densities of solids and liquids than are used to quantify gases.

Densities of Some Common Substances

Solids and Liquids

Gases

Substance

Density at 20 C (g/cm3)

Substance

Density at 20 C (g/L)

Gold

19.3

Chlorine

2.95

Mercury

13.6

Carbon dioxide

1.83

Lead

11.4

Oxygen

1.33

Aluminum

2.70

Air

1.20

Corn syrup

1.360

Nitrogen

1.17

Water (4 C)

1.000

Neon

0.84

Corn oil

0.922

Ammonia

0.718

Ice (0 C)

0.917

Methane

0.665

Ethanol

0.789

Helium

0.166

Gasoline

0.66

Hydrogen

0.084

Values for density can be used to identify an unknown substance.

A sample of metal has a mass of 65 grams and occupies 5.7 cubic centimeters of space. Using the table
above, identify the unknown metal.
=

65

=
= 11.4
3

5.7
3

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Refer to the table on the previous page as you solve the following problems. Show all work.

A sample of aluminum occupies 125 cm3. What is the mass of the sample in grams?

A liquid sample occupies 48 mL, and has a mass of 37.87 g. Which of the substances in the table is it?

Neon has a density of 0.84 g/L. How many mL will be occupied by 65 g of neon?

Page 7
LE 05/15

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 8
LE 05/15

Types of measurements
Everyone makes and uses measurements. You decide how to dress in the morning based on the measured
outside temperature. You measure out the ingredients for your favorite cookie recipe. If you were building
a cabinet, you would carefully measure each piece of wood.
Measurements are also fundamental to the experimental sciences. The reference standards used by
scientists are those of the metric system. The understanding of scientific concepts is often based on
measurements. It is important to be able to make measurements and to decide whether a measurement is
good or bad.
In chemistry, it is important to record data for every measurement you make. This data can be a recording
of numbers and units, or words. Quantitative data gives results in a definite form, using numbers and units.
Qualitative data gives a nonnumeric description.
Identify the following as quantitative or qualitative measurements.
A flame is hot.

A candle has a mass of 90 g.

Wax is soft.

A candles height decreases by 4.2 cm/hr.

A quantitative measurement, regardless of what it is a measurement of, is useless unless it consists of both
a number and a corresponding unit. When making a measurement, we choose a unit that makes sense
based on our perceptions and experience. When someone asks about your age, you tend to come up with
an answer in years, as opposed to seconds, days, minutes, or centuries. Similarly, if you were measuring
the height of a person, you would probably tend to choose feet or meters, rather than inches, centimeters,
or miles.
The units we will be making measurements with in this class are standard units used by scientists
throughout the world. These units are part of the International System of Units (or SI), a revised version of
the metric system. Some of the accepted SI units we will be using in this class are as follows:

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 9
LE 05/15

Length:
The standard unit of length in the metric system is the meter. Other units of length and their
equivalents in meters are as follows:
1 millimeter = 0.001 meter
1 centimeter = 0.01 meter
1 decimeter = 0.1 meter
1 kilometer = 1000 meters
For reference, 1 meter is a little longer than 1 yard or 3 feet. It is about half the height of a very tall
adult. A centimeter is nearly the diameter of a dime, a little less than half an inch. A millimeter is about
the thickness of a dime. These prefixes can be used for any metric unit.

Volume:
The standard unit of volume in the metric system is the liter. One liter is equal to 1000 cubic
centimeters in volume. 1 liter is a little more than 1 quart. One teaspoon equals about 5 milliliters.

Mass:
The standard unit of mass in the metric system is the gram. 1 gram is about the mass of a paper clip.
One kilogram is about the mass of a liter of water.

Time:
The following conversions are useful when working with time:
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 hour = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds
1 day = 24 hours
1 week = 7 days
1 year = 365 days (for the Earth to travel once around the sun)

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 10
LE 05/15

Temperature:
Despite what you might think, energy,
temperature, and heat are not the same things.
Energy is the capacity for doing work.
Temperature is directly proportional to the
average kinetic energy of a substance. That is,
every sample of matter is composed of tiny
particles called atoms, and they are in constant
motion. At lower temperatures, the atoms
move very slowly. At higher temperatures, they
move very rapidly.
Energy typically moves from systems at high temperatures to systems at low temperatures. The energy
that is being transferred from one body to another is known as heat, and is measured in joules (J).
You might be familiar with the Fahrenheit scale for measuring temperature. The Fahrenheit scale is not
commonly used outside the United States, especially in the scientific world. The freezing point of water
is 32F. The boiling point of water is 212F.
Temperature is expressed in
degrees Celsius in the metric
system. The boiling point of
water (at sea level) is 100
Celsius, or 100C. The freezing
point of water (at sea level) is 0
Celsius. These numbers make
the Celsius scale convenient for
everyday use. However, the
Kelvin scale, or absolute
temperature scale, is directly
related to kinetic energy. The
zero point on the Kelvin scale
corresponds with zero
movement of particles, and is
known as absolute zero. This
occurs at 0 K, which corresponds
with 273.15C.
A change of one Kelvin degree is the same as a change of one Celsius degree. Kelvin temperatures are
always exactly 273.15 degrees higher than Kelvin temperatures.

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 11
LE 05/15

Accuracy and precision

The words accuracy and precision are often used interchangeably, but they mean two very different things
in the world of scientific measurement. Accuracy is how close a measurement comes to the true or
accepted value of whatever is measured. Precision is concerned with the closeness of multiple
measurements to each other the reproducibility of a measurement.
Darts stuck in a dart board can be used to illustrate the difference between these two terms. The following
four scenarios represent all possible combinations of low and high accuracy and precision.

To sum up, accuracy means getting the right answer, while precision means getting the same thing over and
over again. We will revisit these terms shortly when we cover data reporting and analysis.

Significant figures
The digits in a measurement up to and including the first uncertain digit are the significant figures of the
measurement. There are two significant figures, for example, in 62 cm3 and five in 100.00 g. The zeroes
are significant here as they signify that the uncertainty range is 0.01 g.
The rules for assigning significant figures are found below. They must be memorized and practiced.
ALWAYS SIGNIFICANT:
1. Every non-zero number is a recorded measurement is significant.
13

23.45

46413

198.2

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 12
LE 05/15

2. Zeroes that occur between two non-zero numbers are significant.

202

3.02

100001

7007

30.06

3. Zeroes all the way to the right of a decimal point are always significant.
2.0

30.00

1.0000

70.780

.300

NEVER SIGNIFICANT:
4. Zeroes that occur to the left of non-zero numbers are NOT significant.
0.005

004

.0022

09

0.001

5. Zeroes at the right of a number without a decimal point are NOT significant.
500

40

20000

920

6310

SOMETHING ELSE TO REMEMBER:

6. Definitions and absolute numbers have an infinite number of significant figures.
1.000000000000000000 hour = 60.00000000000000000000 minutes
12.0000000000000000000000 eggs = 1.00000000000000000 dozen

The rules for manipulating significant figures must also be memorized.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION:

The answer to an addition or subtraction calculation should be rounded to the same number of decimal
places (not digits) as the measurement with the least number of decimal places.
12.52 m
2 decimal
places

349.0 m
1 decimal
place

8.24 m
2 decimal
places

369.76 m

369.8 m

Answer should have 1 decimal place

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

43.253 L

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

9.0245 L

3 decimal
places

3.07 L

4 decimal
places

2 decimal
places

55.3475 L

Page 13
LE 05/15

55.35 L

Answer should have 2 decimal places

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION:

In calculations involving multiplication and division, you need to round the answer to the same number of
significant figures as the measurement with the least amount of significant figures.
7.55 m

3 significant
figures

2.4526 g

1 significant
figure

2 significant
figures

5 significant
figures

0.7 m

0.34 m

8.4 cm3

2.10 m
3 significant
figures

2.6 m2

Answer should have 2 significant figures.

Remember to multiply units as well.

2 significant
figures

2.567 m2

0.291976 g/cm3

0.29 g/cm3

Answer should have 2 significant figures.

Remember to divide units as well.

1.47 m2

1 m2

Answer should have 1 significant figure.

Remember to multiply units as well.

Recording data and factoring in uncertainty

Measurement is an important part of chemistry. In the laboratory you will use different measuring
apparatus and there will be times when you have to select the instrument that is most appropriate for your
task from a range of possibilities. Suppose, for example, you wanted 25 cm3 of water. You could choose
from measuring cylinders, pipettes, burettes, volumetric flasks of different sizes, or even an analytical
balance if you know the density. All of these could be used to measure a volume of 25 cm3, but with
different levels of uncertainty.

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 14
LE 05/15

Uncertainty in analog instruments

An uncertainty range applies to any
experimental value. Some pieces of apparatus
state the degree of uncertainty. In other cases,
you will have to make a judgment. Suppose you
are asked to measure the volume of water in the
measuring cylinder shown on the right. The
bottom of the meniscus of a liquid usually lies
between two graduations and so the final figure
of the reading has to be estimated. The smallest
division in the measuring cylinder is 4 cm3 so
we should report the volume as 62 2 cm3. The
same considerations apply to other equipment
such as burets and alcohol thermometers that
have analog scales. The uncertainty of an
analog scale is half the smallest division.

The volume reading should be taken from the

bottom of the meniscus. You could report the
volume as 62 cm3 but this is not an exact value.

Uncertainty in digital instruments

Consider a top pan balance that has a digital scale. The mass of the sample of water shown on the digital
display is 100.00 g but the last digit is uncertain. The degree of uncertainty is 0.01 g the smallest scale
division. The uncertainty of a digital scale is the smallest scale division.

Summary
To summarize, for an analog instrument, write down all numbers that you are certain of. Then, write one
more number you estimate. Add the uncertainty, which is half of the smallest posted division on the
measurement apparatus.

The length of this pencil could correctly be reported as 9.49 0.05 cm.

For a digital instrument, write down all numbers that are reported on the display of the instrument. Then,
add the uncertainty, which is the smallest scale measurement reported.

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 15
LE 05/15

Write the uncertainties for the following measurements. Assume that the measuring instrument is marked
in base ten increments:

Analog

Digital

3.25

____________________

3.25

____________________

6.325

____________________

6.325

____________________

123

____________________

123

____________________

7.3256

____________________

7.3256

____________________

Rules for propagation of uncertainty

For adding and subtracting:
(6.3 + 0.2) + ( 5.20 + 0.03) =
First do the math problem
o (6.3 + 0.2) + ( 5.20 + 0.03) = 11.50
Then add the uncertainty together
o (6.3 + 0.2) + ( 5.20 + 0.03) = 11.50 +0.23
Round the correct significant figure
o Least number of decimal places
o 11.50 +0.23 11.5 + 0.2
For multiplication and division;
(34.3 + 0.6) x ( 2.325 + 0.009) =
Do the basic math problem
o (34.3 + 0.6) x ( 2.325 + 0.009) = 79.7475
Find the max numbers
o (34.3 + 0.6) = 34.9
o ( 2.325 + 0.009) = 2.334
o For division the maximum value is obtained by adding the uncertainty to the numerator
and subtracting the uncertainty from the denominator.

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Find the max value with the uncertainty

o 34.9 x 2.334 = 81.4566
Subtract the two numbers and
o 81.4566 - 79.7475 = 1.7091
Round to least number of sig figs.
o (34.3 + 0.6) x ( 2.325 + 0.009) = 79.7475 + 1.7091
o 79.7 + 1.7

Use these techniques to correctly solve the following problems:

(5.36 + 0.52) x ( 936.2 + 0.5) =

(9.25 + 0.65) + ( 0.2554 + 0.0025) =

(63.25 + 0.24) / ( 8.235 + 0.021) =

Page 16
LE 05/15

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 17
LE 05/15

Use the rules for notation of uncertainty to answer the following:

Example: (22.2 .2) + (108.66 .05)

Answer before rounding

130.86 .25

Final answer
130.9 .3

1. (44.8 .7) + (98.66 .05) =

______________

_______________

2. (88.64 .02) + (53.8 0.4) =

______________

_______________

3. (245.871 .001) + (78.88 .05) =

______________

_______________

4. (952.90 .09) (458.34 .05) =

______________

_______________

5. (3.8 .2) + (54.67 .05) (72.126 .005) = ______________

_______________

6. (528.11 .05) (247.65 .02) =

______________

_______________

7. (1468.23 .05) + (3.426 .001) =

______________

_______________

8. (3.011 .001) (1.4772 .0001) =

______________

_______________

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 18
LE 05/15

Example (22.2 .2) x (108.66 .05)

base 2412.252 max 2435.104 diff. 22.852

Answer before rounding Final Answer
2412.252 22.852
2410 20

9. (44.8 .7) x (98.66 .05) =

______________

_______________

10. (88.64 .02) (53.8 .7) =

______________

_______________

11. (245.871 .001) x (78.88 .05) =

______________

_______________

12. (952.90 .07) (458.340 .005) =

______________

_______________

13. (3.8 .2) x (54.67 .05) (.67 .04) =

______________

_______________

14. (5.26 .07) x (11.68 .05) =

______________

_______________

15. (10224.1 .5) (552.14 .05) =

______________

_______________

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 19
LE 05/15

Random and systematic errors

Random errors
When an experimenter approximates a reading, there is an equal probability of being too high or too low.
This is a random error. Random errors are caused by:

The readability of the measuring instrument

The effects of changes in the surroundings such as temperature variations and air currents
Insufficient data
The observer misinterpreting the reading

As they are random, the errors can be reduced through repeated measurements. This is why it is good
practice to duplicate experiments when designing experiments. If the same person duplicates the
experiment with the same result the results are repeatable. If several experimenters duplicate the results
they are reproducible.
Suppose the mass of a piece of magnesium ribbon is measured several times and the following results
obtained:
0.1234 g, 0.1232 g, 0.1233 g, 0.1234 g, 0.1235 g, and 0.1236 g
The average value =

(0.1234 + 0.1232 + 0.1233 + 0.1234 + 0.1235 + 0.1236)g

6

= 0.1234 g

The mass is reported at 0.1234 0.0002 g as it is in the range 0.12320.1236 g.

Systematic errors
Systematic errors occur as a result of poor experimental design or procedure. This cannot be reduced by
repeating the experiments. Suppose the top pan balance was incorrectly zeroed in the previous example
and the following results were obtained:
0.1236 g, 0.1234 g, 0.1235 g, 0.1236 g, 0.1237 g, and 0.1238 g
All values are too high by 0.0002 g.
The average value =

(0.1236 + 0.1234 + 0.1235 + 0.1236 + 0.1237 + 0.1238)g

6

The mass is reported at 0.1234 0.0002 g as it is in the range 0.12320.1236 g.

= 0.1236 g

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 20
LE 05/15

Examples of systematic errors:

Measuring the volume of water from the top of the meniscus rather than the bottom will lead to
volumes which are too high.
Overshooting the volume of a liquid delivered in a titration will lead to volumes which are too high.
Heat losses in an exothermic reaction will lead to smaller temperature changes.

Systematic errors can be reduced by careful experimental design. When evaluating investigations, it is
crucial that the experimenter distinguishes between systematic and random errors. You will also need to
describe the error in the conclusion. Which direction the error has gone and how it has affected your
results. Evaluation and Suggestions looks at the procedure and explains the flaws. Where did the error
come from and how can it be fixed.

Accuracy and precision and error

The smaller the systematic error, the greater will be the accuracy. The smaller the random uncertainties,
the greater will be the precision. The masses of magnesium in the earlier example are measured to the
same precision but the first set of values is more accurate.
Precise measurements have small random errors and are reproducible in repeated trials. Accurate
measurements have small systematic errors and give a result close to the accepted value.

The set of readings on the left are for high accuracy and low precision.
The readings on the right are for low accuracy and high precision.

The internal assessment should have math to prove the accuracy and precision within the lab. Percent
error is used when a known value is given. A student performs a lab to find the density of aluminum. Since
there is a known value for this percent error can be used to explain the accuracy in the experiment.
Whenever multiple trials are preformed percent deviation can be used to explain how close the values are
to each other.

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 21
LE 05/15

Accuracy is a measure of how close an experiment value is to a value which is accepted as correct. The
measure of the accuracy of an experiment value is reported as Absolute Error or Percent Error.
Absolute Error is just the difference between the measure and accepted values.
=
Percent error or Relative Error is calculated as follows:
% =

100%

Example
A student estimated the volume of water to be 200mL. After measuring the water with more accurate
glassware, the graduated cylinder, the water level was found to be 185mL. What was the students percent
error?
% =

100%

% =

200 185
100% = 8.11%
185

Notice that the error is a positive number if the experimental value is too high, and a negative number if the
experimental value is too low.

Frequently in science, an accepted or true value is not known. The accuracy of a measurement cannot be
reported if an accepted value is unavailable. Since scientists dont know how close they are toe the true
value, they repeat their experiments several times and report on how close together their values lie. It is
hoped that an experiment that can give reproducible results will also give accurate results. Certainly, it
data cannot be reproducible, it cannot be reliable.
Precision is the measure of how reproducible experimental measures are. Precision is reported as
Deviation or Difference of values.
The absolute Deviation or Absolute Difference of each measurement is the difference of each measurement
form the mean or average:
= | |

Brick 002
Prior Knowledge

Chempocalypse Now - 2017

What You Should Already Know Measurement and Units

Page 22
LE 05/15

The average deviation is the average of all the Absolute Deviations

=

( )

The percent Deviation is the average Deviation reported as a percentage.

=

100%

Example
Antacid tablets were analyzed to find the amount of sodium carbonate present. The experimental values
were found to be 1.69g, 1.74g, and 1.68g. What is the percent deviation?
Mean
1.69 + 1.74 + 1.68
= 1.70
3
Absolute Deviations
1: |1.69 1.70| = 0.01
2: |1.74 1.70| = 0.04
3: |1.68 1.70| = 0.02
Average Deviation
0.01 + 0.04 + 0.02
= 0.02
3
Relative Deviation
0.02
100% = 1.2%
1.70
This tells scientists that on the average, the experiment will give values that are within 1.2% of the average
(and hopefully true) value.