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CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
2
In power system, Grounding and Earthing means connecting frame or enclosure of electrical
equipment ( non-current carrying part in normal conditions) or some electrical part of the power
system (e.g. neutral point in a star connected system or one conductor of the secondary of a
transformer etc.) to earth i.e. soil to provide a low impedance path for the fault current. This
connection may be through a conductor or some other circuit element (i.e. resistor, a circuit
breaker etc.) depending upon situation.
The term earthing and grounding have the same meaning and it is a means of making a
connection between the system or equipment and the general mass of the earth. Regardless
of the method of connection to earth, grounding or earthing provides two major
advantages.
Firstly earthing provides protection to the power system. For example, if the neutral point of
a star-connected system is grounded through a circuit breaker and phase to earth fault occurs on
any one line, a large fault current will flow through circuit breaker. The circuit breaker will open
to isolate the faulty line. This protects the system from harmful effects of the fault. This type of
earthing is called system or neutral earthing.
Secondly earthing of electrical equipment (e.g. domestic appliances, hand-held tools,
industrial motors etc.) ensures the safety of the persons handling equipment. If insulation
fails, there will be a direct contact of the live conductor with the metallic part (i.e. frame) of the
equipment. Any person in contact with the metallic part will be subjected to a dangerous electric
shock that can be fatal. This type of earthing is called equipment earthing.
3
In three phase applications: Most big appliances such as air conditioners, dryers, some kitchen
ranges, etc., which need to draw high power, are nowadays supplied not from a 120 volt "leg"
but at a full 240 volts by connecting them to both of the legs, "+120" and "-120".
In Single-Phase Applications: However many of these appliances also need a 120 volt feed for
such things as lamps, time-clocks, program control circuits, etc. To get those 120 volts they must
use the neutral conductor which comes from the center tap of the pole transformer.
For safety purpose: An electrical circuit requires at least two wires, whether it is ac or dc. In
mains ac, one of the wires is connected to ground for safety. This is called the neutral. So the
circuit will still work without the neutral connected to ground but not be so safe.
The reason the neutral makes it safer is that a current will flow in the event of a fault on the hot
wire and cause the protection (fuse or breaker) to operate.
Act as a Return Path: Commercial city electricity comes from the power plant in the form of
three-phase current. Each phase requires one wire, and the neutral is the common return path for
all three.
Unbalance loads: if there is any unbalance loads on three phase conductors then neutral will act
as return path for the current towards the source.
5
There are many neutral grounding options available for both Low and
medium voltage power systems.
No intentional connection is made between the neutral point of the supply source and
earth.
All Exposed and extraneous-conductive-parts of the installation are connected to an earth
electrode.
Neutral and protective functions are combined in a single conductor throughout the
system. (PENProtective Earthed Neutral).
The supply source is directly connected to earth and all exposed conductive parts of an
installation are connected to the PEN conductor.
A TN-S system has separate neutral and protective conductors throughout the system.
The supply source is directly connected to earth. All exposed conductive parts of an
6
installation are connected to a protective conductor (PE) via the main earthing terminal of
the installation.
1.4.2.3 TN-C-S Earthing System
TN-C-S earthing system has the following features:
Neutral and protective functions are combined in a single conductor in a part of the TNC-S system. The supply is TN-C and the arrangement in the installation is TN-S.
Use of a TN-S downstream from a TN-C.
All exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected to the PEN conductor via
the main earthing terminal and the neutral terminal, these terminals being linked together.
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Introduction
8
The whole of the world may be considered as a vast conductor which is at reference (zero)
potential. In the UK we refer to this as 'earth' whilst in the USA it is called 'ground'. People
are usually more or less in contact with earth, so if other parts which are open to touch become
charged at a different voltage from earth a shock hazard exists. The process of earthing is to
connect all these parts which could become charged to the general mass of earth, to provide a
path for fault currents and to hold the parts as close as possible to earth potential. In simple
theory this will prevent a potential difference between earth and earthed parts, as well as
permitting the flow of fault current which will cause the operation of the protective systems.
(IEE)
To save human life from danger of electric shock or death by blowing a fuse i.e. to
provide an alternative path for the fault current to flow so that it will not endanger the
user.
To protect buildings, machinery and appliance under fault conditions.
To ensure that all exposed conductive parts do not reach a dangerous potential.
To provide safe path to dissipate lightning and short circuits currents.
To provide stable platform for operation of sensitive electronic equipments i.e. to
maintain the voltage at any part of an electrical system at a known value so as to prevent
over current or excessive voltage on the appliances or equipment.
2. Over-Voltage Protection.
9
Lightning, line surges or unintentional contact with higher voltage lines can cause dangerously
high voltages to the electrical distribution system. Earthing provides an alternative path around
the electrical system to minim
ize damages in the system.
3. Voltage stabilization.
There are many sources of electricity. Every transformer can be considered a separate source. If
there were not a common reference point for all voltage sources it would be extremely difficult
to calculate their relationships to each other.
The earth is the most omnipresent (everywhere present at the same time) conductive surface, and
so it was adopted in the very beginnings of electrical distribution systems as a nearly universal
standard for all electric systems.
10
2.3 Definition of standardized earthing systems in LV networks.
Electrical power was actually used in 1900. Today electrical installation standards are highly
developed and cover all major aspects for a safe installation. In LV, the reference standard is IEC
60364; other standards are also of great importance such as IEE (institution of electrical
engineers) regulations and BS 7430 which are following nearly IEC 60364. Standard makers
have paid particular attention to the measures to be implemented to guarantee protection of
personnel and property. The choice of these methods governs the measures necessary for
protection against Indirect-contact hazards.
The earthing system qualifies three originally independent choices made by the designer of an
electrical distribution system or installation:
The type of connection of the electrical system (that is generally of the neutral conductor)
and of the exposed parts to earth electrode(s)
A separate protective earth conductor or protective conductor and neutral conductor being
a single conductor
The use of earth fault protection of overcurrent protective switchgear which clear only
relatively high fault currents or the use of additional relays able to detect and clear small
insulation fault currents to earth.
In practice, these choices have been grouped and standardized as explained below.
Each of these choices provides standardized earthing systems with three advantages and
drawbacks:
Connection of the exposed conductive parts of the equipment and of the neutral
conductor to the PE conductor results in equipotentiality and lower overvoltages but
increases earth fault currents.
A separate protective conductor is costly even if it has a small cross-sectional area but it
is much more unlikely to be polluted by voltage drops and harmonics, etc. than a neutral
conductor is. Leakage currents are also avoided in extraneous conductive parts.
Installation of residual current protective relays or insulation monitoring devices are
much more sensitive and permit in many circumstances to clear faults before heavy
damage occurs (motors, fires, electrocution). The protection offered is in addition
independent with respect to changes in an existing installation.
TN system
TT system
11
IT system
The second letter indicate the relationship of exposed conductive parts to earth
T: Direct electrical connection of exposed conductive parts of the installation to earth,
independently of the earthing of any point of the power system
N: Direct electrical connection of the exposed conductive parts to the neutral point or
conductor of the power system.
Subsequent letter if any shows the arrangement of neutral and protective conductor:
2.4.1 TT System.
One point at the supply source is connected directly to earth. All exposed- and extraneousconductive-parts are connected to a separate earth electrode at the installation. This electrode
may or may not be electrically independent of the source electrode. Figure 2.1, show the TT
system.
12
Key:
1. Source of energy
3. Source earth
installations
5. Exposed conductive parts
2. Consumers installations
4. Equipment or Loads in
6. Installation earth electrode
13
Source: Comparison the Performances of Three Earthing Systems for Micro-Grid
Protection during the Grid Connected Mode Scientific research paper by Rashad
Mohammedeen Kamel, Aymen Chaouachi, Ken Nagasaka.
2.4.1.3 Advantages:
Simplest solution to design and install. Used commonly in installation supplied directly
by the public LV distribution network.
Does not require continuous monitoring during operation (a periodic check on RCD may
be necessary).
Protection is ensured by special devices, the residual current devices (RCD). Which also
prevent the risk of fire when they are set to 300 mA.
Each insulation fault results in an interruption in the supply of power, however the outage
is limited to the faulty circuit by installing the RCDs in series (selective RCDs) or in
parallel (circuit selection).
Loads or parts of the installation which, during normal operation, cause high leakage
currents, require special measures to avoid nuisance tripping i.e. supply the loads with a
separation transformer or use specific RCDs.
Protection of persons is ensured by RCD device, RCD causes the de-energizing of
switchgear as soon as the current has a touch voltage greater than safety voltage Uf.
Easy location of faults.
Upon occurrence of an insulation fault, the short-circuit current is small.
2.4.1.4 Disadvantages:
14
2.4.2.1 TN-C System
It has combined PE and N conductor all the way from source to the device. In a TN-C system
(Figure 2.3) the neutral and protective functions should be combined in a single conductor (PEN)
throughout the entire system. Multiple connections to earth are recommended along the PEN
conductor and the source is solidly earthed.
2. Consumers installations
4. Source earth
5. Equipment in installations
6. Exposed conductive parts
PEN
combined protective and neutral conductor
The need for multiple earth connections is because if the neutral becomes open-circuit for any
reason, the exposed-conductive-parts will rise to line to earth voltage in the case of single-phase
connections and a value up to line to earth voltage in the case of three-phase connections,
depending on the degree to which the load is unbalanced.
Therefore PEN conductor must therefore be connected to a number of earth electrodes in the
installation.
Earthing connections must be evenly placed along the length of the PEN conductor to avoid
potential rises in the exposed conductive parts if a fault occurs. This system must not be used for
15
copper cross-sections of less than 10 mm and aluminium cross-sections of less than 16 mm, as
well as downstream of a TNS system (see IEC 60364-5, section 546-2).
2. Consumers installations
4. Source earth
6. PE protective Earth
A TN-S system has a particular disadvantage that in the event that the protective conductor
becomes open circuit, there is no indication that a fault has occurred and installations can
unknowingly be left without an earth. In the event of an earth fault all of the exposedconductive-parts within a consumer installation may be raised to a hazardous potential. Earth
fault protection devices will not operate as there will be no flow of current to earth.
16
2.4.2.3 TN-CS system
In a TN-C-S system, (Figure 2.5) the neutral and protective functions should be combined in a
single conductor (PEN) from the source (solidly earthed) up to the consumers intake. Multiple
connections to earth are recommended along the PEN conductor. Within the consumers
installation the neutral and protective conductors should be kept separate. Means the supply is
TN-C and the arrangement in the installation is TN-S.
This system uses TN-S downstream from a TN-C.
All exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected to the PEN conductor via the main
earthing terminal and the neutral terminal, these terminals being linked together.
2. Consumers
installations
4. Source earth
6. Exposed-conductive-
17
2.4.2.4 Specific characteristics of TN system
Generally speaking, the TN system:
Requires the installation of earth electrodes at regular intervals
throughout the Installation.
Requires that any modification or extension be designed and carried
out by a qualified electrician.
May result, in the case of insulation faults, in greater damage to the
windings of rotating machines.
May, on premises with a risk of fire, represent a greater danger due to
the higher fault currents.
2.4.2.5 Fault Behavior in the TN Earthing System
Figure 2.6 shows the fault behavior in the TN earthing system and the path
of the fault current. When an insulation fault is present, the fault current Id is
only limited by the impedance of the fault loop cables. Short circuit
protection devices (circuit breaker or fuses) generally pro-vide protection
against insulation faults, with automatic tripping according to a specified
maximum breaking time (depending on phase-to-neutral voltage Uo).
18
2.4.2.6 Advantages of the TN Earthing System
The TN earthing system always provides a return path for faults in the LV grid. The
grounding conductors at the transformer and at all customers are interconnected. This
ensures a distributed grounding and reduces the risk of a customer not having a safe
grounding.
Lower earthing resistance of the PEN conductor.
TN system has the advantage that in case of an insulation fault, the fault voltages (touch
voltages) are generally smaller than in TT earthing systems. This is due to the voltage
drop in the phase conductor and the lower impedance of the PEN conductor compared
with the consumer earthing in TT systems.
No overvoltage stress on equipment insulation.
TN-S system has the best Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) properties for 50 Hz
and high frequency currents, certainly when LV cable with a grounded sheath is applied.
In TNS, due to the separation of the neutral and the protection conductor provides a
clean PE (computer systems and premises with special risks).
TN earthing system could work with simple over current protection.
High reliability of disconnection of a fault by overcurrent devices (i.e. fault current is
large enough to activate the over current protection devices).
Faults in the electrical network at a higher voltage level may migrate into the LV grid
grounding causing touch voltages at LV customers.
A fault in the LV network may cause touch voltages at other LV customers.
Potential rise of exposed conductive parts with the neutral conductor in the event of a
break of the neutral network conductor as well as for LV network phase to neutral and
phase to ground faults and MV to LV faults.
The utility is not only responsible for a proper grounding but also for the safety of
customers during disturbances in the power grid
Protection to be fitted in case of network modification (increase of fault loop impedance).
Third and multiples of third harmonics circulate in the protective conductor (TNC
system).
The fire risk is higher and, moreover, it cannot be used in places presenting a fire risk
(TNC system).
TN-C system is less effective for Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) problems.
Upon occurrence of an insulation fault, the short-circuit current is high and may cause
damage to equipment or electromagnetic disturbance.
19
2.4.3 IT system (isolated or impedance-earthed neutral)
In IT system (Figure 2.9) has the source either connected to earth through earthing impedance or
is isolated (Insulated) from the earth. All of the exposed-conductive parts of an installation are
connected to an earth electrode in a similar manner to a TT arrangement.
The IT system can have an unearthed supply, or one which is not solidly earthed but is connected
to earth through current limiting impedance.
5 Equipment in installation
2 Earthing impedance
6 Exposed-conductive-parts
3 Consumers installations
4 Source earth
2.4.3.1 Specific characteristics:
20
If the short-circuit current is not large enough to activate protection against phase-tophase faults, notably if the loads are far away, protection should be ensured by residual
current devices (RCDs).
It is compulsory to install an overvoltage limiter between the MV/LV transformer neutral
point and earth. If the neutral is not accessible, the overvoltage limiter is installed
between a phase and earth. It runs off external over voltages, transmitted by the
transformer, to the earth and protects the low voltage network from a voltage increase due
to flashover between the transformers medium voltage and low voltage windings.
A group of individually earthed loads must be protected by an RCD.
Generally an IT system would be chosen in locations such as medical centres and mines
where the supply has to be maintained even in the event of a fault, and where the
connection with earth is difficult (for example a mobile generator).
The total lack of earth in some cases, or the introduction of current limiting into the earth
path, means that the usual methods of protection will not be effective. For this reason, IT
systems are not allowed in the public supply system in the UK.
21
Source: Comparison the Performances of Three Earthing Systems for Micro-Grid Protection
during the Grid Connected Mode Scientific research paper by Rashad Mohammedeen Kamel,
Aymen Chaouachi, Ken Nagasaka.
2.4.3.2.2 Second fault in the IT earthing system
Figure 2.11 shows the occurrence of the second fault in the IT earthing system. Maximum
disconnection times for the IT earthing system are given in Table 2 (as in IEC 60364 tables 41B
and 48A) [16].
The IT earthing system used when safety of persons and property, and continuity of service are
essentials
2.4.3.4 Disadvantages
22
When an insulation fault in relation to the earth occurs, the voltage of the two unaffected
phases in relation to the earth takes on the value of the phase-to-phase voltage.
Equipment must therefore be selected with this in mind.
In the United States National Electrical Code and Canadian Electrical Code the feed
from the distribution transformer uses a combined neutral and grounding
conductor, but within the structure separate neutral and protective earth
conductors are used (TN-C-S). The neutral must be connected to earth only on the
supply side of the customer's disconnecting switch.
In Argentina, France (TT) and Australia (TN-C-S), the customers must provide
their own ground connections.
In Australia, the Multiple Earthed Neutral (MEN) earthing system is used and is
described in Section 5 of AS 3000. For an LV customer, it is a TN-C system from the
transformer in the street to the premises, (the neutral is earthed multiple times
along this segment), and a TN-S system inside the installation, from the Main
Switchboard downwards. Looked at as a whole, it is a TN-C-S system.
In Denmark the high voltage regulation and Malaysia the Electricity Ordinance
1994 states that all consumers must use TT earthing, though in rare cases TN-C-S
may be allowed (used in the same manner as in the United States).
23
Chapter 3
Installations, Measurements of earth electrodes and
Earth electrode Resistance and Soil Resistivity testing
methods
24
25
Any wire, rod, pipe or metal plate embedded in earth for the purpose of making an effective
connection with the general mass of the earth is known as earth electrode.
The wire which connects overhead earth wire or any other apparatus to be earthed to the earth
electrode is known as earthing lead.
The principle of earthing is to consider the general mass of earth as a reference (zero) potential.
Thus, everything connected directly to it will be at this zero potential or above it by the amount
of the volt drop in the connection system (for example, the volt drop in a protective conductor
carrying fault current). The purpose of the earth electrode is to connect to the general mass of
earth.(IEE)
3.2.1 Earth Electrode Types
Acceptable electrodes are rods, pipes, tapes, wires, plates and structural steelwork buried or
driven into the ground. The pipes of other services such as gas and water must not be used as
earth electrodes although they must be bonded to earth. The sheath and armour of a buried cable
may be used with the approval of its owner and provided that arrangements can be made for the
person responsible for the installation to be told if the cable is changed, for example, for a type
without a metal sheath.
The effectiveness of an earth electrode in making good contact with the general mass of earth
depends on factors such as soil type, moisture content, and so on. A permanently-wet situation
may provide good contact with earth, but may also limit the life of the electrode since corrosion
is likely to be greater. If the ground in which the electrode is placed freezes, there is likely to be
an increase in earth resistance. In most parts of the UK an earth electrode resistance in the range
1 Ohm to 5 Ohms is considered to be acceptable.(tlc)
The resistance of a ground electrode to current has 3 basic components:
1) The resistance of the ground electrode itself and the connections to the electrode.
Rods, pipes, masses of metal, structures, and other devices are commonly used for earth
connections. These are usually of sufficient size or cross-section that their resistance is a
negligible part of the total resistance. (Megger)
2) The contact resistance of the surrounding earth to the electrode.
If the electrode is free from paint or grease, and the earth is packed firmly, contact resistance is
negligible. Rust on an iron electrode has little or no effect; the iron oxide is readily soaked with
water and has less resistance than most soils. But if an iron pipe has rusted through, the part
below the break is not effective as a part of the earth electrode.
3) The resistance of the surrounding body of earth around the ground Electrode.
An electrode driven into earth of uniform resistivity radiates current in all directions. Think of
the electrode as being surrounded by shells of earth, all of equal thickness (see Fig. 3.1). The
26
earth shell nearest the electrode naturally has the smallest surface area and so offers the greatest
resistance. The next earth shell is somewhat larger in area and offers less resistance. Finally, a
distance from the electrode will be reached where inclusion of additional earth shells does not
add significantly to the resistance of the earth surrounding the electrode. It is this critical volume
of soil that determines the effectiveness of the ground electrode and which therefore must be
effectively measured in order to make this determination. Ground testing is distinct when
compared to more familiar forms of electrical measurement, in that it is a volumetric
measurement and cannot be treated as a point property.
The resistance of the surrounding earth will be the largest of the three components making up the
resistance of a ground connection.
Source: A practical guide to earth resistance testing Getting Down to Earth by Megger
The resistance to earth should be no greater than 220 Ohms. The earthing conductor and its
connection to the earth electrode must be protected from mechanical damage and from corrosion.
Accidental disconnection must be avoided by fixing a permanent label as shown in {Fig 3.2}
which reads:
27
Source: Electricians Guide 16th Edition of IEE Regulations.
The quality of an earth electrode (resistance as low as possible) depends essentially on two
factors:
In this type of earthing plate either of copper or of G.I. is buried into the
ground at a depth of not less than 3 meter from the ground level.
An earthing plate either of copper of dimensions 60 cm 60 cm 3 mm or of
galvanized iron of dimensions 60 cm 60 cm 6 mm is buried into the
ground with its face vertical.
The earth plate is embedded in alternative layer of coke and salts for a
minimum thickness of about 15cm.
The earth wire copper wire for copper plate earthing and G.I. wire for G.I.
plate earthing) is securely bolted to an earth plate with the help of bolt nut
and washer made of copper, in case of copper plate earthing and of G.I. in
case of G.I. plate earthing.
28
0.8
L
29
3.3.2 Pipe Earthing
Pipe earthing is best form of earthing and it is cheap also in this system of earthing a GI
pipe of 40 mm diameter and 2.5 meters length is embedded vertically in ground to work
as earth electrode but the depth depends upon the soil conditions.
The earth wire is fastened to the top section of the pipe with nut and bolts.
The pit area around the GI pipe for a distance of 15 cm is filled with salt and coal mixture
for improving the soil conditions and efficiency of the earthing system.
It can take heavy leakage current for the same electrode size in comparison to plate
earthing.
In summer season to have an effective earthing three or four bucket of water is put
through the funnel.
Figure 3.4 below shows pipe earthing detail.
30
31
3.3.3 Rod Earthing
In this system of earthing 12.5mm diameter solid rods of copper 16mm diameter solid
rod of GI or steel or hollow section of 25mm GI pipe of length not less than 3 meters are
driven vertically into the earth.
In order to increase the embedded length of electrode under the ground, which is some
time necessary to reduce the earth resistance to desired value more than one rod section
are hammered one above the other.
This system of earthing is suitable for areas which are sandy in character.
This system of earthing is very cheap.
Figures 3.4 and 3.5 shows typical connection of earth rod.
Figure: 3.5.
Shows Earthing
connection and
connected in
parallel Paths.
Source: low
Voltage Expert
Guide by
Schneider
Electric
Industries.
Rod
Rods
The
resistance R obtained is:
1
R=
nL
approximate
32
In this system of earthing strip electrodes of cross-section not less than 25 mm 1.6 mm
of copper or 25 mm 4 mm of GI or steel are buried in horizontal trenches of minimum
depth of 0.5 meter.
If round conductor are used their cross sectional area shall not be smaller than 3.0 mm 2 if
of copper and 6 mm2 if GI or steel is used.
The length of buried conductor shall be sufficient to give the required earth resistance and
however should not be less than 15 meters.
The electrode shall be as widely distributed as possible in a single straight or circular
trenches radiating from a point.
This type of earthing is used in rocky soil earth bed because at such places excavation
work for plate earthing is difficult.
3.4 Soil Resistivity Effects on Earthing and its Variability with Types of Soil
Soil resistivity directly affects the design of a grounding (earthing) electrode system and is the
prime factor that determines the resistance to earth of a grounding electrode or grounding
electrode system. Therefore, prior to the design and installation of a new grounding electrode
system, the proposed location shall be tested to determine the soil's resistivity (BS 7430:1998,
IEEE STD 81).
Soil resistivity varies widely by region due to differences in soil type and changes seasonally due
to variations in the soil's electrolyte content and temperature. Therefore, it is recommended that
these variations be considered when assessing soil resistivity. To ensure expected grounding
(earthing) electrode system resistance values are achieved throughout the year, worst-case soil
resistivity values should be considered when designing a grounding electrode system.
33
Types of Soil
Soil Resistivity
RE
( m)
30
100
150
300
1000
400
500
1000
30,000
107
Source: (F. Wenner, A Method of Measuring Earth Resistivity; Bull, National Bureau of Standards, Bull
12(4) 258, p. 478-496; 1915/16.
34
contents, Resistivity (-cm)
Source: *From
Moisture
of Earthing(-cm)
Resistivity
Percent
Weight
Higgs,byI.E.E.
Sandy
Loam
736, February 1930
0.0
1,000 x 106
3.4.1.2 Effect of
2.5
Earth Resistivity
150,000
5.0
43,000
Two facts lead to
10.0
conclusion that an
22,000
temperature
will
15.0
resistivity:
(1)
13,000
20.0
soil
mostly
10,000
resistivity, and (2)
30.0
temperature
8,000
decreases
the
The results shown
this. Note that
soil freezes, the
appreciably;
ice
resistivity.
The
continues
to
temperatures
go
Top Soil
An Investigation
Resistance by P.J.
Journal, vol. 68, p.
1,000 x 10 6
Temperature on
250,000
165,000
53,000
21,000
12,000
10,000
Added Salt
Percent by Weight
of Moisture
0.0
0.1
1.0
5.0
10.0
20.0
10,700
1,800
460
190
130
100
the
logical
increase
in
decrease
water present in
determines
the
an increase in
markedly
resistivity of water.
in Table 6 confirm
when water in the
resistivity jumps
has
a
high
resistivity
increase
below freezing.
Table 6: Effect of
3.4.1.3
Because
by
its
Temperature
Resistivity
20
68
7,200
10
50
9,900
32 (water)
13,800
(Ohm-cm)
Seasonal
Resistivity
Variations
in
Earth
35
Temperature and moisture content both become more stable as distance below the surface of the
earth increases. Therefore, in order to be effective throughout the year, grounding electrode
system should be installed as deep as practical. Best results are achieved when ground rods, or
other grounding electrodes, reach permanent moisture as seen from the figure 3.8.
Seasonal Variations
36
37
Source: Practical Grounding Principles and Practices for Securing Safe Dependable Grounds,
Publication of Copperweld Steel Co., Glassport, Pa.
3.4.2.3 Treatment of the Soil
Chemical treatment of soil is a good way to improve earth electrode resistance when you cannot
drive deeper ground rods because of hard underlying rock, for example. It is beyond the scope of
this manual to recommend the best treatment chemicals for all situations. Magnesium sulfate,
copper sulfate, and ordinary rock salt are suitable noncorrosive materials. Magnesium sulfate is
the least corrosive, but rock salt is cheaper and does the job if applied in a trench dug around the
electrode (see Fig. 3.12). It should be noted that soluble sulphates attack concrete, and should be
kept away from building foundations. Another popular approach is to backfill around the
electrode with a specialized conductive concrete. A number of these products, like bentonite, are
available on the market. Chemical treatment is not a permanent way to improve your earth
electrode resistance. The chemicals are gradually washed away by rainfall and natural drainage
through the soil. Depending upon the porosity of the soil and the amount of rainfall, the period
for replacement varies. It may be several years before another treatment is required.
38
39
The earth tester generates an ac signal, which is fed into the system under test. The instrument
then checks the status of the circuits for good connection and noise. If either of these variables is
out of specification then the operator is informed. Having checked that the conditions for test are
met, the instrument automatically steps through its measurement ranges to find the optimum
signal to apply. Measuring the current flowing and the voltage generated the instrument
calculates and displays the system or electrode resistance.
Two most common methods are discussed here for obtaining accurate earth electrode resistance.
40
8. If the three measurements disagree by more than a few percent from their average, then
additional measurement procedures are required (see Measuring Large Electrodes).
Source: from Principles and Practice of Earth Electrode Measurements by Whitham D. Reeve
41
During the last decade, a new technology appeared in the market, in the form of the clamp-on
ground tester. This testing device was developed specifically for improving the speed and
convenience of the ground test. The clamp-on ground tester performs a stakeless test which is a
ground resistance test performed without disconnecting the ground. Based on Ohms Law
(R=V/I), the stakeless test induces a known voltage in a loop circuit that includes ground,
measures resultant current flow and calculates the loop resistance of the circuit. Four pole earth
testers also perform a stakeless test; however they use two clamps, a voltage clamp (V clamp)
and a current clamp (I clamp), and keep the clamps separate to prevent interaction between the
two. The operator must be certain that earth is included in the return loop and be aware that the
tester measures the complete resistance of the path (loop resistance).
42
Figure: 3.16. Shows the Fluke 1630 Earth Ground Clamp for Stakeless Method
Source: www.Fluke.com
3.5.2.1 What is stake-less testing?
Stake-less testing is one of many methods of measuring earth electrode resistance. However what
sets this method apart from all other earth electrode test methods is that it is the only method that
does not require the use of auxiliary test electrodes or test leads. Since many earth electrodes are
in locations surrounded by concrete or tarmac this is of real benefit. The lazy-spike method
works well, but can easily be influenced by steel reinforcement or buried metal pipes.
3.5.2.2 Test Procedure.
This measurement method is innovative and quite unique.
Illustration in figure 3.17 shows a simplified ground distribution system. The equivalent circuit
is shown in Figure A. If R1, R2, R3, Rn are simplified to Req, then only Rg and Req are left in
the circuit (refer to Figure B). If a constant voltage is applied to the circuit, the following
equation is traversed,
V
I
Req=
1
1
Ri
= Rg + Req
, i=1,2, 3, . ,n
If Rg and R1, R2, Rn are similar values, and n is a large number (such as 200), then Req will be
much less than Rg and approaches zero.
Rg >> Req (Reg 0)
43
V
I
1
1 1
1
+ + +
10 10
10
=0.05
44
In this example, we can see that as long as the number of multiple electrodes is large enough, the
equivalent resistance is negligible with respect to the ground resistance to be measured.
V
I
1.
= 2aR
2.
Where
is resistivity of the local soil (-cm)
V is the voltage measured (V)
a is distance between probes(m)
R is resistance determined by the testing device or instrument )
Earth Resistance (Rg) of a single spike, of diameter (d) and driven length (L) driven vertically
into the soil of resistivity (), can be calculated as follows
Rg=
8L
ln
1
2 L
d
3.
45
Where
is the soil resistivity in -m
L is the buried length of the electrode in m
d is the diameter of the electrode in m
As the 4-point indicates, the test consists of 4 pins that must be inserted into the earth. The
outer two pins are called the Current probes, C1 and C2. These are the probes that inject current
into the earth. The inner two probes are the Potential probes, P1 and P2. These are the probes that
take the actual soil resistance measurement.
1. Connect up the equipment as shown in figure 3.18. A four terminal earth resistance tester is
required as it will indicate directly the value of mutual resistance 'R' in ohms. Use test leads with
a cross sectional area of at least 2.5mm2.
2. Ensure the rods are in a straight line with an equal spacing of a meters and inserted to a depth
of not more than b = 1/20th their spacing.
3. Keeping the centre position the same, take resistance measurements at various rod spacings.
Always ensure that the spacing between individual rods are identical.
4. For each new spacings, calculate the apparent soil resistivity using the equation given above.
The depth to which the soil resistivity is measured is approximately the same as the spacing.
5. This type of measurement provides the average resistivity to a depth equal to the probe
separation distance. For example, if the probes are spaced 10 ft (3.05 m), the measurement
provides the average resistivity to a depth of about 10 ft.
46
47
Time:
Location:
SPACING
a
METERS
RESISTANCE READING
R
ohms
APPARENT
RESISTIVITY
= 2aR
ohm-meters
48
CHAPTER 4
Neutral Earthing In Low Voltage Networks
49
4.1 Introduction
The neutral or system earthing, that is to say the connection between the transformer neutral
points and earth, is of high importance to the behavior of a power system during an
unsymmetrical fault. The earthing design is considered the single most important parameter to
determine the earth fault behavior in a power system. A power system can have more than one
neutral point. All neutral points of one system do not have to be connected to earth, using the
same earthing method. Two important functions of neutral earthing are to detect earth faults and
to control the fault current, since large fault currents can cause the potential rise of exposed parts
of the power system to reach dangerous levels.
In practice, the system earthing consists of the connections between transformer neutral points
and earth. The connections, i.e. the neutral point equipment, can differ between different
transformers in the same system. The connections influence the zero sequence equivalent
impedance of the system and by that, the unsymmetrical fault current. The fault current in its turn
determines the voltage at the transformer neutral, i.e. the neutral point displacement voltage. The
system earthing is designed to limit the maximum earth fault current, in order to avoid dangerous
step and touch voltages. At the same time, it must also see to that fault currents and displacement
voltages are high enough to facilitate high-impedance earth fault detection. In order to achieve
this, different earthing designs must be used depending on the capacitive strength of the system.
Since it is the type and the length of the distribution lines that determine the capacitance of the
system, they are of vital importance to the choice of system earthing design.
50
The features of each method can be explained as features based on the zero-sequence circuit.
By using a plain expression for the non-effective grounded system, grounding fault currents
can be reduced considerably, but on the contrary higher temporary over voltages would be
caused during faults. The effective neutral grounded system (solidly grounded system) has
the opposite features.
4.2.1 Standardized Definitions
In order to establish a common perspective, some definition and short terms explanations must
be presented. The definitions are taken from IEEE Green Book.
Ungrounded System
A system, circuit, or apparatus without an intentional connection to ground except, through
potential indicating or measuring devices or other very high impedance devices is said to be
ungrounded system.
Note: Although called ungrounded, this type of system is in reality coupled to ground through the
distributed capacitance of its phase windings and conductors
Grounded system
A system of conductors in which at least one conductor or point (usually the middle wire or
neutral point of transformer or generator winding) is intentionally grounded, either solidly or
through impedance.
Grounded Solidly
Connected directly through an adequate ground connection in which no impedance has been
intentionally inserted.
Resistance Grounded.
Grounded through impedance, the principle element of which is resistance
Inductance Grounded
51
Grounded through impedance, the principle element of which is inductance
Effectively Grounded
Grounded through sufficiently low impedance, such that X o / X1 are positive and less than 3.0
and R0/ X0 is positive and less than 1.0.
4.2.2 Ungrounded Neutral Systems or Isolated Neutral Systems.
A system where all transformer neutrals are unearthed is called an isolated neutral system. The
only intentional connection between an unearthed neutral and earth is via high impedance
equipment for protection or measurement purposes [2] such as surge arresters or voltage
transformers. In a power system there are however always capacitive connections between the
phases and earth. The strength of the capacitive connection depends on type and length of the
power system circuit. Consequently, the ungrounded system is, in reality, a capacitive
grounded system by virtue of the distributed capacitance. Under normal operating conditions,
this distributed capacitance causes no problems. In fact, it is beneficial because it establishes, in
effect, a neutral point for the system; As a result, the phase conductors are stressed at only lineto-neutral voltage above ground. When an earth fault occurs in the system, the capacitance to
earth of the faulty phase is bypassed.
But problems can rise in ground fault conditions. A ground fault on one line results in full lineto-line voltage appearing throughout the system. Thus, a voltage 1.73 times the normal voltage is
present on all insulation in the system.
Figure 4.1 shows an earth fault in a system on one phase in unearthed neutral.
52
Source: System Earthing by Anna Guldbrand Dept. of Industrial Electrical Engineering and
Automation Lund University.
Figure 4.2 shows the Thevenin equivalent of the network with an unearthed neutral.
Figure 4.3 Sequence network equivalent of earth fault in isolated neutral system. The zero
sequence capacitance, Co is equal to the capacitance between phase and earth, Ce.
53
Source: Earth Faults in Extensive Cable Networks Electric Distribution Systems Anna
Guldbrand.
In the case of a solid earth fault, the resistive connections between phase and earth are small
enough to be neglected. The earth fault current, as well as the neutral point displacement voltage,
depends only on the phase to earth voltage and capacitances. Equation 1 gives the, therefore
solely capacitive, earth fault current.
I f I c j 3wc0 E
.. 1
The maximum earth fault current of an isolated system is small providing the systems capacitive
connection to earth is weak. The presence of a fault resistance means a resistive part is added to
the systems equivalent impedance. The reduced fault current will therefore consist of a resistive
and a capacitive part. Equation 2 gives the earth fault current in case of a non-solid earth fault.
I ef I r jI c
R f 3wC0 .E
2
Ir
Ic
1 R f 3wC0
3wC0
.E
1 R f 3wC0
2
The fault current gives rise to a zero sequence voltage across the capacitances. This voltage is
called the neutral point displacement voltage. In case of a solid earth fault this voltage equals the
pre-fault phase to earth voltage of the faulty phase. If the earth fault is non-solid, part of the
phase to earth voltage will be a across the fault resistance. Equation 3 gives the neutral point
displacement voltage.
Un
If
3wC0
. 3
54
Figure 4 shows the pre-fault phase voltages, the neutral point displacement voltage and the
voltage of the healthy phases during a phase-to-earth fault in an isolated system. The voltage
between the neutral point and the healthy phases will remain unchanged during the fault. A
neutral point displacement voltage therefore remands a change in the healthy phase to earth
voltage level. The maximum voltage of the healthy phases is 105 % of the pre-fault phase-tophase voltage.
Figure 4.3, Pre-fault voltages UA, UB, UC, neutral point displacement voltage U0 and voltage of
healthy phases UB, UC during a phase-to-earth fault in an isolated system.
Source: System Earthing by Anna Guldbrand Dept. of Industrial Electrical Engineering and
Automation Lund University.
In isolated neutral systems some phase-to-earth faults are cleared without involving any relay
operation. This is normally a good thing but can, in case of intermittent faults and neutral point
displacement voltage, lead to over voltages and additional faults in the power system.
4.2.2.1 Fault detection
If the unsymmetrical current and the neutral point displacement voltage measured during earth
faults differ sufficiently from normal operation values, they can be used to detect earth faults in
the system. Typically, over voltage relays are used to detect the neutral point displacement
voltage and directional residual over current relays are used for selective fault detection. The
relay settings, i.e. the relay operation thresholds, decide the sensitivity of the earth fault
detection. Since high-impedance faults give relatively low fault currents and neutral point
displacement voltages, high-impedance fault detection requires low relay operation thresholds.
However, there are always natural unbalances in the systems. Natural unbalances give rise to a
55
neutral point displacement voltage and unsymmetrical currents equivalent to those of very highimpedance faults. The voltage and currents can cause unwanted relay operation during normal
operation if the thresholds are set too low.
Earth fault current calculations carried out in Matlab confirm that the difference in earth fault
current between solid earth faults and very high impedance earth faults is small for power
systems with very weak capacitive connection to earth, that is small I C, see Figure 4.4 The flatter
the curve between desirable fault resistance detection level and normal operation asymmetry, the
harder to detect the fault.
Figure: 4.4. Fault current as function of fault resistance, for different capacitive
connections to earth
Source: System Earthing by Anna Guldbrand Dept. of Industrial Electrical Engineering and
Automation Lund University.
4.2.2.2 Advantages of Isolated Systems.
After the first ground fault, assuming it remains as a single fault, the circuit may continue
in operation, permitting continued production until a convenient shut down for
maintenance can be scheduled.
Small earth fault currents, providing limited capacitive connection to earth.
Large share of the faults are self-clearing.
56
In ungrounded system, the available ground fault is very low, but the voltage on normal
line-to-ground insulation is increased from line-to-ground value to a full line-to-line
magnitude.
Strong capacitive connection to earth generates extensive earth fault currents, and is
therefore not a suitable earthing method in systems with extensive use of cable.
Too weak capacitive connection to earth will result in difficulties detecting the earth
faults, it is neither suitable for system earthing in small systems consisting of overhead
lines.
Risk of over voltages. Because of the risk of over voltages the use of isolated neutral is
restricted to low and medium voltage.
The cost of equipment damage.
57
F
igure: 4.6. Thevenin equivalent of a network with a resistance earthed neutral
Source: System Earthing by Anna Guldbrand Dept. of Industrial Electrical Engineering and
Automation Lund University.
Figure 4.7 Sequence network equivalent of an earth fault in a resistance earthed system.
Source: System Earthing by Anna Guldbrand Dept. of Industrial Electrical Engineering and
Automation Lund University.
In a system with very weak capacitive connection to earth the reactance of the earth capacitance
will be large compared to the neutral point resistance. The neutral point resistance, instead as for
the isolated systems the capacitive connection to earth, will therefore determine the maximum
earth fault current. Equation 4 gives the earth fault current in case of a solid earth fault.
58
I ef I R I C
E
j 3wCo E
Re
In overhead line systems with weak capacitive connection to earth, the capacitive shunt reactance
is very large compare to the parallel neutral point resistance and the maximum earth fault current
is therefore determined almost exclusively by the neutral point resistance:
I ef
1
?C
R
E
Re
4
Fault detection
The presence of a fault resistance reduces the earth fault current. Equation 5 gives the earth fault
current in case of a non-solid earth fault, the phase to earth capacitance neglected.
I ef
E
Re R f
5
As mention in previous section, systems with a very weak capacitive connection to earth are
normally resistance earthed. To make the difference between fault currents of isolated and
resistance earthed systems visible, earth fault current calculations have been carried out using
Matlab. The resulting current as functions of fault resistance is shown in Figure 4.8. It is an
obvious difference in earth fault current for fault resistances around 5 k ohm, while the
difference in fault current for very high impedance faults, and hence unsymmetrical condition
during normal operation, is small. If the systems capacitive earth fault current instead is 2 A there
will hardly be any difference in earth fault current of isolated and resistance earthed systems for
fault resistances above a couple of thousands ohm.
59
Figure: 4.8. Fault current as function of fault resistance, for an isolated system Ic and
resistance earthed system Ir.
Source: Lehtonen, M. & Hakola, T.Neutral earthing and power system protection, ISBN 95290-7913-3, ABB Transmit Oy, Vaasa 1996
As in the case of a fault in an isolated system, the fault current gives rise to a
neutral displacement voltage across the systems impedance to earth. In the
case of a resistance earthed system the impedance to earth is the neutral
point resistance in parallel to the phase to earth capacitances. Equation 6
gives the neutral displacement voltage which in case of a solid earth fault
equals the pre-fault phase to earth voltage of the faulted phase.
Un
I ef
2
1
2
R 3wC0
e
. 6
60
In addition, limiting fault currents to predetermined maximum values permits the designer to
selectively coordinate the operation of protective devices, which minimizes system disruption
and allows for quick location of the fault.
The main reasons for limiting the phase to ground fault current by resistance grounding are:
To reduce burning and melting effects in faulted electrical equipment like switchgear,
transformers, cables, and rotating machines.
To reduce mechanical stresses in circuits/Equipments carrying fault currents.
To reduce electrical-shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground fault.
To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard.
To reduce the momentary line-voltage dip.
To secure control of the transient over-voltages while at the same time.
To improve the detection of the earth fault in a power system.
Ground fault current flowing through either type of resistor when a single phase fault to ground
occur will increase the phase-to-ground voltage of the remaining two phases. As a result,
conductor insulation and surge arrestor ratings must be based on line-to-line voltage. This
temporary increase in phase-to-ground voltage should also be considered when selecting two and
three pole breakers installed on resistance grounded low voltage systems.
61
Source: Electrical Engineering Portal (IEEE Standard 141-1993, Recommended Practice for
Electrical Power Distribution for Industrial Plants).
Neither of these grounding systems (low or high resistance) reduces arc-flash hazards associated
with phase-to-phase faults, but both systems significantly reduce or essentially eliminate the arcflash hazards associated with phase-to-ground faults. Both types of grounding systems limit
mechanical stresses and reduce thermal damage to electrical equipment, circuits, and apparatus
carrying faulted current.
The difference between Low Resistance Grounding and High Resistance Grounding is a matter
of perception and, therefore, is not well defined. Generally speaking high-resistance grounding
refers to a system in which the NGR let-through current is less than 50 to 100 A. Low resistance
grounding indicates that NGR current would be above 100 A.
62
Figure: 4.9. Low Resistor neutral Grounding
Source: Electrical Engineering Portal (IEEE Standard 141-1993, Recommended Practice for
Electrical Power Distribution for Industrial Plants).
Since the grounding impedance is in the form of resistance, any transient over voltages are
quickly damped out and the whole transient overvoltage phenomena is no longer applicable.
Although theoretically possible to be applied in low voltage systems (e.g. 480V),significant
amount of the system voltage dropped across the grounding resistor, there is not enough voltage
across the arc forcing current to flow, for the fault to be reliably detected.
For this reason low resistance grounding is not used for low voltage systems (under 1000 volts
line to-line).
Advantages
Disadvantages:
63
The second point is it can control the transient overvoltage phenomenon present on ungrounded
systems if engineered properly.
High Resistance Grounding (HRG) systems limit the fault current when one phase of the system
shorts or arcs to ground, but at lower levels than low resistance systems. In the event that a
ground fault condition exists, the HRG typically limits the current to 5-10A.
Enables high impedance fault detection in systems with weak capacitive connection to
earth
Some phase-to-earth faults are self-cleared.
The neutral point resistance can be chosen to limit the possible over voltage transients to
2.5 times the fundamental frequency maximum voltage.
Limits phase-to-ground currents to 5-10A.
Reduces arcing current and essentially eliminates arc-flash hazards associated with
phase-to-ground arcing current conditions only.
Will eliminate the mechanical damage and may limit thermal damage to shorted
transformer and rotating machinery windings.
Prevents operation of over current devices until the fault can be located (when only one
phase faults to ground).
May be utilized on low voltage systems or medium voltage systems up to 5kV. IEEE
Standard 141-1993 states that high resistance grounding should be restricted to 5kV
class or lower systems with charging currents of about 5.5A or less and should not be
attempted on 15kV systems, unless proper grounding relaying is employed.
64
Conductor insulation and surge arrestors must be rated based on the line to-line voltage.
Phase-to-neutral loads must be served through an isolation transformer.
Disadvantages
Generates extensive earth fault currents when combined with strong or moderate
capacitive connection to earth Cost involved.
Requires a ground fault detection system to notify the facility engineer that a ground fault
condition has occurred.
Figure: 4.10. Earth fault current phasors of a slightly over compensated power system
Source: Source: System Earthing by Anna Guldbrand Dept. of Industrial Electrical Engineering
and Automation Lund University.
65
The neutral point reactor is often combined with a neutral point resistor. In a resonant earthed
system the resulting reactive part of the earth fault current is too small for the relay protection to
measure. By using a neutral point resistance a measurable resistive earth fault current is created
as explained in the section about resistance earthed systems. In addition to this, there will always
be active losses in the neutral point generator, which contributes to the active part of the earth
fault current.
Typical examples of power systems with strong capacitive connection to earth, suitable for
resonant earthing, are systems consisting of an extensive amount of cables. If the high capacitive
earth fault current of such systems is not compensated, the risk of dangerously high potential rise
of exposed parts of the power system is evident.
Figure 4.11 shows an earth fault in a system with a resonance earthed neutral. Figure 4.12 shows the
corresponding Thevenin equivalent.
66
Figure: 4.12 Thevenin equivalent of a network with a resonant earthed neutral
Source: Source: System Earthing by Anna Guldbrand Dept. of Industrial Electrical Engineering
and Automation Lund University.
Figure 4.13 shows the corresponding sequence network equivalent in a system with negligible
series impedance.
Figure 4.12 Sequence network equivalents of earth fault in resonance earthed system.
Source: Earth Faults in Extensive Cable Networks Electric Distribution Systems by Anna
Guldbrand.
The earth fault current is made up of the capacitive current due to the phase to earth capacitances
of the system, the inductive current generated in the neutral point reactor, the resistive current
due to losses in the reactor parallel to the neutral point resistor. Equation 7 gives the single-phase
earth fault current in case of a solid earth fault.
I ef I RL I R 0 I L I C
67
I ef
RL R0 E
RL . R0
j. 3wC0 E
wC
7
In case of complete compensation the solid earth fault current, given by Equation 8, is solely
resistive.
I ef
RL R0 E
RL .R0
. 8
In case of complete compensation the earth fault current is solely resistant as given by Equation
9.
I ef
RL R0 E
RL . R0 RL . R f R f . R0
. 9
Equation 10 the neutral point displacement voltage,
Eno
I ef
2
1
1
R 3wCo wL
10
4.2.4.1 Petersen Coils
A Petersen Coil is connected between the neutral point of the system and earth, and is rated so
that the capacitive current in the earth fault is compensated by an inductive current passed by the
Petersen Coil. A small residual current will remain, but this is so small that any arc between the
faulted phase and earth will not be maintained and the fault will extinguish. Minor earth faults
such as a broken pin insulator, could be held on the system without the supply being interrupted.
Transient faults would not result in supply interruptions.
Although the standard Peterson coil does not compensate the entire earth fault current in a
network due to the presence of resistive losses in the lines and coil, it is now possible to apply
residual current compensation by injecting an additional 180 out of phase current into the
neutral via the Peterson coil. The fault current is thereby reduced to practically zero. Such
systems are known as Resonant earthing with residual compensation, and can be considered as
a special case of reactive earthing.
68
Resonant earthing can reduce EPR to a safe level. This is because the Petersen coil can often
effectively act as a high impedance NER, which will substantially reduce any earth fault
currents, and hence also any corresponding EPR hazards (e.g. touch voltages, step voltages and
transferred voltages, including any EPR hazards impressed onto nearby telecommunication
networks).
Advantages of resonant earthed systems:
Small reactive earth fault current independent of the phase to earth capacitance of the
system.
Enables high impedance fault detection.
Disadvantages
Figure: 4.18. Earth fault in solidly earthed system and corresponding equivalent circuit
Source: System Earthing by Anna Guldbrand Dept. of Industrial Electrical Engineering and
Automation Lund University.
69
70
The main advantage of solidly earthed systems is low over voltages, which makes the
earthing design common at high voltage levels (HV).
Disadvantages
This system involves all the drawbacks and hazards of high earth fault current: maximum
damage and disturbances.
There is no service continuity on the faulty feeder.
The danger for personnel is high during the fault since the touch voltages created are
high.
Applications
71
Figure: 4.19a. 3 Auxiliary transformers/ Wye Broken Delta Figure: 4.19b Zig-Zag
Figure: 4.19. Transformer Earthing
Source: Baldwin Bridger, High-Resistance Grounding, IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, Vol. IA-19, NO.1, January/February 1983.
The resistor inserted in the "broken delta" leg is reflected to the primary underground fault
conditions and limits the current to a nominal value as dictated by its design. Also, sensing the
voltage drop across the resistor (device 59G) can be used to signal an alarm advising that a
ground fault has occurred. The three lights across each individual transformer will constitute a
version of the normal ground detection scheme currently employed on ungrounded systems.
High resistance grounding can also be achieved alternately by a zigzag grounding transformer as
shown in Fig. 4.19b. The scheme in Fig. 9a uses the flux in the transformer's iron core to produce
secondary voltages with their respective phase relationships. With the zigzag transformer, the
windings are connected in a zigzag fashion such that the flux in the iron is vectorially summed
opposed to vectorially summing the secondary voltages. Consequently it behaves on the system
just as the three auxiliary transformers do. It appears "transparent" to the system except
underground fault conditions. The resistor makes it resistance grounded.
Advantages of deriving a neutral:
72
High resistance grounded systems are not practicable above 5 kV until tripping is
provided.
The existence of neutral earth voltage makes unbalance in three phase voltages for three phase
customers and reduction of phase to neutral voltage for single phase customers.
Multi-grounded three-phase four-wire service is widely adopted in modern power distribution
systems due to having lower installation costs and higher sensitivity of fault protection than
three-phase three-wire service.
73
74
Figure 4.21 shows single grounded neutral which is different from multi grounded system.
Figure shows the neutral is also connected to earth at source side only, but the neutral conductor
is extended along with the phase conductors. The configuration shown in figure allows electrical
loads, transformers to be placed between any of the three phase conductors, phase-to-phase
and/or phase-to-neutral.
4.4 Conclusion
Resistance Grounding Systems have many advantages over solidly grounded systems including
arc-flash hazard reduction, limiting mechanical and thermal damage associated with faults, and
controlling transient over voltages.
75
High resistance grounding systems may also be employed to maintain service continuity and
assist with locating the source of a fault.
76
5.1 Introduction
If the Neutral Conductor is opened, broke or lost at either of its source side
(Distribution Transformer, Generator) or at Load side (Distribution Panel of
Consumer), the distribution systems neutral conductor will float or lose its
reference ground Point. The floating neutral condition can cause voltages to
float to a maximum of its Phase volts RMS relative to ground, subjecting to
its unbalancing load Condition.
Floating Neutral conditions in the power network have different impact
depending on the type of Supply, type of installation and Load balancing in
the Distribution.
Broken Neutral or Loose Neutral would damage to the connected load or
create hazardous Touch Voltage at exposed conductive parts.
Note: Here we are trying to understand the Floating Neutral Condition in T-T
distribution System.
77
The impacts of floating neutral are dependent on the position in the
power system where the neutral is broken.
78
Source: V Cohen, 2002, Application Guide for the protection of L.V
Distribution Systems, CBI Ltd, Johannesburg, South Africa, 20.1-20.7
Normal Condition
From figure 5.1, it can be seen that under normal conditions, the
current flow from the phases to the load and back to the source via
neutral.
In a balanced system, one phase matches the other two phases,
resulting in no current through neutral. Any imbalance of Load will
result in a current flow on neutral, so that the sum of zero is
maintained.
Floating Neutral Condition
From figure 5.2, it can be seen that under floating neutral
conditions. When the neutral is broken the current from red phase
will go back to the yellow or blue phase resulting in line to line
voltage between the loads. Similarly the same will applies for the
other phases.
Neutral Point is not at ground Level but it Float up to Line Voltage.
This situation can be very dangerous and customers may suffer
serious electric shocks if they touch something where electricity is
present.
Some customers will experience over voltage and others will
experience under voltage.
79
Fi
gure 5.2: Three Phase Transformer with broken neutral condition
Source: V Cohen, 2002, Application Guide for the protection of L.V
Distribution Systems, CBI Ltd, Johannesburg, South Africa, 20.1-20.7
Broken neutrals can be difficult to detect and in some instances may
not be easily identified. Sometimes broken neutrals can be indicated
by flickering lights.
80
5.3.2.2 Services Conductors
A broken service conductor will only result in loss of supply at the
customer point; there will be no damage to customers equipment.
5.3.3 Loss of neutral at Pole Top Box
If the neutral conductor is broken at pole top box, there impact on
customer is that there will be no supply. The fault condition will not
damage the customers equipment.
81
Source: CIRED Impact of Floating Neutral in Distribution Systems, 19th
International Conference on Electricity Distribution paper 0300 by
Mashanghu Hudson Xivambu Eskom-South Africa.
Poor workmanship of Installation and technical staff also one of the
reasons of Neutral Failure.
5.4.2 Low Voltage conductors
The loss of the neutral on low voltage conductors is very common.
Investigations reveal that the causes of neutral failures on LV
conductors are the following.
5.4.2.1 Incorrect application of Insulation Piercing Connectors
IPCs are the connectors that are used to connect insulated
conductors without removing the insulation. It is important that the
connection must be very tight to ensure that the connector is able
to go through the insulation and make contact with conductors. If
that is not done, a hot connection will develop resulting in
conductor failure.
Two IPCs per connection are used to ensure that the integrity of the
connection is maintained at all times as the consequence of loss of
neutral is detrimental to our end users.
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Figure 5.4 above shows an IPC connected on bare and Insulated neutral
conductors. The IPC head is not shared off which means that the connection
between the connector and conductor is not very good. One has been used
instead of two and that increases the risk of failure.
. (a)
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In Overloaded Unbalancing Network lot of current will flow in Neutral which break Neutral at
its weakest point.
5.4.4 Shared neutrals
Some buildings are wired so that two or three phases share a single neutral. The original idea was
to duplicate on the branch circuit level the four wire (three phases and a neutral) wiring of panel
boards. Theoretically, only the unbalanced current will return on the neutral. This allows one
neutral to do the work for three phases. This wiring shortcut quickly became a dead-end with the
growth of single-phase non-linear loads. The problem is that zero sequence current
From nonlinear loads, primarily third harmonic, will add up arithmetically and return on the
neutral. In addition to being a potential safety problem because of overheating of an undersized
neutral, the extra neutral current creates a higher Neutral to ground voltage.
This Neutral to ground voltage subtracts from the Line to Neutral voltage available to the load. If
youre starting to feel that shared neutrals are one of the worst ideas that ever got translated to
copper.
5.4.6 Poor Maintenance and Workmanship Practices
Normally LV network are mostly not given attention by the Maintenance Staff. Utilities tends to
concentrate more on HV networks, Substations and medium voltage networks and ignores the
LV networks where the million of end users are connected to. Also bad workmanship was found
to be one of the causes of neutral conductor failures in LV networks.
5.4.7 Conductor Theft
There is an increase in number of failures that result to conductor theft for resale as scrap metal.
This leaves the customers without power and poses a safety risk to the community.
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The problem can be greatly reduced by ensuring discipline during network design and
construction. Doubling of IPCs per neutral connection will ensure that integrity of the neutral
connection as the chances of simultaneous failure of both are IPCs is very low.
Good maintenance practices on low voltage networks can also help to identify and potential
problems before they arise.
p 1
(1)
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Where IP represents total phase currents of the main transformer that feeds the consumer feeders
and NC is the neutral current of main transformer.
In the proposed radial distribution system shown below in figure 5.6, a load switch selector to
each phase is connected to ensure that load is always balanced at all times.
The proposed functionality of the unit in figure 5.6 is such that each single
phase load is connected to the three phase feeder via a switch selector. Only
one phase can supply the load at a given period depending on the load
balancing of the three phases.
Given the topology of switch selector, the equations for phase current can be
written as:
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3
. (2)
I ph 2 k swk 2i I ki I ph 2( k 1) ,
i 1
.. (3)
3
I ph 3k swk 3i I ki I ph 3( k 1) ,
i 1
.. (4)
I ph1k I ph 2 k
I ph 3k
Where
,
and
represent the currents (phasors) per phase (1,2and 3) after the k th
swk 11
swk 33
point of connection,
, ..,
are different switches ( the value of 1 means that switch is
closed and 0 means that it is open). The constraints of only allowing one breaker in each
equations (2) to (4) to be closed can be written as following:
3
sw
k 1i
i 1
1 0
.......... (5)
sw
k 2i
i 1
1 0
(6)
sw
i 1
k 3i
1 0
.
(7)
To minimize the neutral current, the objective of this new algorithm is to minimize the difference
( I ph1k ( i 1,2,3) ) :
of the rms value of the phase currents
Minimize
5.5.3 Protection
I ph1k I ph 2 k I ph1k I ph 3k I ph 2 k I ph 3k
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Simply use ELCB, RCBO or 4 Pole Circuit Breaker in the three phase supply system, the unit
monitors the current flow in neutral conductor and as soon as neutral opens or break it will trip
the complete supply without damaging to the system.
An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a device used to directly detect currents leaking to
earth from an installation and cut the power and mainly used in TT earthing systems.
There are two types of ELCBs:
1. Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (voltage-ELCB)
2. Current Earth Leakage Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (Current-ELCB).
5.6 Conclusion:
A Floating Neutral (Disconnected Neutral) fault condition is VERY UNSAFE because If
Appliance is not working and someone who does not know about the Neutral Floating could
easily touch the Neutral wire to find out why appliances does not work when they are plugged
into a circuit and get a bad shock. Single phase Appliances are design to work its normal Phase
Voltage when they get Line Voltage Appliances may Damage .Disconnected Neutral fault is a
very unsafe condition and should be corrected at the earliest possible by troubleshooting of the
exact wires to check and then connect properly.
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