1

MSc Lecture 9:

Smoke

Professor W.K. Chow

Department of Building Services Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hong Kong, China
27 Oct 2015
MScFDSmoke15a.ppt

Outline of this lecture

What is Smoke?
Smoke Production
Smoke Density
Visibility
Smoke Toxicity

Smoke Movement in Buildings

Brief Introduction to Smoke Management System

(1) What is Smoke?

Smoke is defined in BS4422: Part 1 as :
Visible suspension in atmosphere of solid and/or liquid
particles resulting from the products of combustion or
pyrolysis.

There are 3 parts:

hot vapours and gases given off by the burning

material.

unburned fuel; might be of light colour to black and

sooty.

air entrained.

Fuel

+ Air Product

(Unburnt Fuel UF)

(Combustion Product CP)

M
M

M
Smoke
CP
UF
Air
The smoke density and toxicity depend on the
material which is burning.
Total volume (quantity) of the smoke produced
depends on the size of the fire and the building
in which it occurs,
i.e. Air entrainment.

(2) Smoke Production

Burning solid materials will generate hot and
volatile combustible vapours.
Those will be ignited above the fire and give a
column of flames and hot smoky gases with density
lower than that of the ambient air.
It will rise and entrain the surrounding air and form
a plume.
Thermal Column
Oxygen can be supplied for combusting the hot
gases to produce flame.

C
CO2
CO
O2
N2
H2O

Thermal
radiation

O2N2

Smoke

O2N2

O2N2

O2N2

Air

O2N2

Fuel
Vapour

Combustion zone (Hydroxylation: Chain reactions)

Liquid
fuel

Pyrolysis zone

Anatomy of a fire. (Courtesy of Walter M. Haessler.)

O2N2

If the temperature is not high enough, combustion is

incomplete.
Dispersed solid particles, and the unburnt shining
carbon particles (soot) formed.

A soot particle
Soot:

Shining carbon
particles
Yellow colour

Agglomerate
size is 6 mm
size of the agglomerate is about 6 mm

Individual
spherules
~ 0.3 mm

Transmission electron micrograph of a soot particle. The

overall size of the agglomerate is about 6 mm, and the
diameter of the individual spherules is about 0.3 mm.
[from Fire Protection Engineering Handbook (1988)]

 The following is a spectrum showing the particle size distribution:

-4

5 10 mm
Smoke

(e.g. Volatiles from burning wood; Soot)

Visible

0.3 mm

DUST GRIT
Smoke Powder
3
76 mm 10 mm

Pre-ignition
Particles

(e.g. CH4 , CO)

-4

10 mm

10 mm
-3

-2

10 mm

0.1mm

1mm

10 mm

Detection methods:
Detection by:

Ionization Detector
Operating Range

1. Particle counting
2. Modified light scatter
detector

3. CO detector
4. Semi-conductor detector
(Flammable gas detector)

Ionization
Detector
Sensitive
(Turbulent
atmosphere)

Obscuration
Detector Sensitive,
Light Scatter
Detector Sensitive
(Quiescent atmosphere)

Diameter

10

The volume of the unburnt fuel gases is relatively

small when compared with the total volume of
entrained air.
Therefore, the smoke production rate can be taken
as the air entrainment rate in the thermal column.

M
M

M
Air
CP
UF

M
~
M
Smoke
Air

11

Smoke layer

Height of
clear layer

Entrained air
y
Flames in
smoke plume

Flammable vapours
burning

Solid fuel decomposing giving off flammable vapours

Production of smoke in a fire

12

Axisymmetric plume

Very
small fire

Equivalent
point source

[from Butcher, E.G. & Parnell, A. C. , Smoke Control in Fire Safety Design]

13

Transient ceiling jet flow in a room and corridor

Alpert, R., Ceiling Jet Flows, SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering. Quincy,
Mass. : National Fire Protection Association ; Bethesda, Md. : Society of Fire
Protection Engineers, 3rd ed. (2002).

14

Fire with large diameter (UK equation)

depends on:
The rate of air entrainment M
Air

perimeter of the fire

heat output of the fire
effective height of the column of hot gases above the fire
(i.e. y in the above diagram).

M
Smoke ~ M Air
-1) can be estimated

The rate of smoke production M

(kgs
Smoke
by:
T
3/2

0.096
P
r
y
(g
Smoke
o

where

P:
y:
ro:
To:
T:
g:

o 1/2

...(1)

Perimeter of fire (m)

Distance between floor and bottom of smoke layer (m)
Density of the ambient air (1.22 kg m-3 at 17C)
Absolute temperature of ambient air (290 K)
Absolute temperature of flames in smoke plume (K)
9.81 ms-2

15

If

= 1100 K, then

3/2

=
0.188
Py
M
Smoke

...(2)

[ However, if T= 400 K M= 0.31 P y3/2 ! ]

As the fire grows, P increases and hence

increases.
M
Smoke
Therefore, fire size has to be limited.
For example, sprinklers are installed to limit the
fire size to within a 3 m 3 m square.

16

Balcony spill plume: More complicated

Entrainment
above balcony

17

Smoke
layer

Spill
plume

18

Smoke-logging of upper levels in a two-storey mall system

Good design prevents smoke spread into upper levels

[from Butcher, E.G. & Parnell, A. C. , Smoke Control in Fire Safety Design]

19

(3) Smoke Density

Smoke density is a measure of quantity of
smoke in air.
Smoke will reduce visibility and hence give
psychological effect.
The reduction in visibility depends on:

the composition and concentration of the smoke,

particle size distribution,
nature of illumination and
the physical and mental state of the observer.

20

Smoke density is difficult to measure but it is

possible to do so by studying the attenuation of a
light beam, i.e. reduction in intensity after passing
through smoke.

This can be expressed as:

Light obscuration
Optical density
Smokiness

21

Light obscuration
A measure of the attenuation of a light beam while
passing through smoke.
A beam of incident parallel light of intensity Io is
reduced to Ix after passing through a path length x of
smoke.
Source

Io
x
Ix

The light obscuration Sx expressed as a percentage is:

Io - I x
Sx (
) 100 %
Io
or
Ix
Sx 100 (1 - )
...(3)
Io

22

Optical density
Lamberts Law of Absorption:

I -I

x x +x

I Ix

The reduction of light after passing through smoke will obey a

logarithmic law.
This can be used to define the optical density ODx:

ODx log10

IO
Ix

...(4)

ODx of 1.0 means that 90 % of the incident light has been

obscured.

ODx l

IO
log10 1
Ix
IO
10
Ix

I x 0.1 IO

23

Putting Sx from equation (3) to equation (4):

Equation (3): Sx 100 (1 - I x )

Io

Put in (4):

Ix
S
1- x
Io
100
Io
100

Ix
100 - Sx

100
ODx log10
100 - Sx
log10 100 - log10 (100 - Sx )
2 - log10 (100 - Sx )

ODx = 2 - log10 (100 - Sx)

...(5)

24

Further, Beers Law was modified by Rasbash from

analytical chemistry to obtain an expression relating
optical density with the path length x and the
concentration of smoke c:
ODx

x c

ODx

= xcB

...(6)

where B is a constant which depends on the nature of

the smoke.

25

Combining Lambert's Law in equation (4) and

modified Beer's Law from (6):
ODx log10 (

Io
) x cB
Ix

This can be expressed as:

Io
log e ( )
Ix
x cB
2.303
or
Ix
e - 2.303xcB
Io

...(7)

26

Smokiness
ODx
Smokiness
x
Io
1
log10 ( )
x
Ix

cB

...(8)

It is measured in dBm-1 by multiplying by 10.

Therefore
Smokiness

27

(4) Visibility
Subjective feeling of how far people can see through
smoke.
It depends on:
(i) Smoke:

colour of smoke, size of particles,

smoke density, physiological effect
of the smoke.

(ii) Environment: size and colour of the object being

observed; illumination of object.
(iii)Observer:

Physical and mental state of observer.

28

Smoke produced by burning various

building materials
Material

Thickness
(mm)

Visibility in metres when sample

is burnt in a 34 m3 room
Flaming
combustion
of sample

Plasterboard
Fibre insulating board
Chipboard
Birch plywood
Hardboard
Melamine faced hardboard
PVC faced hardboard
Rigid PVC
Polyurethane sandwich board
Glass fibre reinforced polyester
(flame retardant)

9.5
10.7
12.7
6.4
3.7
3.2
5.7
1.6
13
3.3

17
18
2.7
4.2
4.2
4
3
2.8
4.7
1.5

Smouldering
combustion of
sample

15
2.7
1.5
2.3
2.2
3.3
3.8
3
4
1.6

 The relation between visibility and optical density has been

found in the literature.

A
OD/x Multiply by 10 to give dB/m
Comparison of visibility measurements.
[from Butcher, E.G. & Parnell, A. C. , Smoke Control in Fire Safety Design]

29

30

The approximate line A:

Optical density per metre is 1.0 (m-1), the visibility is 1 m; and for
smoke with an optical density per metre of 0.1, the visibility is
10 m.
Fitted as a simple equation:
(a)

For front illumination

1
Visibility (in metres)
optical density per metre
(b)

For rear illumination

Visibility (in metres)

2.5
optical density per metre

Visibility can also be measured in ob which is 10 m visibility with

diffused light.
dB/m : Obscura (or ob in Edinburgh)
1 ob 10 m Visibility

OD of 0.1 10 dB/m 10 m Visibility

31

(5) Smoke Toxicity

Smoke contains toxic gases such as:
Toxic gas or vapour
Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen oxides
Hydrogen cyanide
Sulphur dioxide
Halogen acids (hydrochloric
acid, hydrobromic acid,
hydrofluoric acid, phosgene)
Ammonia
Aldehydes
Benzene
Antimony compounds
Isocyanates

Material
All combustible materials containing carbon.
Celluloid, polyurethanes.
Wool, silk, leather, plastics containing nitrogen.
Cellulosic materials. Cellulosic plastics, rayon.
Rubber.
Polyvinyl chloride, fire retardant plastics,
fluorinated plastics.
Melamine, nylon, urea formaldehyde resins.
Phenol formaldehydes, wood, nylon. Polyester
resins.
Polystyrene.
Some fire retardant plastics.
Polyurethane foams.

32

The maximum acceptable concentrations of toxic gas

for prolonged exposure
Compound

Maximum allowable concentration for prolonged exposure

(parts per million)

Concentration dangerous for

short period exposure
(parts per million)

Carbon dioxide
Ammonia
Carbon monoxide
Benzene
Hydrogen sulphide
Hydrocyanic acid
Hydrochloric acid
Sulphur dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Hydrofluoric acid
Chlorine
Phosgene
Phosphorous trichloride
Acrolein
Bromine

5000
100
100
25
20
10
5
5
5
3
1
1
0.5
0.5
0.1

100000
4000
4000
12000
600
300
1500
500
120
100
50
25
70
20
50

33

Toxic potency data

LT50

IT50

LT50 is the mean IT50 is the timetime-to-death.

toincapacitation,
where
concentration is
fixed.

EC50

LC50

IC50

EC50 is the
LC50 is used to
IC50 is the
effect
denote the
concentration
concentration concentration of necessary to
which is used materials or fire
incapacitate
for any
effluent that
50 % of the
observed
produces death
animals for a
response of the in 50 % of the
specified
animal.
animals for a
exposure time.
specified
exposure time.

34

NFPA269 Standard Test Method for Developing Toxic

Potency Data for Use in Fire Hazard Modeling and
ASTM E 1678 Standard Test Method for Measuring
Smoke Toxicity for Use in Fire Hazard Analysis,

35

Smoke toxicant
Smoke toxicants
Asphyxiants
CO

HCN

Irritants
CO2

Central nervous system

depression
Loss of consciousness
Ultimately death

HBr

Halogen acid

Organic

HCl

Acrolein

(in fire retardants)

Sensory irritation

Irritation of eyes

Pulmonary irritation

Upper respiratory tract

coughing

36

Calculation of LC50
n

ci
dt

i 1 t 0 ct i

FED

21 - [O2 ]
m[CO]
[ HCN ]
[ HCl ]
[ HBr ]

[CO2 ] - b 21 - LC50O2 LC50 HCN LC50 HCl LC50 HBr

FED

21 - [O2 ] [ HCN ]
m[CO]
[ HCl ]
[ HBr ]

[CO2 ] - b 21 - 5.4% 150 ppm 3700 ppm 3000 ppm

FED

LC50

m[CO]
21 - [O2 ] [ HCN ] [ HCl / HBr ]

[CO2 ] - b 21 - 5.4% 150 ppm

3800 ppm
specimen mass loss
FED x chamber volume

37

Experiment

38

Animal exposure chamber

Door for cleaning
Animal exposure ports

Chinmey
Thermal couple
Electric Heater
Test Specimen
Combustion cell

39

Preliminary tests on 9 materials

40

Result of LC50 calculated

Material
Pine

LC50(gm-3)
50.7

False ceiling

84.4

PMMA
Beech

255.5
147.4

Beech with protective coating

PVC
Maple
Teak
Oak

136.5
30.8
107.2
98.8
108.3

41

(6) Smoke Movement in Buildings

Normal air movement:
Stack effect
Wind-induced airflow
Mechanical air handling unit

Buoyancy of smoke:
differences in densities between hot gases
heated by the fire and ambient air:
ro To = r T
buoyancy per unit volume = (ro - r)g

42

Stack Effect (Chimney Effect)

Air movement resulting from a temperature difference
(T) between inside and outside of building
T rair

Pressure gradient exists between inside and outside

dp
( )0
dy

Warm

Po - rgh
r p
Po

Cold

43

Inside

Outside

Ti r1i P1i

To ro1 Po1

P o: Reference pressure

44

1i Ti 1o To 273 273

...(9)

P1i Po P1i / y 0 - 1i g y

...(10)

P1o Po P1o / y 0 - 1o g y

...(11)

P P1i - P1o
- r1i g y r1o g y P/ y 0
i
i Ti
- r1 g y r1 g y P/ y 0
To
1 1
- r1i Ti ( - ) g y P/ y 0
Ti To

1 1
P - r273 273 ( - ) g y P/ y0
Ti To

45

May change the co-ordinate y to a system from the

plane with P/y=0 = 0, i.e. neutral plane
h
P = 0
Neutral plane

1 1
P - r 273 273 ( - ) g h
Ti To
1 1
3.46 103 ( - ) h
Ti To
If

To 273 K, Ti 293 K, h 30m

P 26Pa

Ti>T0
Pin>Pout
P

46

Air movement due to stack effect

NORMAL STACK

REVERSE STACK

Hot
Cold

Cold

ARROW SHOWING DIRECTION OF AIR FLOW

Hot

47

Wind effect
Wind pressure exerted on a surface:

1
Pw C w ro Vw2
2
Vw : Wind speed
o : Outside air density : 1.2 kgm-3
Cw : wind pressure coefficient
-0.8
to
0.8
(Leeward)
(Windward)

48

Wind pressure coefficients (Cw) around a typical tower block:

2-dimensional distribution

49

(7) Smoke Management System

Basic principles for smoke control:
High speed air.
Pressure
difference
across
(Pressurization or depressurization).

barrier.

Smoke extraction : Natural or mechanical

Dilution of smoke : give better visibility

Visibility through smoke can be improved by

dilution ventilation in smaller compartments.

But this is not practical for big malls as:

diluting smoke by a factor of 100 in order to
get a safe level of visibility (~ 8 m).

50

Pressure difference across a barrier of a smoke control system

preventing smoke infiltration to the high-pressure side of the barrier.

Airflow preventing smoke

backflow in a corridor.

51

(a)

1.5 ms-1

(b)

1.8 ms-1

(c)

1.85 ms-1

(d)

1.9 ms-1

(1.8MW)
FDS simulation by Hu, L.H., PhD Student

52

High speed air

Critical Velocity is determined from the maximum
speed of the ceiling jet:

gHQ 1/3
Vc = 0.61 (
)
r C p ATf
ceiling jet
H: Height of corridor (or tunnel)
Q: Heat power
Tf: Hot air temp
A: Cross sectional area

Vc

Vc

H
Vair
Q

Vair >> Vc for controlling smoke

53

Back-layering

High V air

No smoke backflow with high air

velocity through an open doorway.

Low V air

Smoke backflow against low air

velocity through an open doorway.

54

References
1. Klote, J.K. and Milke, J.A., Design of smoke
management systems, ASHRAE, SFPE, 1992.
2. NFPA 92, Guide for smoke management systems
in malls, atria, and large areas, National Fire
Protection Association, 2012.

3. Li, Y.Z., Huo R. and Chow, W.K., On the

operation time of horizontal ceiling vent in an
atrium, Journal of Fire Sciences, Vol. 20, No. 1,
p. 37-51, 2002.