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Thermal Radiation in Room Fires

Contents

Introduction
Nature of thermal radiation
Radiative heat transfer
Enclosure application
References

Introduction

Estimate Radiative Emission from a high temperature


surface and medium

Estimate Radiative absorption by a surface or a body of


external radiation

e.g. radiative energy loss from a fire, burning surface or a layer


of smoke

radiative energy detection by a detector, radiative heating of a


sprinkler head

Effects of thermal radiation on man

Physiological effects

Heat strain
Circulatory failure or heat stroke

Pathological effects
3

Time to pain threshold for a range of thermal irradiances

Irradiance, kWm-2

Time to pain threshold, s

4.2

13.0

5.2

10.0

6.3

8.0

8.4

5.5

14.5

3.0

Ref: Stoll, A.M. 1967, Heat transfer in biotechnology- the role of the skin in heat
Transfer , vol.4, p.115-114.
4

Times to unbearable pain for a range of thermal irradiances

Irradiance, kWm-2

Time to unbearable pain,


s

3.7

20.0

6.2

10.0

6.7

5.0

18.0

Ref: Buettner, K, 1957, Heat transfer and safe exposure times for man in extreme
Thermal environments, ASME paper no. 57-sa-20.
5

Brief Review of Heat Transfer


Mechanisms in Fire

Conduction
Convection
Thermal Radiation (Radiative Heat Transfer)

Conduction

Solid

Energy is carried through the atomic lattice by free


electrons
excitation of vibration energy levels for interatomic
bonds

gas and liquid

energy is transferred from molecule to molecules


through collision

faster molecule lose some kinetic energy to slower


molecule
7

Conduction

Fouriers law

Temperature

T
q x k
x
Conducted heat flux
in x direction

Thermal
conductivity
8

Conduction

Conduction is a short range phenomena


The average distance between molecular
collisions ( mean free path for collision) is
small (10-10 m)

Convection

Similar to conduction
many of the molecules with raised kinetic energy
are carried away by the flow
are replaced by colder fluid (low kinetic energy
molecules) --> increased energy transfer rate
need the presence of a medium for energy transfer

10

Convection

Convective heat flux can be calculated:


(linearly proportional to temperature difference)

q h(T T )
Convective heat
flux

Heat transfer
coefficient
Reference temperature
11

Brief Review of Thermal Radiation

What is thermal radiation ?


When bodies are heated, they emit radiant energy
whose quantity and quality depend on the
thermodynamic temperature T of the body.
For any given body that radiation which depends only
on temperature is known as thermal radiation.
It is excited by the thermal agitation (thermal motion)
of molecules or atoms, and its spectrum is continuous
from the far infrared to the extreme ultraviolet.

12

Brief Review of Thermal Radiation

What is radiation ?

The emission or transmission of energy in the


form of waves through space or through a
material medium; the term also applies to the
radiated energy itself.
Any form of energy propagated as rays, waves,
or a stream of particles but especially light and
other electromagnetic waves and the emissions
from radioactive substances.
13

Brief Review of Thermal Radiation

Radiative heat transfer rates are proportional to 4th (or


higher) power of temperature
becomes more important with rising temperature levels

q (T T )
4

Higher
power
of
temperature

Radiative heat
flux
14

Brief Review of Thermal Radiation

A long-range phenomenon

the mean free path of a photon (the average


distance a photon travels before interacting with
a molecule) can be

10-10m(absorption in metal) or 10+10m (suns rays


hitting earth)

difficult to measure
complicated by the behaviour of the radiative
properties of material
15

Brief Review of Thermal Radiation

All radiative properties ( in particular for


gases) may vary strongly with wavelength
can propagate through any medium at high
velocity

16

Video of a Flashover Compartment Fire

Test Conducted by SP-Fire Technology, Sweden, 2007

17

Mechanisms of heat and mass transfer


in a Room Fire
heat Transfer
(conduction, convection, radiation)
mass Transfer (micro-continuous-scale)

mass transfer
(macro-discrete-scale)

Mechanisms of heat and mass transfer


in a Room Fire
heat Transfer
(conduction, convection, radiation)
mass Transfer (micro-continuous-scale)

mass transfer
(macro-discrete-scale)

Mechanisms of heat and mass transfer


in a Room Fire
heat Transfer
(conduction, convection, radiation)
mass Transfer (micro-continuous-scale)

mass transfer
(macro-discrete-scale)

Mechanisms of heat and mass transfer


in a Room Fire
heat Transfer
(conduction, convection, radiation)
mass Transfer (micro-continuous-scale)

mass transfer
(macro-discrete-scale)

The dominance of Radiation


leading to Flashover
Radiation heat transfer

Radiation heat transfer

The dominance of Radiation


leading to Flashover
Radiation heat transfer

Radiation heat transfer

Nature of Thermal Radiation

Electromagnetic waves or photons


electromagnetic wave theory is used to predict
radiative properties of liquids and solids( including
tiny particles), of interfaces (surface)
Quantum mechanics is used to predict
radiative properties of gases
light - part of electromagnetic wave spectrum
speed of light --> c

24

Nature of Thermal Radiation

The speed of light depends on

the medium through which it travels and can be


calculated using :

c0
c
n
Speed of light
in the medium

Speed of light in
vacuum = 2.998 x 108m/s
Refractive index
of the medium
for vacuum n=1
for air at room
temperature n=1.00029
25

Nature of Thermal Radiation

Each wave can be identified by :

frequency, cycles/s =s-1 =Hz


wavelength, m = 10-6m
wave number, cm-1
angular frequency, radian/s = s-1

c

c
2
26

Nature of Thermal Radiation

Each wave or photon carries

h
Amount of
energy

frequency

Plancks constant
6.626x10-34Js

When light penetrates from one medium to another :


frequency --> does not change
wavelength --> change
wave number --> change
27

Nature of Thermal Radiation

Thermal radiation

electromagnetic waves which are emitted by a


medium due solely to its temperature
between 0.1 m (ultraviolet) and 100 m (midinfrared)

when electromagnetic wave passing through


the medium, the wave may become
continuously attenuated.
28

Electromagnetic wave spectrum

29

Nature of Thermal Radiation

Opaque

transparent

no attenuation

semi-transparent

attenuation is complete
no penetrating radiation reemerges

partial transparent

All these depends on the material and its


thickness
30

Nature of Thermal Radiation

Black surface or perfect absorber

does not reflect any radiation


black surface also emits a maximum amount of
energy of radiation

The radiative heat flux emitted from a surface is


called the emissive power, E.

spectral emissive power Ev = emitted energy


/time/surface area/frequency
Total emissive power, E = emitted energy
/time/surface area
31

Nature of Thermal Radiation

Monochromatic radiation

Thermal radiation of a single frequency or


wavelength

Total emissive power

E(T) E v (T, v)d


0

Total emissive
power

Spectral emissive
power
32

Nature of Thermal Radiation

Plancks law

assuming that a molecule can emit photons only


at distinct energy levels
Plancks const.
Planck found that

E bv (T, v)
Spectral blackbody
emissive power

frequency

2 hv n
2
0

c (e

hv

kT

1)

Refractive index
of the medium

Boltzmanns const.
k=1.3806 x 10-23 J/K
33

Basic Laws of Thermal Radiation

For constant refractive index


since

c

c
2

E b (T, )
Assume constant refractive
Index (n=1 for vaccuum)
(n~1 for ordinary gas)

2 h c 02
2

n (e

hc 0

n kT

1)

2
0

E b (T, )
2 hc

hc 0
3 5
nT
(n T) 5 (e n kT 1)

34

Surface Radiation
Concepts of Emission

Planck Function
Maximum emission from a surface of temperature
T

E b W / m 2

2C1
4
d

T
/
C

T
5
2
1
0 e

E b d
0

2C1
5 e C 2 / T 1

Surface Radiation
Concepts of Emission

Planck Function
Wiens displacement law: Wavelength at maximum
emission decreases with increasing temperature
maxT C3 2897.6 m-K
T (K)

max T 2897.8m K

max (m)

294

9.85

Infrared

1000

2.897

2000

1.449

3000

0.966

4000

0.724

(red)

5000

0.579

visible

6000

0.483

(violet)

Near
Infrared

Blackbody Emissive Power Spectrum


The wavelength of
maximum emission
shifts towards
shorter wavelength

The overall level


of emission rises
with rising
temperature

E b (T, )

2 h c 02
2

n (e

hc 0

n kT

1)

3.7419 x 10-6 Wm2

37

Total Blackbody Emissive Power

E b (T) E b (T, ) d
0

2 hc n T
2
0

E b (T) n T
2

d(n T)
5

(n T) (e

hc0

n kT

1)

4 2 h c 02

Stefan-boltzmann const.
15(h c 0 /k) 4
5.670x10-8 W/(m2K4)

38

Solid Angles

Radiative energy leaves one medium


entering another medium

Energy flux has different strengths in different


directions
It is customary to describe the direction vector
in terms of

spherical coordinate system


Polar coordinate system
39

Solid Angles

Consider an opaque surface radiating into air with infinity


many directions and with every rays penetrating through a
hemisphere (with unit radius, r=1)

Polar angle
Surface
normal

Surface area of this


hemisphere = (4r2)/2
=2 total solid angle
Direction vector

0 2
Azimuthal angle

40

Solid Angles

cos 0 dA
dA P
''

A
P
A S2 A S2
P

d (1 sin d )(1 d )
sin d d
2 2

sin d d 2

0 0

Solid angle : measured in


dimensionless steradians, sr)
Definition of solid angle

41

Radiative Intensity

Spectral intensity, I= radiative energy flow


/time/area normal to rays / solid angle /wavelength
Total Intensity, I = radiative energy flow/time/area
normal to rays / solid angle

I(r, s) I (r, s, )d
0

Position vector

Unit direction vector

wavelength
42

Radiative Intensity
The emitted energy from
dA into s and contained
within an infinitesimal
solid angle
dsinddis

I(r, s)dA P d I(r, s)dA cos sin d d


dAP = projected area of dA normal to the rays

E(r)

2 2

I(r, , )dA cos sin d d

0 0

I(r, s) n.s d

43

Radiative Heat Flux


dQ I (s i )dA P d i I (r, s i )(dA cos ) d i
outgoing flux
from the surface

+ve

-ve
Incoming flux
going into

Infinitesimal
heat flow rate
per wavelength

the surface
Total incoming heat flux

Heat loss from

per unit wavelength

the surface

(q ) out

cos

I (s o )cos o d o

(q ) in

I (s i )cos i d i

cos i 0

o 0

44

Radiative Heat Flux

For black surface, =1, no energy reflected from the


surface and I=Ibleading to (q)out=Eb
For non-black surface, the outgoing intensity consists
of contributions from emission as well as reflections
The outgoing heat flux is +ve since it is going into the
medium. The incoming flux going into the surface is
-ve.
The net heat flux
(q ) net (q ) in (q ) out

I (s) cos d

45

Total Radiative Heat Flux


Integrate over the spectrum

q.n q n d
0

I (s) n s d d

n s cos

46

Reflection, Reflection, Transmission

Opaque walls ( a medium thick enough that no


electromagnetic waves can penetrate through it)
Reflectivi ty ,

reflected part of incoming radiation


total incoming radiation

absorptivity ,

absorbed part of incoming radiation


total incoming radiation

Transmissivity ,

transmitted part of incoming radiation


total incoming radiation

47

Reflection, Reflection, Transmission

+
If the medium is sufficiently to be opaque, then
and +
All 3 properties

nondimensional
may vary between 0 and 1

All surfaces emit thermal radiation.

energy emitted from a surface


emissivity ,
energy emitted by a black surface at same temperature
Emissivity --> between 0 and 1 , for black surface =1

48

Emissivity

A function of temperature, wavelength, frequency


vary with out going direction
To study the Reflection, Transmission and Emissivity, we need to
distinguish :
spectral property
Total property (an average value over the spectrum)
directional property
hemispherical property (an average value over all directions)

49

Emissivity
Non-metals have
relatively high
emissivities

Values for directional


emissivity in the direction
normal to the surface

From : White F.M. Heat Transfer, Addison-Wesley, 1984

50

Radiation Characteristics of Gases

Gases can absorb and emit radiative energy


All molecules (gases atoms) carry

kinetic energy( translational energy)


internal molecular energy

vibrational
rotational energy state

Photon may be absorbed by a molecule

raising the energy level of one of the internal energy


state
51

Radiation Characteristics of Gases

Photon may be emitted from a molecule


to lower one of the internal energy states
As radiative energy penetrates through a gas layer--> it becomes
attenuated by absorption

Leads to an exponential decay of incident radiation

the transmissivity of a homogeneous isothermal gas layer :

e
Wave number

s
Absorption
coefficient

Thickness
of the gas
layer

52

Radiation Characteristics of Gases

In case of a gas layer, incident radiation is either


transmitted or absorbed
Spectral absorptivity of a gas layer

1 1- e

53

Radiation Characteristics of Particles


The path of the photon may be altered
A photon may penetrate into the particle changing
its direction

A photon may change its direction

scattering
54

Radiation Characteristics of Particles

In the presence of scattering , the equation


of transmissivity of a material layer

e
Absorption
coefficient

( s )s

Scattering coefficient

Extinction coefficient
55

Radiation Characteristics of Particles

The nature of the interaction between electromagnetic waves and


the particles is determined
by the relative size of the particles compared with the
wavelength of the radiation
a size parameter
2a = diameter of the particle

2 a
x

Effective radius
of the particle

56

Radiation Characteristics of Particles

For x<<1, Rayleigh scattering (particle diameter much


smaller than the wavelength)
For very small particles, scattering is proportional to
1/4
Blue light is scattered the most
Red light is the least
x=O(1) Mie scattering (particle diameter similar to the
wavelength)
x>>1, surface of the particle treated as normal surface
57

Summary of radiative transport theory

2 major differences between


conduction/convection and radiation

radiative properties may be function of direction (or


wavelength)
basic variables used in equation of radiative
transport is Radiative Intensity (not temperature)

58

Summary of radiative transport theory

For an enclosure bounded opaque walls

for enclosure filled with nonabsorbing ,


nonscattering medium --- surface radiation
transport
for enclosure filled with absorbing , scattering
medium --- radiative transport in a participating
medium

59

Radiation exchange between


Black surfaces and other medium

60

Energy Exchange in a Non-participating Medium

The surfaces are separate by a medium that does not emit,


absorb,or scatter radiation e.g vacuum
The radiative energy transfer between the surfaces depends on
geometry
orientation
temperature of the surfaces
The geometry and orientation of each surface is accounted for in
calculations by 1 or more view factors

61

View factors are dimensionless ratios that


characterize the degree to which 2 surfaces
see one another

Characterize how efficiently these surfaces


exchange radiation
Diffuse surfaces emit radiation uniformly in all
direction
radiation leaving surface i that goes directly surface j
Fi , j
total radiation leaving surface i

62

Energy Exchange in a Non-participating Medium


View factors and their algebra
The view (configuration) factor for differential area dA1 to
the finite area A2

Fd 1-2

cos 1cos 2

dA 2
2
A2
R

Area of surface 2

Separation distance
between the two surfaces

63

Energy Exchange in a Non-participating Medium


F1-2

A1 A1

cos 1cos 2
A R 2 dA1dA2
2

When the radiant fluxes from both surfaces are uniformly and
diffusely distributed (assumption), a reciprocity for the
configuration factors can be obtained

A i Fi- j A jFj- i
The summation rule (enclosure rule) for calculating unknown
configuration factors

Fi- j 1

64

Other view factor relationships


Any two surfaces (j and k ) can be combined

Fi , jk Fi , j Fi ,k
The crossed and uncrossed strings Method ( for 2-D geometries)

A1 F1, 2 A2 F2,1

Crossed

L uncrossed
2

Lac Lbd Lad Lbc


W
2

Ref 8

Width of the surface into the page

65

Energy Exchange in a Non-participating Medium

Use of gray diffuse surface (model) to eliminate


many complexities associated with a detailed
radiation analysis
the advantage of diffuse surface analysis is that

radiation leaving the surface is independent of the


direction of the incoming radiation

A convenient method to analyze radiative energy


exchange in an enclosure of diffuse gray surface is
based on:

radiosity
irradiation
66

Energy Exchange in a Non-participating Medium


G i Fi- jJ j
j

Irradiation:
the radiative flux
reaching the ith surface
regardless of its origin

Surface radiosity
the total radiative flux
leaving the jth surface

J i i E bi i G i
emissivity

reflection
67

Energy Exchange in a Non-participating Medium

The net loss of radiative energy is :


Q i (J i G i )A i

The radiosity-irradiation formulation is based on the


assumption that each surface has uniform radiosity and
irradiation. (uniform temperature, uniform heat flux)

68

Thermal radiation in Participating Media

Consider a monochromatic beam of


radiation passing through a radiating layer
of thickness L
I (x) I (0)e - x I b (1 e x )

Loss of intensity by absorption


The gain by emission
69

Thermal radiation in Participating Media

I

1 - e s
I b

Optical path length


opacity

Total emissivity

t
I d
4 b
T 0
70

Thermal radiation in Participating Media

Mean absorption coefficient

I d

I d
4 b
T 0

Plank mean
for optically thin mediums
71

Thermal radiation in Participating Media

Mean Beam Length

4V
Lo
A
Geometric mean
beam length

Arbitrary shaped gas volume

Area of the boundary


surface of the gas body

72

Radiation Properties of Combustion Products

Radiation Properties of Gases

C H 2O H 2O C CO 2 CO 2

1
H 2O CO 2
2

Radiation Properties of Gas-Soot Mixtures


Effective absorption
coefficient of soot
sS
S

t (1 - e

) ge

Physical path length


Total emissivity of gas alone

73

Radiative heat transfer in fire

The significant radiative transport in room fires: internal and external


flame radiation (from Ref. [2])
74

Radiative heat transfer in fire


Pool fire (base diameter of the order of 1 m): radiative
transfer from the flame primarily controls the rate of
evolution of fuel gases at the surface.
Wall fires (any practical size): radiative feedback
begins to compete with, then dominate the surface
convective heat flux as the pyrolysis height increases.
Flame shape and thickness, respectively play a key
role in these burning orientations.

75

Radiative heat transfer in fire


Flames and gases can participate in radiative
heat transfer in several ways.
Gases emit and absorb over discrete, specific
wavelength () bands of the spectrum.
Combustion products in the flame, typically
CO2 and H2O as the principal components, can
be a significant source of radiation due to high
temperatures.
76

Radiative heat transfer in fire


Fuel gases, at relatively cooler temperatures near the
decomposed surface of liquid or solid fuel can absorb
(block) radiation from the flame back to the fuel,
which limits the decomposition and therefore the
burning rate.
In contrast, particulates such as soot (mainly carbon),
condensed tars (high molecular weight hydrocarbon),
and water droplets (from condensed moisture in solids
such as wood fuels) emit and absorb over the entire
spectrum.
77

Radiative heat transfer in fire


Extinction (absorption and scattering) coefficient for soot
depends roughly on -1 and liquid aerosols depend
roughly on -4.
Both the gas and particulate radiation depend on their
concentration as well.
Temperature, wavelength, and concentration of a
complex mixture must be resolved to predict radiation
heat transfer in such a medium.
Simplifications must be made to make such a problem
treatable.
78

Radiative heat transfer

Radiation exchange with an intervening medium (from Ref. [2])


79

Radiative heat transfer


For a gray gas medium (independent of wavelength) with emissivity
g, the intensity at Ai from Aj is [2]
Surface j

Tg4
g
I j (rij ) I j (0)(1 g )

(1)

For diffuse surfaces, the rate of energy


per unit area leaving Aj is
Surface i

dq0

I j (0) J j
dA j

(2)

Radiosity of surface Aj

80

Radiative heat transfer


For any gray diffuse surface the radiosity J can
be related to the emissive power E, and the total
rate of energy received per unit area (called the
irradiance, G) by

J G T 4
(3)

Irradiance (G) and radiosity (J) (from Ref. [2])


81

Radiative heat transfer


Now we can consider the net radiative outward rate from
any surface Ai. From all surface j to i, for N total uniform
surface, we find

J j
Tg4 cos i cos j dA j dAi
(1 g )
g
2

r
j 1
Ai A j
ij

q j i

The configuration factor F relationship is

Ai Fij A j F ji

Ai A j

cos i cos j dA j dAi

rij2

(4)

(5)

82

Radiative heat transfer


So Eq.(4) can be rewritten as
N

q j i J j (1 g ) g T Ai Fij
4
g

j 1

(6)

The outgoing rate of energy from Ai to all j=1,,N


surface is
N

q i j J i Ai Fij

(7)

j 1

Hence, the net outgoing energy rate per unit area from Ai
N
is
q q

q i

i j

j i

Ai

J
j 1

J j (1 g ) g Tg4 Fij
(8)

83

Radiative heat transfer


Alternatively, this can be rearranged as

q i ( J i J j )(1 g ) Fij ( J i Tg4 ) g Fij

(9)

j 1

From the definition of Ji and Gi, we get

q i i Ebi (1 i )Gi Gi

(10)

where i is the emissivity of the Ai surface. Therefore

q i i ( Ebi Gi )

and

(11a)

q i i Ebi i ( J j (1 g ) g Tg4 ) Fij


j 1

(11b)
84

Radiative heat transfer


Subtracting the i times Eq.(8) from the above
N
yields
( i Ebi i J i Fij )
j 1

(12)
q i
(1 i )
Equations (9) and (12) represent 2 N equations,
two for each surface area considered. For each
surface there are three variables, one of which
must be known: q i , Ji or Ti. Usually q i or Ti are
known in the problems.
85

Radiative heat transfer


The above equations represent the general tools
in solving many radiation heat transfer problems.
Sometimes fictitious surfaces can be used that
present open windows or the envelope of a
flame.

86

Enclosure application
Quintiere and McCaffery conducted a comprehensive experimental
study of wood and plastic fires in an enclosure, where they compared
experimental data with calculated values for a number of environmental
values [4].
This section will first briefly discuss how the electrical circuit analogy
can be practically used for enclosure applications. We then give two
examples of how the previously derived equations for convective heat
transfer and radiative heat transfer can be applied to enclosure fires and
compare these to experimental data from Quintiere and McCaffrey. The
first example considers heat flux to a sensor at ceiling level. The second
example considers the similar case to a sensor at floor level.

87

Electrical circuit analogy


Considering an enclosure surrounding the homogeneous
gas medium at Tg, the fraction of energy leaving Ai
received by all the surface must be 1.
N

Fij 1

(13)

j 1

Then Eq.(12) can be rewritten as

i Ebi i J i (1) Ebi J i

q i q i Ai

1 i
1 i

Ai
Ai i

(14)

88

Electrical circuit analogy


From Eq.(9), we get

q i q i Ai
N

j 1

(J i J j )

1 ((1

g ) Fij Ai )

J i Tg4
(1 ( g Ai ))

(15)

The form of these two equations (14) and (15)


suggests an electrical circuit with current q i and
resistors and potentials. The sum of the current
i ,
flows in the circuit from Ji to Jj=1,N and Tg4 is q
the net flow rate.
89

Electrical circuit analogy


current

resistor

Enclosure analog circuit diagram (from Ref. [2])


90

Electrical circuit analogy

Circuit analog for two black surfaces separated by a gray gas


(from Ref. [2])
91

Electrical circuit analogy


The Figure in last slide represents two black surfaces
separated by a participating gas, for example two infinite
parallel plates.
Since the heat flow rates must balance at a node, we get

q1

T14 T24
1
(1 g ) A1 F12

Similarly,

T14 Tg4
1
g A1

(16)

q 2 can be found.
92

First example:
heat flux to a sensor at ceiling level

(From Ref. [2])

The model used to compute radiation heat flux to a cooled sensor H1 at Ts from
a gas layer of thickness H-D and bounded by a cold surface 3 and hot walls 2
with temperature, Tw, based on measurements (Reference 4)

93

First example:
heat flux to a sensor at ceiling level
The subscript u corresponds to the measured average
properties of the upper smoke layer. The surfaces were
assumed to be black, so J E , and the result follows
i
bi
from Eq.(15).
Assuming an ambient lower region at Ta, the net radiative
flux at the sensor at Ts is given as follows:

q r g ,u Tg4,u F12 (1 g ,u )Tw4,u F13 (1 g ,u )Ta4 Ts4


with

F12 F13 1

(17)

F13 Fi
i 1

1
Fi
2

ai

La ,i

1 bi
tan

a ,i

bi

L
b.i

1 ai
tan
L

b ,i

94

First example:
heat flux to a sensor at ceiling level
where

4V
Lo
A

La ,i ai2 ( H D) 2

(17e)

Lb ,i bi2 ( H D) 2

(17f)

g ,u 1 exp( g ,u Lm )

(17g)

where the beam length can be obtained by

2 2WL( H D)
Lm
2 ( H D)(W L) WL

(17h)

95

First example:
heat flux to a sensor at ceiling level
The emissivity g ,u was computed empirically in this analysis,
but a more formal method is available from Modak that
account for CO2, H2O, and soot [6]. The empirical method
assumed that the smoke layer absorption coefficient g was
proportional to the flame absorption coefficient f by an
overall combustion product mass fraction Y p :

g f Yp

where
where

Yp

(1 r )m f
m a m f

r Stoichiometric air to fuel ratio,


f Mass flow rate of fuel,
m
m a Mass flow rate of air.

(18)
(19)

96

Formula for convective flux

hc C c p gH Q *1/ 3
Depends on r/H

qc" hc Tad Tw
Adiabatic wall
temperature
Temperature
Of cooling water
At the sensor

Q c

c pT

gH H 2

(From Ref. [2])


97

First example:
heat flux to a sensor at ceiling level
In these tests the smoke layer temperatures ranged from 200 oC to 800 oC
for the polyurethane crib fuels and roughly 150 oC to 500 oC for the wood
cribs. It is interesting that the ceiling sensor heat flux, despite varying the
crib fuel and the doorway to the room, is mostly dependent on the average
smoke layer temperature. These results are shown in the Figure.

Ceiling incident heat flux vs.


upper layer gas temperature
(Reference 4)
98

First example:
heat flux to a sensor at ceiling level
It is interesting to note that the convective heat flux
component at the ceiling heat flux is comparable to the
radiative estimations, and the comparison with the
measured values tends to confirm their accuracy.
For this temperature range of the developing fire, they are
both comparable to each other. Also, the convective heat
transfer coefficient can be as high as 55 W/m2 oC for the
highest case of 44 kW/m2 at approximately 800 oC for a
600 kW plastic crib fire. The high plume velocities
contributes to this.
99

Second example:
heat flux to a sensor at floor level

A description of the arrangement and model used in determining the


incident heat flux to a floor sensor, H2 (from Ref. [2])
100

Second example:
heat flux to a sensor at floor level
The total flux measured by the sensor H2 (shown in the
Figure) can be considered as composed of several fluxes.

q sensor
q f ,r q e,r q c Ts4

(20)

where q f , r is the flame incident radiation modified by a factor g ,l to


account for attenuation by the lower gas layer; q e, r is the enclosure
incident radiative flux; q c is the convective heat flux from the lower
gas layer.

For the data considered, the convective flux was found


negligible. The radiative heat flux to the floor element
from the upper smoke layer was found assuming black
surfaces from Eq.(15) for each quadrant, q i1, 4 , the
unattenuated heat flux.
101

Second example:
heat flux to a sensor at floor level

The transmitted portion is given by the transmissivity, g ,l


4
q e,r g ,l q i
(21a)
i 1

ai 1 bi bi 1 ai
tan

tan

L L
L
La ,i
a ,i b , i
b ,i
1 exp( g ,u Lm ,i ) Tg4,u exp( g ,u Lm ,i )Tc4

1
qi
2

1 ai
tan

bi
Tb4 1 bi

tan
2
ai

Ta4

ai 1 bi
tan

L
La ,i
a ,i
bi

L
b ,i

1 ai
tan

b ,i

(21b)

102

Second example:
heat flux to a sensor at floor level
La ,i ai2 H 12

Lb,i b H
2
i

Lm , i

2
1

2ai bi ( H 2 H 1 )

( H 2 H 1 )(ai bi ) ai bi

(21c)
(21d)

(21e)

where T g ,u is the upper gas temperature,


Tc is the upper surface temperature,
Ta Tb are the lower enclosure surface temperature, and
ai bi are the quadrant dimensions in Figure 9.
103

Second example:
heat flux to a sensor at floor level
The lower gas layer is considered cool so that its emission is
negligible, but sufficiently smoky so that it attenuates. Its
transmissivity can be estimated as

g ,l exp( g ,l D )

(22a)

g ,l C k Y p ,l
Y p ,l

m e m a

1 m e m a

(22b)

Y p ,u

(22c)

where m e is the mixing rate at the vent that contaminates the lower
region with products, and Y p ,u is given by Eq.(19). For the case
considered, was found to be 0.93 or great.
g ,l

104

(From Ref. [2])

105

Second example:
heat flux to a sensor at floor level
Data compared for the 21 room crib fire experiments show
the accuracy of the analysis in the Figure.
The analysis shows that as the smoke layer gets hotter, the
radiation from the layer becomes much more significant
than the radiation from the flame.
Also, the computed smoke layer contribution appears too
high at the larger fire conditions, suggesting that the
estimates for g ,l may have been too high. Cold smoke
may be more significant in fire heat transfer than we think.
106

Second example:
heat flux to a sensor at floor level
An interesting result from this study shows that
the floor heat flux (to H2) is principally
dependent on the average smoke layer
temperature for the different fuels, fuel loads, and
ventilation conditions.
Hence, effects of emissivity appear to be
accounted for by the layer temperature.

107

Reference
1. Modest, M.F., Radiative Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, NJ, 1993.
2. Karlsson, B. and Quintiere, J.G., Enclosure Fire Dynamics, CRC Press,
New York, 2000, pp.154-180.
3. Tien, C.L., Lee, KY. and Stretton, A.J., Radiation Heat Transfer, SFPE
Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 2nd ed., National Fire
Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1995.
4. Quintiere, J.G. and McCaffrey, B.J., The Burning of Wood and Plastic
Cribs in an Enclosure: Volume I, NBSIR 80-2054. National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, DC, November 1980.

108

Reference
5. Cooper, L.Y, Heat Transfer from a Buoyant Plume to an Unconfined
Ceiling, Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol. 104, No 3, pp. 446-451, 1982.
6. Modak, A.T., Thermal Radiation from Pool Fires, Combustion and
Flame, Vol.29, p.177, 1977.
7. Drysdale, D., An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, 2nd Ed., Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1998.
8. Gregory Nellis and Sanford Klein, Heat Transfer, Cambridge University
Press, 2009

109

Exercise

An oil leak from a pump ignites and causes


cylindrical flame to be established on a factory
floor. The flame cylinder has a height of 1.9 m and
a radius of 0.25 m. Calculate the maximum view
factor from the cylindrical flame at a distance of
1.72 m from the flame cylinder axis. Assume that
the receiver is a differential element with its
normal vector perpendicular to the cylinder axis.

110

n ui vj wk

(From Ref. [1])


111

Radiation from a cylindrical flame


to a target
If L/r >= 3 then
q T f4 ( F1 F2 F3 )

u r 2
F1
( ) ( 2 0 sin 2 0 )
4 L
v r
F2
( ) ( 2 0 sin 2 0 )
2 L
w r
F3 ( ) cos 2 2 0
L
112

Suggested answer

The maximum radiation is at the mid-height of the cylinder, for


this case, the effective projection area of differential element and
the configuration factor reach the maximum value.
For a half cylinder, the normal vector of the element is parallel to
the cylinder axis, hence, u = 0, v = 1, w = 0, F1 = 0, F3 = 0. F2 can be
calculated by

tg 0 L /( H / 2 )
0 61 o
F 2 0 . 0429
Total view factor : 2 F 2 0 . 0858
113

114

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