New Ways of Studying Emotions in Organizations

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

Suzanne J. Peterson Christopher S. Reina David A. Waldman William J. Becker

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Article information:
To cite this document: Suzanne J. Peterson Christopher S. Reina David A. Waldman
William J. Becker . "Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations"
In New Ways of Studying Emotions in Organizations. Published online: 08 Jul 2015;
1-27.
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S1746-979120150000011002
Downloaded on: 07 February 2016, At: 12:54 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 0 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 51 times since NaN*

Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:

Michael J. Gill, (2015),"A Phenomenology of Feeling: Examining the Experience of
Emotion in Organizations", Research on Emotion in Organizations, Vol. 11 pp. 29-50
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S1746-979120150000011003
(2015),"New Ways of Studying Emotions in Organizations", Research on Emotion in
Organizations, Vol. 11 pp. i- http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S1746-979120150000011019
(2015),"New Ways of Studying Emotions in Organizations", Research on
Emotion in Organizations, Vol. 11 pp. xvii-xxiv http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
S1746-979120150000011026

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by

emerald-srm:408616 []

For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please
use our Emerald for Authors service information about how to choose which
publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit
www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.

About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com

Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society.
The company manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books
and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products
and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner
of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the
LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

*Related content and download information correct at

time of download.

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

SECTION I
NOVEL METHODOLOGICAL
APPROACHES TO STUDYING
EMOTIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

CHAPTER 1

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

USING PHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS

TO STUDY EMOTIONS IN
ORGANIZATIONS
Suzanne J. Peterson, Christopher S. Reina,
David A. Waldman and William J. Becker
ABSTRACT
The application of physiological methods to the study of psychological
phenomena has garnered considerable interest in recent years. These
methods have proved especially useful to the study of emotions, since evidence suggests that validly measuring a persons emotional state using
traditional, psychometric methods such as surveys or observation is considerably more difficult than once thought. The present chapter reviews
the challenges associated with measuring emotions from a purely psychological perspective, and suggests that the study of emotions in organizations can benefit from the use of physiological measurement to
complement traditional assessment methods. We review more established
approaches to physiological measurement, including those related to
hormone secretion, cardiovascular activity, and skin conductance. We
then highlight somewhat more recent attempts to use neurological scanning. A theme of this chapter is that both psychological and physiological
measures are relevant to understanding and assessing emotions in

New Ways of Studying Emotions in Organizations

Research on Emotion in Organizations, Volume 11, 3 27
Copyright r 2015 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISSN: 1746-9791/doi:10.1108/S1746-979120150000011002

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

organizations. Accordingly, we propose a multi-method approach involving both types of assessment. Finally, we discuss the practical and
ethical implications of employing various forms of physiological
measurement in the study of emotions, specifically in the context of
organizations.

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Keywords: Emotions; physiology; measurement; neuroscience

INTRODUCTION
From a layperson perspective, emotions should be fairly easy to measure.
Emotions are often seen as synonymous for feelings so simply asking a
person how he or she feels should be adequate. Another common way to
measure the emotions of others is to watch and infer based on how they
behave or act. This includes facial expression, vocal expression and body
language. Increasingly, however, researchers are recognizing that selfreport and observational methods do not capture the full picture of
emotions (Davidson, 2003; Mauss & Robinson, 2009). For instance, an
individual might answer that he or she feels calm, but that persons heart is
beating rapidly. Someone else might smile when another person walks into
a room, but report not feeling anything. Yet another individual might
report feeling disgust toward another, yet will hug him or her when they
meet, perhaps for appearances sake. In short, traditional psychological
methods are important, yet limited. They are best suited to evaluate an
individuals subjective experience of emotion or others subjective interpretation of behaviors that they believe indicate emotion. What they cannot
ensure is accuracy that is whether individuals are really feeling what they
are reporting or displaying.
The use of physiological methods in the study of emotion at work can
address this limitation by providing a more ecologically valid way of capturing emotions that employees are experiencing. For instance, self-report
measures of emotion focus on how someone reports to feel. Although this
is important, we also know that certain physiological changes occur in our
bodies when we experience emotions (e.g., when we feel anxious our heart
rate increases and sweat glands activate). Furthermore, we may believe that
we are accurately capturing excitement by asking people whether they feel
excited or by asking others if they believe someone is excited based on their
behavior. However, can we be sure that what we see is excitement, rather
than nervousness? Individual differences in physiological activity can allow

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

us to draw more valid conclusions regarding the differences between these

two related, yet different, emotions. Quite simply, physiological measurement can increase our confidence that someone is truly feeling what he/she
is reporting to feel or what others believe to be observing that one feels.
Second, and perhaps more importantly, physiological methods allow
researchers to answer more complex questions regarding emotions that
should facilitate the development of stronger theories. For instance, are
emotions really all in the head? Psychological theories (e.g., Lazarus, 1991;
Scherer, 1984) suggest that they are, while neurophysiologists suggest that
there is a strong visceral component to emotion (Adolphs, Tranel, &
Damasio, 2003). Another question is whether emotions are always
conscious feeling states? Neurophysiological measures of brain activity such
as EEG and fMRI allow researchers to record rapid, immediate changes in
emotional responses that would otherwise be impossible to assess without
interrupting an individuals participation in an experiment, or simply
impractical through self-report because these processes are not available in
the conscious mind.
In summary, a complete assessment of emotions should take into
account all levels of analysis, ranging from the feelings and behaviors associated with emotion to how they are measured at the physiological and
neural level. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to inform researchers
in the applied psychology and organizational behavior fields on how
physiological methods can complement and advance the study of emotions
at work. We are not suggesting a throw the baby out with the bathwater
approach when it comes to psychological methods. Rather, we argue that
psychological measurement needs a supporting cast to fully capture or
complement (Becker & Cropanzano, 2010) the complexity associated with
emotion measurement. We also seek to better inform those who may not
be fully aware of the increasing accessibility of physiological methods. In
our experience, many researchers in the organizational sciences assume
these methods to be too complex namely, they require deep-level expertise to understand and operate, invasive to participants, and expensive to
employ. We seek to dispel those largely faulty perceptions to some degree
by highlighting the advent of new methods. Our hope is that this chapter
encourages more widespread use of these methods in organizational
research.
In the section Psychological Approach to the Study and Measurement
of Emotions, we describe how we are defining emotion for the purposes of
this chapter. We then provide an overview of the most commonly used
psychology-based measures of emotion and highlight why emotion should

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

not be studied from a purely psychological perspective. In the section

Connecting the Physiological and Neurological Measures, we describe
the most readily available or practical physiological (also known as biological) as well as neurological methods, and emphasize how they might help
to overcome some of the problems found in traditional, psychological
methods. In the section Ethical and Practical Considerations, we point
out which conceptual areas related to emotions at work can most benefit
from physiological methods. Finally, we conclude with a discussion of the
ethical and practical considerations surrounding the use of these methods
in organizations.

PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE STUDY AND

MEASUREMENT OF EMOTIONS
A common challenge facing psychologists engaged in emotion research
relates to the blurred definition between emotion and affect. Although
some researchers have suggested that emotion refers to the unconscious
experience of emotion and affect refers to the conscious experience of emotion (Damasio, 1999), others use the terms interchangeably (Davidson,
2003, Panksepp, 2000). For the purposes of clarity and consistency in this
chapter, we use emotion as an umbrella term for all the behavioral expressive, cognitive, and physiological changes that occur in individuals
(Panksepp, 2000). This includes moods, discrete emotions, and general
affectivity. Our goal is not to make a statement regarding construct definitions in the realm of emotion and affect, but rather to provide an overview
of physiological methods that can be used to study a variety of emotional
and/or affective phenomena in organizations.
In organizational research, self-report and observer methods are by far
the most commonly used methods to capture emotional phenomena at
work. Although they offer researchers important insight into peoples perceptions of emotion and are easy to administer, important limitations
should be recognized. We detail these methods and their associated limitations below.
Self-Report
Self-report methods can take various forms, but generally consist of asking
people to describe the nature of their emotional experience. Participants

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

may be given a list of emotion terms (e.g., angry, alert, enthusiastic, and so
forth) and are asked to choose the term to best describe their emotional
experiences, rate the intensity of emotion, or state how long that emotion
has been experienced. Alternatively, participants may be provided with
traditional Likert-style questionnaires regarding their emotional states.
Asking participants to evaluate their level of agreement regarding felt emotion (e.g., strongly agree) exemplifies this approach.
Self-report methods of emotions are beneficial and popular primarily
because they are efficient and easy to administer. Yet, several challenges
remain. Self-report methods assume that people are consciously aware of
their emotions and willing to report them. Similarly, self-report methods are
subject to response bias such that several alternatives may bias the individual to choose them. Finally, people not accurately report what they feel
due to social desirability concerns (Lopatovska & Arapakis, 2011; Mauss &
Robinson, 2009). In addition, self-report measures are vulnerable to time
effects (Robinson & Clore, 2002). Specifically, reports concerning ones
past, future, or trait-related experiences (i.e., how one feels in general)
have been found to be less valid than reports that assess how someone feels
right now, that day, or immediately following an emotional event
(Mitchell, Thompson, Peterson, & Cronk, 1997).

Observer/Behavior
Observer or behavior measures of emotions involve inferring a persons
emotional state from their vocal characteristics, facial expressions, and
body language (Mauss & Robinson, 2009). For example, when people
cringe, we infer disgust, if they raise their voice and yell we infer anger, and
so forth. These methods are qualitative in nature. They involve directly
watching and coding the facial, vocal, and gesture reactions of people when
they are exposed to emotional stimuli. Like self-report methods, observer
methods are popular because they are relatively unobtrusive. However,
they are limited because how people react behaviorally is highly dependent
on environmental conditions (e.g., light, noise, temperature). For example,
if a person is folding her arms across her chest, is this a sign of boredom,
anger, disgust, or defensive posture, or is she just cold? Moreover, some
responses can be faked (e.g., the quintessential fake smile) and importantly,
the presence of emotional expression cannot be equated with emotions. Just
because one expresses happiness for a friends success does not mean that
he/she is not feeling jealous, for example.

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

In summary, if a study is mainly interested in peoples perceptions and

explanations of felt emotions, self-report may suffice. However, for more
complex questions such as whether someone is really feeling what they
claim to feel or to predict emotional responding, different methods may be
necessary. Moreover, both self-report and observational methods may be
adequate if research questions are focused on identifying specific emotions
(happy vs. sad), capturing the valence of emotions (positive vs. negative),
or interpreting arousal (anger implies high arousal and quiet implies low
arousal). However, for more in-depth questions, more sophisticated methodology that assesses changes in the activity of the body, including the brain,
are required to ensure emotions are being adequately captured.

Physiological Measures of Emotion

Physiological measures relate to automatic responses triggered by the brain
but manifested in the body. Even subtle, implicit emotions send ripples
through the nervous system that prepare the body for action. Some of the
methods described next will be at least passingly familiar to many researchers. In fact, it was not that long ago that many of these methods were more
widely used in organizational research than they are today (Austin,
Scherbaum, & Mahlman, 2002). However, physiological measures are on
the cusp of resurgence due to improved technology and a renewed interest
in investigating and understanding the underpinnings of emotion and how
emotions influence behavior (Becker & Menges, 2013). Here, we will discuss a few of the most promising methods, including: (1) endocrinology,
(2) cardiovascular, and (3) electrodermal measures. Each has been used
recently to investigate emotions in organizationally relevant contexts.
Endocrinology
The levels of neurotransmitters such as cortisol, testosterone, and oxytocin
can now be measured by relatively unobtrusive means and these levels have
been shown to be reliable indicators of emotional arousal and response
(Akinola, 2010). Cortisol is widely recognized as an indicator of stress
response and negative emotions. There is a growing understanding of
exactly how cortisol affects emotional and cognitive brain functioning.
Recently, this new understanding has been used to show that, for example,
in demanding situations, elevated cortisol produces short-term benefits to
decision-making (Akinola & Mendes, 2012). Elevated cortisol levels have
also been shown to influence risk preferences of financial traders

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

(Kandasamy et al., 2014). At the same time, chronic elevation of cortisol

levels has harmful effects on employee health and job performance
(Lundberg, 2005; Melamed et al., 1999). In these studies, cortisol levels are
typically measured before and after an emotion-eliciting event, and the difference in the levels is operationalized as a measure of the stress experienced during the event.
More recently, researchers have begun to artificially elevate levels of
hormones in attempts to moderate behavior in adaptive ways. In these
studies, hormone levels are manipulated using a nasal mist. For example,
research has shown that elevating oxytocin can lead to increased trust
(Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zak, Fischbacher, & Fehr, 2005) and conformity to
group norms (Stallen, De Dreu, Shalvi, Smidts, & Sanfey, 2012). Other
studies have shown that elevated oxytocin can have potentially harmful
effects, particularly for out-group members (De Dreu, 2011; Radke &
De Bruijn, 2012). Thus far, oxytocin levels have not been directly investigated in organizational settings. However, even this brief overview suggests
a number of important implications that might be investigated.
Cardiovascular
Cardiovascular measures represent even older and seemingly pedestrian
methods for examining human physiology that have experienced a theoretical and practical renaissance. Equipment is now available that allows
researchers to measure heart rate, blood pressure, and even cardiac activity
(EKG) in naturalistic settings. Heart rate measures provide a direct assessment of rate and volume of heart activity, which has been shown to be an
indicator of arousal. A variety of blood pressure measures, including arterial, systolic, and diastolic, can also be produced that can be used alone or
in combination as a measure of autonomic nervous system response. EKG
measures are generally transformed to provide a more readily usable
measure of cardiac reactivity (Akinola, 2010). New analysis methods allow
the combination of measures to identify emotional states and differentiate
between hindrance and threat stress appraisal and response (Tomaka,
Blascovich, Kibler, & Ernst, 1997).
Combining a variety of cardiovascular measures also allows a reasonable amount of differentiation between discrete emotions (Herrald &
Tomaka, 2002; Kreibig, 2010). These measures have been used in the
laboratory to link discrete emotions with cognitive appraisals during
ongoing real-life emotional episodes (Herrald & Tomaka, 2002).
Cardiovascular measures have been paired with cognitive appraisals to
differentiate between challenge and threat stress that is induced by the

10

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

presence of unknown others during the performance of familiar and

unfamiliar tasks (Blascovich, Mendes, Hunter, & Salomon, 1999). More
recently, cardiovascular measures were used to evaluate mentee emotional
and cognitive responses to two different methods of coaching in a simulated organizational setting (Passarelli, 2014). The continued development
of cardiovascular methods is particularly promising because they are relatively simple to administer.
Electrodermal
Another type of physiological methods includes those that measure electrodermal response. Despite arousing memories of lie detector machines,
modern technology has produced electrodermal equipment that is
portable and highly sensitive. This new equipment has proven extremely
adaptable to the investigation of emotional responses in a variety of
settings. Most emotions produce increased electrodermal activity to support the action tendencies associated with the particular emotion (Kreibig,
2010; Sequeira, Hot, Silvert, & Delplanque, 2009). Modern electrodermal
equipment provides a measure of change in skin conductance that is extremely sensitive in terms of level and time, yet readily incorporated into data
analyses. Skin response has been used to investigate cognitive and
emotional responses when experiencing and reflecting on negative experiences (Nikula, 1991; Pennebaker, Hughes, & OHeeron, 1987). Even more
promising, electrodermal methods have been used to investigate implicit
and anticipatory emotional responses that do not enter conscious awareness (Denburg, Recknor, Bechara, & Tranel, 2006). One drawback of these
measures is their lack of discrete emotion specificity (Kreibig, 2010).
Nonetheless, their relative ease of use and adaptability to field applications
make them a valuable tool for investigating general levels of emotional
arousal at the conscious and nonconscious level (Akinola, 2010).

Neurological Measures of Emotion

Neurologically based methods represent a related, yet distinct, family of
methods that has also seen an increase in popularity in the organizational
sciences in recent years (e.g., Becker & Cropanzano, 2010; Hannah,
Balthazard, Waldman, Jennings, & Thatcher, 2013; Reynolds, 2006;
Reynolds, Leavitt, & DeCelles, 2010; Waldman, Balthazard, & Peterson,
2011a), including considerations of how neuroscience could potentially be
applied to the study of emotions in organizations (see Waldman,

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

11

Balthazard, & Peterson, 2011b). Nevertheless, the widespread use of neuromethods have been relatively limited. We believe that this lack of actual
application is due in part to a lack of awareness regarding the rapidly evolving availability and accessibility of neurologically based methods, as well
as limited understanding of how best to apply these methods to questions
relevant to emotions in organizational life. A complete consideration of
neuroscience applications to the study of emotions in organizations would
need to include theoretical issues pertaining to the neurological location of
brain activity relevant to specific emotions, and how to operationalize that
activity in terms of specific variables. Considerations of these issues can
indeed be found in recent work (e.g., Waldman et al., 2011b; Lindquist,
Wager, Kober, Bliss-Moreau, & Barrett, 2012). Our goal here is to outline
two key issues that are relevant to the neurological assessment of emotions
in organizational research: (1) state versus trait assessment and (2) choice
of a scanning technology.
State versus Trait
The stimulation of emotional states represent a common way of considering how emotions are evoked in organizational life. For example, negative
feedback from a supervisor could evoke fear and anger from an employee.
This framing of emotions also parallels a common view of the brain as
reflective of dynamic environmental stimuli (Raichle & Snyder, 2007). In a
series of studies by Greene and colleagues (e.g., Greene et al., 2009),
researchers demonstrated how portions of the brain associated with the
ventromedial prefrontal cortex were commonly stimulated when individuals
were shown pictures depicting moral dilemmas. Interestingly, this area of
the brain is also associated with emotional processing, leading Greene et al.
to consider connections between moral reasoning and emotions.
The term mirroring has been used when the stimulation of the brain is
specifically based on an imitation or reflection of another persons emotions
(Iacoboni, 2009). Thus, groups of neurons in Person A may become activated on the part of Person B when the latter observes the emotional
experience of the former (e.g., pain, excitement, and so forth). It follows
that neurological mirroring may be largely responsible for empathy
(Decety & Meyer, 2008), as well as such processes as emotional contagion
(Pugh, 2001).
Neuroscience researchers have increasingly recognized that the brain is
not simply in a reactive state based on stimuli that are presented to it.
Rather, it can also be characterized in terms of a resting state that is relatively stable over time (Raichle, 2010; Raichle & Snyder, 2007). Such a

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

12

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

resting state is indicative of what has been termed the intrinsic brain, which
has not been activated through information processing or stimuli
(Waldman et al., 2011b). With that said, this resting state does not imply
an inactive brain. Cacioppo et al. (2003) suggested that the brain in a resting state is indeed engaged in measurable activities. Further, intrinsic brain
functioning differs across individuals, making the intrinsic brain analogous
to the concept of individual trait differences. Increasingly, organizational
research is showing the relevance of the intrinsic brain in understanding
organizational phenomena and outcomes (Balthazard, Waldman,
Thatcher, & Hannah, 2012; Hannah et al., 2013; Waldman et al., 2011a).
In short, it is possible to conceive of neural assessment of emotional
phenomena in terms of dynamic or changing states, as well as more
trait-like aspects of emotions. For example, using the intrinsic brain
approach, a researcher could attempt to identify areas of the brain associated with emotion-based traits (often referred to as affect) that are relatively stable over time, thus reflecting the individuals enduring personality
or temperament (Izard, 2009). Alternatively, and depending on the research
question, certain stimuli that are designed to elicit discreet emotional reaction could be linked to particular areas of the brain. Together, these neurologically based approaches could help answer questions regarding the role
of emotions in organizational behavior.
Scanning Technologies
But with all of that said, researchers may be unsure about the second key
issue mentioned above, specifically the choice of a scanning technology.
Simply stated, brain scanning forms the foundation of neuroscience assessment methods, much like tools such as surveys form the foundation of
psychometrics. A number of scanning techniques are available. However,
we consider here the two most popular to date in the social sciences:
(1) functional magnetic resonance imaging or fMRI and (2) quantitative
electroencephalogram or qEEG. fMRI relies on the paramagnetic properties of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin to see images of changing
blood flow in the brain associated with neural activity (Waldman et al.,
2011b, p. 1096). The most common metric produced by fMRI is known as
blood oxygen level dependence (BOLD), which can be readily subjected to
statistical analyses and matched with other types of data, such as those produced by psychometrics. In addition, colorful images reflecting BOLD
activity, especially when an individuals brain is stimulated, are commonly
associated with fMRI. For example, an individual could be presented with
different images or sounds, and potentially engage in actions with limited

13

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

physical movement (e.g., press a button). The neural result (i.e., BOLD)
can be used to better understand brain structures and processes associated
with perception of stimuli, or action that is taken based on stimuli.
qEEG represents a second neuroimaging technique that has grown in
popularity in recent years (e.g., Hannah et al., 2013; Waldman et al.,
2011a). It uses advanced signal processing techniques to reveal electrical
energy data about the brain through the scalp and skull (Niedermeyer &
Silva, 1995). Two general categories of qEEG variables are commonly
examined across delta (1 4 Hz), theta (4 8 Hz), alpha (8 12 Hz), beta
(12 30 Hz), and gamma (30 100 Hz) frequency bands: (1) power or amplitude measures and (2) network connection measures such as coherence. As
with fMRI, variables formed through qEEG can be used in statistical analysis programs.
fMRI and qEEG are both conducive to the reactive/reflexive and intrinsic approaches discussed above, although fMRI is probably more known
for reactive/reflexive assessment, while qEEG has been applied more to
intrinsic assessment (Waldman et al., 2011b). Table 1 shows a comparison
between fMRI and qEEG techniques in terms of other issues. A potential
advantage of fMRI is its spacial resolution, or precision. However, as discussed by Balthazard et al. (2012), the precision of fMRI (especially MRI)
may be more important for things such as medical purposes (e.g., location
and nature of tumors), rather than understanding the neural origins of
aspects of organizational behavior. Perhaps more importantly, qEEG is
superior in terms of temporal resolution in that electrical data are recorded
immediately in relation to the concomitant brain activity. In contrast,
BOLD has been shown to represent a delayed response to actual neuronal
activity, often taking several seconds to materialize after that behavior.
Accordingly, it may be challenging to distinguish distinct BOLD data with
regard to events that occur within a short timeframe.
Other advantages are evident for qEEG. As compared to fMRI, qEEG
is much more practical, perhaps especially for studies involving
Table 1. A Comparison of fMRI and qEEG Technologies.
fMRI
Spatial resolution
Temporal resolution
Practicality
Cost-effectiveness

High degree of resolution

Lower degree of resolution
Restricted use to laboratory
settings
Highly expensive

qEEG
Lower degree of resolution
High degree of resolution
Highly portable; can be used in
naturalistic settings
Relatively low costs

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

14

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

organizational participants. fMRI is not portable, thus requiring participants to go where the equipment is located (i.e., a university-based laboratory). Moreover, fMRI requires participants to remain highly immobilized
in a confined space (i.e., within a confined tube). In contrast, qEEG is
portable and can be completed while people are comfortably seated and
even engaged in various tasks, such as decision-making and group-based
conversations (e.g., see Waldman et al., 2013).
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the high cost and lack of
accessibility of fMRI scanners simply makes fMRI a cost-prohibitive
technique for most organizational researchers. Scanners represent multimillion dollar devices, staffed by highly trained technicians, and are
largely located at medical facilities or clinical research laboratories. Due
in part to high cost and low accessibility, the number of participants in
fMRI studies is characteristically small (i.e., less than 20; see Lieberman,
Berkman, & Wager, 2009). As noted by Lindebaum and Jordan (2014),
such N-sizes are too small for the types of statistical analyses in which
organizational researchers typically engage. In contrast, cost, accessibility,
and capability to process large numbers of research participants make
qEEG much more feasible for organizational researchers. Accordingly,
we suggest that, as compared to fMRI, qEEG applications are better
suited for immediate adoption across a wide range of questions
(e.g., those pertaining to emotions) and settings. While fMRI remains a
powerful tool, its growth in organizational research is likely to progress
more slowly.

CONNECTING THE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND

NEUROLOGICAL MEASURES
We believe that a systematic application of multiple methods, including physiological and brain imaging technologies, will be necessary to more
fully understand emotional phenomena in organizations. When considering
the above methodologies, two key issues come to mind. First, most of the
methods surveyed here are best suited for the assessment of emotional reactions or relatively brief states. Examples include cardiovascular and fMRIbased assessments to stimuli. But with that said, we have also summarized
how qEEG could be used to assess what has been referred to as the intrinsic
brain (Waldman et al., 2011b), which may be able to tap the physiological
basis of more trait-like or enduring emotional characteristics.

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

15

Second, some promising technology is emerging that is capable of assessing neurological and other physiological measures simultaneously. For
example, Waldman et al. (2013) used equipment developed by Advanced
Brain Monitoring, Inc. (advancedbrainmonitoring.com) that has simultaneous qEEG and qECG (i.e., electrocardiogram) capabilities. In other
words, the brain and heart can be assessed simultaneously in real time.
Waldman et al. (2013) demonstrated how the wireless nature of this technology could be used to provide physiologically assessment in a natural setting on a millisecond-by-millisecond basis. For example, with this
technology, physiologically based assessment of individual- and team-level
emotions could be made throughout a team problem-solving process.

Specific Applications of Physiological Measurement

The use of physiological and neurological measures have important implications for advancing the study of three commonly discussed areas within
the emotional realm of management research. Specifically, we discuss emotional regulation, emotional expression, and emotional transfer or contagion as three broad areas that are especially ripe to utilize the alternative
techniques considered above in order to facilitate a deeper level of understanding beyond that which psychological measurement can provide.
Emotional Regulation
Emotional regulation refers broadly to individuals ability to manage their
expressions and feelings (Grandey, 2000). Emotional labor, defined as the
management of feeling and emotion in order to produce a certain public
display (Hochschild, 1983), represents an often-studied aspect of emotional
regulation. Employees in a broad range of industries ranging from call
centers, to restaurants, to sales organizations are required to interact with
customers in a certain way which has been termed service with a smile
(Pugh, 2001). The overt act of smiling to customers, no matter what may
be going on within an employees life, is an example of surface acting
defined as regulating an outward display of emotion in order to meet the
expectations of the work environment (Hochschild, 1983). A second type of
emotional labor called deep acting involves employees actually inducing
certain emotions so that they can genuinely experience these emotions
rather than only outwardly simulating the experience of such emotions, as
is the case with surface acting (Hochschild, 1983).

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

16

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

Recent meta-analytic evidence suggests that surface acting, but not deep
acting, exhibited positives relationships with emotional exhaustion, psychological strain, psychosomatic complaints and negative relationships with
job satisfaction and organizational attachment (Hulsheger & Schewe,
2011). Given the accumulation of research suggesting the negative implications of employee surface acting, researchers recommend that employees
utilize deep acting instead. However, assessing the extent to which an individual is utilizing surface or deep acting emotional labor is difficult to
ascertain via psychological measurement techniques given that individuals
may not be fully aware of which strategy they are using, may exhibit biases
related to social desirability, or may not be able to separate how they feel
internally regarding their emotions from what they are attempting to feel
via emotional regulation. In other words, for any number of reasons,
employees may not be aware of which method of emotional regulation they
are using, and subsequently may be utilizing surface acting, rather than
deep acting. This clearly has important implications for the health and
well-being of employees and highlights the need to have an ecologically
valid way of assessing the underlying emotions that employees are
experiencing.
Better measurement, including physiological measures, may ultimately
help researchers design more effective training in order to help employees
avoid the negative implications associated with emotional labor.
Physiological measures could be utilized to help employees better regulate
their emotions by providing real-time feedback regarding the emotions that
they are physiologically exhibiting, versus the emotions that they are outwardly trying to exhibit. In short, self-report measures of emotional regulation may give us a general sense of how successful employees are in
regulating their emotions to match the needs of the situation, but more ecologically valid methods will allow researchers to identify when there are
gaps between what employees say and actually feel internally. This will
facilitate an understanding of the trust cost of the emotional labor
process.
A second area under the umbrella of emotional regulation is emotional
intelligence. Despite a level of confusion associated with the construct and
the various ways to conceptualize and measure emotional intelligence,
Chernis (2010) suggests that researchers commonly agree on the common
core of emotional intelligence which is the ability to perceive and express
emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and others (Mayer, Caruso, &
Salovey, 2000, p. 396). Of the various conceptualizations of emotional

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

17

intelligence, the Mayer and Salovey (1997) approach has generally garnered
the most attention due to its conceptualization of emotional intelligence as an
ability and its close alignment with the common core of the construct shared
by emotional intelligence researchers (Ashkanasy & Daus, 2005; Walter,
Cole, & Humphrey, 2011). This approach has also provided researchers with
two methods to measure emotional intelligence: (1) an ability-based test that
captures individuals performance in solving emotional problems, and (2) self
and/or other-report, perception-based measures that ask individuals to reflect
on their own or others levels of emotional intelligence.
While researchers disagree as to the ultimate utility of emotional intelligence (see Antonakis, Ashkanasy, & Dasborough, 2009), the basic idea
that individuals differ in their ability to process emotional information is
simple (Ashkanasy & Humphrey, 2011). Researchers are already beginning
to utilize neuroscience to understand how the brains of individuals who
exhibit high emotional intelligence differ from those individuals who exhibit lower emotional intelligence (see Timoshanko, Desmond, Camfield,
Downey, & Stough, 2014). We suggest that diverse measures in the realm
of physiology or neurology will allow researchers to ask and answer
research questions to further unlock our understanding of emotional intelligence. For example, neurological methods may help to shed light on the
debate between researchers, on one side advocating that general intelligence
is the only form of intelligence that matters, versus other researchers who
suggest that there are multiple types of intelligence (see Antonakis et al.,
2009 for a debate).
Studying emotional intelligence with neuroscience methodologies will
further clarify which of the current models most closely represents how
emotional intelligence functions in relation to other personality variables
and which models most accurately account for differences in performance
on emotional tasks. The stream of emotional intelligence research that is
commonly referred to as trait emotional intelligence (Petrides & Furnham,
2003) has been criticized for encompassing everything except cognitive ability (Ferris, Perrewe, & Douglas, 2002). A neuroscientific approach to
studying emotional intelligence could help reveal whether this is the case by
parsing out the variance in outcomes accounted for by various individual
differences such as personality. In sum, we suggest that alternative
approaches to studying emotional intelligence will advance research in the
management field by more clearly defining the construct and determining
the similarities and differences in the various conceptualizations of
the construct so that we can more accurately understand how emotional
intelligence functions.

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

18

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

Emotional Expression
We suggest that physiological measurement would also be useful to
further our understanding of the expression of emotions in the workplace.
Emotional expression is considered a subcomponent of emotion regulation
and refers to the observable verbal and nonverbal behaviors that communicate emotional states (Gross, 1999). Examples are smiling or crying.
Emotional expression is especially important because of the social nature
of work and given the common knowledge that employees leave managers/leaders rather than companies. Ashkanasy and Humphrey (2011)
provide a useful framework to understand how the expression of emotional phenomena in the workplace affects others. They suggest that individuals moods, emotions, attitudes, emotional traits and states such as
neuroticism and emotional intelligence affect interpersonal relationships
and trust via leadership, and ultimately affect the emotional climate and
performance of an organization. We suggest that physiological methods
would be especially useful to understand the origins of these traits and
states in order to help leaders be more in tune with the emotions that they
are feeling inside and how these are linked to the behaviors they exhibit,
which ultimately impact how they are perceived by others. For example,
leaders who may come off cold or not empathetic to followers might lead
a team that reports low engagement or motivation. Alternatively, leaders
who overreact in fits of rage might be able to gain insight about how they
process information through deeper emotion-based measures that go
beyond self-report.
In short, using physiological methods, researchers will be better able
to understand how the brain and body respond to various situations at work
and better understand the link between what goes on inside an individual
and how they outwardly behave. Researchers can use physiological data
such as heart rate, hormone secretion, blood pressure, skin conductance, and
qEEG brain data to triangulate the causes of leader behavior and in turn,
train leaders to be more aware of these physiological changes and how they
relate to their behaviors. Recent work suggests the strong link between our
neuroanatomy, our behaviors, and our interpersonal relationships (see
Cozolino, 2014). We suggest that a broad range of physiological methods
can similarly help researchers understand the linkages between what goes on
inside us with what goes on between us in the workplace. Management topics
such as aggressive and abusive leader behaviors toward employees, are ideal
areas to seek a more complete understanding of emotional expression, given
the harmful effects these negative behaviors have in the workplace (see
Tepper, 2007 for a review).

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

19

Emotional Contagion
Emotional contagion, or the idea that individuals catch the emotions
and moods from those with whom they interact (Hatfield, Cacioppo, &
Rapson, 1994), represents a third and highly interrelated area that has
already begun to benefit from the use of physiological methods (Decety &
Meyer, 2008; Iacoboni, 2009). Organizational scholars have long recognized that emotions and moods seem to spread between individuals, almost
as if one individuals emotional system copies that of another individual via
social learning (Bandura, 1971). More recently, neuroscientists have studied
the neurological foundations of emotional contagion, suggesting that this
copying behavior actually begins in the brain when an individuals neurons
copy or mirror the same neurological activity patterns of another individual who is observed or with whom the individual comes into contact
(Gallese, Fadiga, Fogassi, & Rizzolatti, 1996). These neurons fire in such a
way that even though an individual is not engaging in the same behavior
pattern as the person who is observed, the individuals mirror neurons are
in essence playing along. This explains how followers may ultimately end
up feeling the same emotion or mood as their leader despite not being consciously aware of this occurring. Using fMRI technology, researchers have
supported this process of emotional transfer through the replication of
others facial expressions and subsequent activation of the limbic system to
induce an emotion that is consistent with those facial expressions (Carr,
Iacoboni, Dubeau, Mazziotta, & Lenzi, 2003).
Although mirror neurons reproduce similar patterns of neuronal firing
in the brain of one individual in the presence of another, it is important
and interesting to note that the patterns are not identical. Researchers have
demonstrated that mirror neurons fire in accordance with the intention of
the action rather than simply the action by itself, which suggests that mirror neuron firing is a complex process that takes a lot of information into
account (Fogassi et al., 2005). This is important because it provides an
explanation for how emotions and moods spread between individuals, not
just based on what is observed between two individuals, but also based on
the interpretations and attributions individuals make regarding the intention
or purpose of anothers actions. Thus, observing high levels of positive
emotion will serve as one input into the emotional contagion process at the
neurological level, but so will the assumed intention of why this high level
of positive emotion exists.
Organizational research on topics such as leader and follower relationship quality, team composition, vision articulation and vision sharing,
organizational culture, helping behaviors, and perceptions of justice and

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

20

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

trust only begin to scratch the surface of the many topics that could benefit
from a more in-depth understanding of how emotions and moods become
shared between individuals and how this complex process unfolds.
Physiological methods hold much promise in allowing researchers to
further understand how the various levels of emotions articulated by
Ashkanasy and Humphrey (2011) reinforce each other and cascade from
one level to another, and in which directions.
While physiological and neurological measures have important implications for furthering our understanding of many different topics within the
management literature, we have discussed three particular areas in which
these measurement techniques may especially hold promise in allowing us
to better understanding emotional phenomena in the workplace. Emotional
regulation, emotional expression, and emotional transfer via contagion are
important and interrelated topics that provide an important emotional
base from which other management topics build, and we suggest that these
three areas can greatly benefit from increased attention via physiological/
neurological measurement perspectives.

ETHICAL AND PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Despite the positives to be garnered from the use of physiological methods
to advance the study of emotions at work, researchers must account for
certain ethical and practical concerns before considering their use. Similar
to psychological methods, researchers employing physiological methods in
organizational research must address concerns related to privacy and confidentiality. However, because of the biological and even medical nature of
the data, these concerns may be exacerbated. Employees will naturally be
concerned with how their data are handled, stored, and used. For example,
although researchers may be interested in measuring physiology only
to assess employees emotional states, what if employees physiology
(e.g., heart rate) is symptomatic of a medical issue (e.g., serious cardiovascular issue)? How should researchers handle this information with employees as well as employers? Although researchers can certainly guarantee
confidentiality of the data, what moral or legal obligations do they have to
report health problems and what implications might these problems have
on employment decisions or healthcare claims?
Another potential limitation relates to the invasiveness of the methods.
In order to gather physiological or neurological data, employees need to

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

21

wear or be attached to specialized equipment. Moreover, they may be

required to come to a laboratory or undergo experiments. Whether organizations and their employees will be willing to accommodate and endorse
these methods remains to be seen. There are practical concerns related to
the disruption of work. For example, will employees be willing to wear
heart rate monitors during meetings or electrodes while operating machinery? Employers would have to weigh any requests that could interfere with
employee productivity or motivation before advocating participation to
their employees. Moreover, human resource and legal departments may be
naturally more wary to approve projects that they believe are either invasive to employee privacy or that have medical implications. Such concerns
can surely be overcome, but will take patience, candor, and trust between
researchers and organizations to ensure employee safety and confidentiality, as well as to convince organizations of the benefit of physiologicalbased research. The good news is that the methods described in this chapter
are increasingly becoming less invasive, thereby allowing employees to
wear equipment that is virtually undetectable. For example, wireless heart
rate monitors are now available that can clip to the earlobe or finger, and
wearable monitors that measure cardiovascular resistance can be worn
under the participants normal clothing (Pantelopoulos & Bourbakis,
2010).
From the perspective of researchers, there are other hurdles to consider.
First, attempts to link physiology and emotions are inherently interdisciplinary in nature. It may simply not be practical for researchers who are
specialized in the organizational sciences to feel confident that they have
the necessary technical expertise or knowledge of the associated literature
to effectively utilize these methods (Waldman et al., 2011b). Applying a
physiological or neurological lens to the study of emotions in organizations
will require a diverse research team. Such collaborations can be cumbersome given the diversity of training and academic backgrounds.
Furthermore, even when interdisciplinary teams are successfully formed,
the product is not always rewarded or encouraged.
Second, as noted by Waldman et al. (2011b), academic departments with
stringent tenure requirements are often resistant to rewarding publications
in journals (even premier ones) if they are not in their specific discipline.
Similarly, journals encourage interdisciplinary work on the one hand yet
do not often publish it on the other. This is due in part to the difficulty of
finding reviewers qualified to evaluate the work. For example, it is difficult
for editors of a management journal to have a neurophysiologist at their
disposal. Without such an expert, editors cannot feel confident that the

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

22

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

work is of the caliber to warrant publication. Although these hurdles are

somewhat understandable, the bottom line is that such behavior discourages faculty (especially untenured faculty) from engaging in interdisciplinary research topics and methods. The hope is that over time, journals
in the organizational sciences will continue to build a diverse reviewer base
and will publish more of this type of work. Special issues of journals are a
common way to begin this journey.
Another researcher concern relates to the resource requirements of
this type of research. Researchers in the organizational sciences are used
to the relatively minimal expenses involved in survey research (Waldman
et al., 2011b). However, as discussed earlier, technologies representative
of the physiological or neurological methods typically carry a higher
financial burden. Although such methods are less costly than they once
were, they still require substantially more investment than traditional
psychometric methods. Moreover, much of this work requires the
presence of a lab, which carries another financial cost. Research that
carries a larger cost is often dependent on external grant money.
However, researchers in the organizational sciences are not as accustomed to writing and submitting proposals and winning the grant, at
least when compared to those in the hard sciences. Therefore, the development of strong research networks are particularly important in this
area of research so that labs and other such resources can be shared
across research teams. The result is that publications of this type may
have large author groups ranging from five to ten authors. This is similar
to what we see in the medical fields.
Despite these obstacles, they are not insurmountable by any means.
Researchers with the interest and expertise are able to use physiological
and neurological methods to study emotions with greater ease than ever
before. As more researchers join this arena, surely the path will become
easier for others.

CONCLUSION
The goal of this chapter was to provide researchers with an introduction to
the most commonly used physiological methods that can be used to study
emotion in organizations. We argue that the study of emotion can best be
moved forward by the use of diverse and multiple methods. As such, we
advocated for the use of physiological methods as a complement (rather

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

23

than replacement) to traditional, psychological methods. All the reviewed

methods have pros and cons, and should be chosen based on the study
goals. For example, studies that are interested in employee perceptions and
explanations of felt emotions should utilize self-report methods. Studies
that are interested in how individuals react to emotional stimuli from a
systems perspective should consider physiological methods. Moreover, physiological and neurological measures could be used in conjunction with
self-report or observation measures to ensure the accuracy and reliability,
and create a more complete picture of employees emotional states and
experiences.

REFERENCES
Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. (2003). Dissociable neural systems for recognizing
emotions. Brain and Cognition, 52, 61 69.
Akinola, M. (2010). Measuring the pulse of an organization: Integrating physiological measures into the organizational scholars toolbox. Research in Organizational Behavior, 30,
203 223.
Akinola, M., & Mendes, W. B. (2012). Stress-induced cortisol facilitates threat-related decision
making among police officers. Behavioral Neuroscience, 126(1), 167 174.
Antonakis, J., Ashkanasy, N. M., & Dasborough, M. T. (2009). Does leadership need emotional intelligence? The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 247 261.
Ashkanasy, N. M., & Daus, C. S. (2005). Rumors of the death of emotional intelligence in
organizational behavior are vastly exaggerated. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26,
441 452.
Ashkanasy, N. M., & Humphrey, R. H. (2011). Current emotion research in organizational
behavior. Emotion Review, 3, 214 224.
Austin, J. T., Scherbaum, C. A., & Mahlman, R. A. (2002). History of research methods in
industrial and organizational psychology: Measurement, design, analysis. In S. G.
Rogelberg (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in industrial and organizational
psychology (pp. 3 33). Oxford: Blackwell.
Balthazard, P., Waldman, D. A., Thatcher, R. W., & Hannah, S. T. (2012). Differentiating
transformational and non-transformational leaders on the basis of neurological imaging. The Leadership Quarterly, 23, 244 258.
Bandura, A. (1971). Social learning theory. New York, NY: General Learning Press.
Becker, W. J., & Cropanzano, R. (2010). Organizational neuroscience: The promise and prospects of an emerging discipline. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 1055 1059.
Becker, W. J., & Menges, J. I. (2013). Biological implicit measures in HRM and OB: A question of how not if. Human Resource Management Review, 23, 219 228.
Blascovich, J., Mendes, W. B., Hunter, S. B., & Salomon, K. (1999). Social facilitation as
challenge and threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 68 77.
Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Lorig, T. S., Norris, C. J., Rickett, E., & Nusbaum, H.
(2003). Just because youre imaging the brain doesnt mean you can stop using your

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

24

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

head: A primer and set of first principles. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
85, 650 661.
Carr, L., Iacoboni, M., Dubeau, M. C., Mazziotta, J. C., & Lenzi, G. L. (2003). Neural
mechanisms of empathy in humans: A relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic
areas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, 5497 5502.
Chernis, C. (2010). Emotional intelligence: Toward clarification of a concept. Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, 3, 110 126.
Cozolino, L. (2014). The neuroscience of human relationships: Attachment and the developing
social brain (2nd ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton and Company.
Damasio, A. (1999). The feeling of what happens: Body emotion and the making of consciousness. London: Vintage.
Davidson, R. J. (2003). Seven sins in the study of emotion: Correctives from affective neuroscience. Brain and Cognition, 52, 129 132.
De Dreu, C. K. W. (2011). Oxytocin modulates cooperation within and competition between
groups: An integrative review and research agenda. Hormones and Behavior, 61(3),
419 428.
Decety, J., & Meyer, M. (2008). From emotion resonance to empathic understanding: A social
developmental neuroscience account. Development and Psychopathology, 20,
1053 1080.
Denburg, N. L., Recknor, E. C., Bechara, A., & Tranel, D. (2006). Psychophysiological anticipation of positive outcomes promotes advantageous decision-making in older persons.
International Journal of Psychophysiology, 61(1), 19 25.
Ferris, G. R., Perrewe, P. L., & Douglas, C. (2002). Social effectiveness in organizations:
Construct validity and research directions. Journal of Leadership & Organizational
Studies, 9, 49 63.
Fogassi, L., Ferrari, P. F., Gesierich, B., Rozzi, S., Chersi, F., & Rizzolatti, G. (2005). Parietal
lobe: From action organization to intention understanding. Science, 308, 662 667.
Gallese, V., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., & Rizzolatti, G. (1996). Action recognition in the premotor cortex. Brain, 119(Pt. 2), 593 609.
Grandey, A. A. (2000). Emotional regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize
emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 95 110.
Greene, J. D., Cushman, F. A., Stewart, L. E., Lowenberg, K., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D.
(2009). Pushing moral buttons: The interaction between personal force and intention in
moral judgment. Cognition, 111, 364 371.
Gross, J. J. (1999). Emotion regulation: Past, present, future. Cognition and Emotion, 13,
551 573. doi:10.1080/026999399379186
Hannah, S. T., Balthazard, P. A., Waldman, D. A., Jennings, P., & Thatcher, R. (2013). The
psychological and neurological bases of leader self-complexity and effects on adaptive
decision-making. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98, 393 411.
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J., & Rapson, R. L. (1994). Emotional contagion. Paris: Cambridge
University Press.
Herrald, M. M., & Tomaka, J. (2002). Patterns of emotion-specific appraisal, coping, and cardiovascular reactivity during an ongoing emotional episode. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 83(2), 434.
Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

25

Hulsheger, U. R., & Schewe, A. F. (2011). On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A
meta-analysis of three decades of research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,
16(3), 361 389.
Iacoboni, M. (2009). Imitation, empathy, and mirror neurons. Annual Review of Psychology,
60, 653 670.
Izard, C. E. (2009). Emotion theory and research: Highlights, unanswered questions, and
emerging issues. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 1 25.
Kandasamy, N., Hardy, B., Page, L., Schaffner, M., Graggaber, J., Powlson, A. S., &
Coates, J. (2014). Cortisol shifts financial risk preferences. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, 111(9), 3608 3613.
Kosfeld, M., Heinrichs, M., Zak, P. J., Fischbacher, U., & Fehr, E. (2005). Oxytocin increases
trust in humans. Nature, 435(7042), 673 676.
Kreibig, S. D. (2010). Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review. Biological
Psychology, 84(3), 394 421.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Lieberman, M. D., Berkman, E. T., & Wager, T. D. (2009). Correlations in social neuroscience
arent voodoo. Perspectives in Psychological Science, 4, 300 310.
Lindebaum, D., & Jordan, P. J. (2014). A critique on neuroscientific methodologies in organizational behavior and management studies. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35,
898 908.
Lindquist, K. A., Wager, T. D., Kober, H., Bliss-Moreau, E., & Barrett, L. F. (2012). The
brain basis of emotion: A meta-analytic review. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35,
121 202.
Lopatovska, I., & Arapakis, I. (2011). Theories, methods and current research on emotions in
library and information science, information retrieval and human-computer
Interaction. Information Processing and Management. doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2010.09.001
Lundberg, U. (2005). Stress hormones in health and illness: The roles of work and gender.
Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(10), 1017 1021.
Mauss, I. B., & Robinson, M. D. (2009). Measures of emotion: A review. Cognition and
Emotion, 23, 209 237.
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2000). Selecting a measure of emotional
intelligence: The case for ability scales. In R. Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.),
The handbook of emotional intelligence (pp. 320 342). New York, NY: Jossey-Bass.
Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey &
D. J. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence (pp. 267 298).
New York, NY: Basic Books.
Melamed, S., Ugarten, U., Shirom, A., Kahana, L., Lerman, Y., & Froom, P. (1999). Chronic
burnout, somatic arousal and elevated salivary cortisol levels. Journal of Psychosomatic
Research, 46(6), 591 598.
Mitchell, T. R., Thompson, L., Peterson, E., & Cronk, R. (1997). Temporal adjustments in the
evaluation of events: The rosy view. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
33(4), 421 448.
Niedermeyer, E., & Silva, F. L. (1995). Electroencephalography: Basic principles, clinical applications and related fields. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkin.
Nikula, R. (1991). Psychological correlates of nonspecific skin conductance responses.
Psychophysiology, 28(1), 86 90.

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

26

SUZANNE J. PETERSON ET AL.

Panksepp, J. (2000). Affective consciousness and the instinctual motor system: The neural sources
of sadness and joy. The caldron of consciousness: Motivation, affect and self-organization,
advances in consciousness research. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Pub. Co.
Pantelopoulos, A., & Bourbakis, N. G. (2010). A survey on wearable sensor-based systems for
health monitoring and prognosis. Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C: IEEE
Transactions on Applications and Reviews, 40, 1 12.
Passarelli, A. M. (2014). The heart of helping: Psychological and physiological effects of contrasting coaching interactions. Doctoral dissertation, Case Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, OH.
Pennebaker, J. W., Hughes, C. F., & OHeeron, R. C. (1987). The psychophysiology of confession: Linking inhibitory and psychosomatic processes. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 52(4), 781 793.
Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2003). Trait emotional intelligence: Behavioural validation in
two studies of emotion recognition and reactivity to mood induction. European Journal
of Personality, 17, 39 57.
Pugh, D. S. (2001). Service with a smile: Emotional contagion in the service encounter.
Academy of Management Journal, 44, 1018 1027.
Radke, S., & De Bruijn, E. R. A. (2012). The other side of the coin: Oxytocin decreases the
adherence to fairness norms. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 193.
Raichle, M. E. (2010). Two views of brain function. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 180 190.
Raichle, M. E., & Snyder, A. Z. (2007). A default mode of brain function: A brief history of
an evolving idea. Neuroimage, 37, 1083 1090.
Reynolds, S. J. (2006). A neurocognitive model of the ethical decision-making process:
Implications for study and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 737 748.
Reynolds, S. J., Leavitt, K., & DeCelles, K. (2010). Automatic ethics: The effects of implicit
assumptions and contextual cues on moral behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95,
752 760.
Robinson, M. D., & Clore, G. L. (2002). Episodic and semantic knowledge in emotional selfreport: Evidence for two judgment processes. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 83(1), 198 215.
Scherer, K. R. (1984). Emotion as a multicomponent process: A model and some cross cultural
data. Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 37 63.
Sequeira, H., Hot, P., Silvert, L., & Delplanque, S. (2009). Electrical autonomic correlates of
emotion. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71(1), 50 56.
Stallen, M., de Dreu, C. K. W., Shalvi, S., Smidts, A., & Sanfey, A. G. (2012). The herding
hormone oxytocin stimulates in-group conformity. Psychological Science, 23(11),
1288 1292.
Tepper, B. J. (2007). Abusive supervision in work organizations: Review, synthesis, and
research agenda. Journal of Management, 33(3), 261 289.
Timoshanko, A., Desmond, P., Camfield, D. A., Downey, L. A., & Stough, C. (2014).
A magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MRS) investigation into brain metabolite
correlates of ability emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 65,
69 74.
Tomaka, J., Blascovich, J., Kibler, J., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Cognitive and physiological antecedents of threat and challenge appraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
73(1), 63 72.

Using Physiological Methods to Study Emotions in Organizations

27

Downloaded by University of Toronto At 12:54 07 February 2016 (PT)

Waldman, D. A., Balthazard, P. A., & Peterson, S. J. (2011a). The neuroscience of leadership:
Can we revolutionize the way that leaders are identified and developed? Academy of
Management Perspectives, 25, 60 74.
Waldman, D. A., Balthazard, P., & Peterson, S. J. (2011b). Social cognitive neuroscience and
leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 1092 1106.
Waldman, D. A., Wang, D., Stikic, M., Berka, C., Balthazard, P. A., Richardson, T.,
Maak, T. (2013). Emergent leadership and team engagement: An application of
neuroscience technology and methods. Academy of Management Best Paper
Proceedings.
Walter, F., Cole, M. S., & Humphrey, R. H. (2011). Emotional intelligence: Sine qua non of
leadership or folderol? Academy of Management Perspectives, 25, 45 59.