29

Propeller Tbeory
';'

CHAPTER

the shape of the propeller. The blade element theories, on the other hand,
explain the effect of propeller geometry on its performance but give the erroneous result that the ideal efficiency of a propeller is 100 percent. The
divergence between the two groups of theories is explained by the circulation theory (vortex theory) of propellers initially formulated by Prandtl and
Betz (1927) and then developed by a number of others to a stage where it
is not only in agreement with experimental results but may also be used for
the practical design of propellers.

Propeller

Theory

3.2
3.1

Introduction

Axial Momentum

Theory

Although the screw propeller was used for ship propulsion from the beginning of the 19th Century, the first propeller theories began to be developed only some fifty years later. These early theories followed two schools
of thought. In the momentum theories as developed by Rankine, Greenhill and R.E. Froude for example, the origin of the propeller thrust is explained entirely by the change in the momentum of the fluid due to the
propeller. The blade element theories, associated with Weissbach, Redtenbacher, W. Froude, Drzewiecki and others, rest on observed facts rather
than on mathematical principles, and explain the action of the propeller in
terms of the hydrodynamic forces experienced by the radial sections (blade
elements) of which the propeller blades are composed. The momentum theories are based on correct fundamental principles but give no indication of

In the axial momentum theory, the propeller is regarded as an "actuator

disc"which imparts a sudden increase in pressure to the fluid passing through
it. The mechanism by which this pressure increase is obtained is ignored.
Further, it is assumed that the resulting acceleration of the fluid and hence
the thrust generated by the propeller are uniformly distributed over the disc,
the flow is frictionless, there is no rotation of the fluid, and there is an unlimited inflow of fluid to the propeUer. The acceleration of the fluid involves
a contraction of the fluid column passing through the propeller disc and,
since this cannot take place suddenly, the acceleration takes place over some
distance forward and some distance aft of the propeller disc. The pressure
in the fluid decreases gradually as it approaches the disc, it is suddenly increased at the disc, and it then gradually decreases as the fluid leaves the
disc. Consider a propeller (actuator disc) of area Ao advancing into undisturbed fluid with a velocity VA. A uniform velocity equal and opposite to VA
is imposed on this whole system, so that there is no change in the hydrodynamic forces but one considers a stationary disc in a uniform flow of velocity
VA, Let the pressures and velocities in the fluid column passing through the
propeller disc be Po and VA far ahead, Pi and VA+ Vi just ahead of the disc,
P~ and VA+vdust behind the disc, and P2 and VA+V2 far behind the disc, as
shown in Fig. 3.1. From considerations of continuity, the velocity just ahead
and just behind the disc must be equal, and since there is no rotation of the
fluid, the pressure far behind the propeller must be equal to the pressure far
ahead, i.e. P2 = Po.

28

The mass of fluid flowing through the propeller disc per unit time is given
by:

A study of the theory of propellers is important not only for understanding

the fundamentals of propeller action but also because the theory provides
results that are useful in the design of propellers. Thus, for example, propeller theory shows that even in ideal conditions there is an upper limit to
the efficiency of a propeller, and that this efficiency decreases as the thrust
loading on the propeller increases. The theory also shows that a propeller
is most efficient if all its radial sections work at the same efficiency. Finally, propeller theory can be used to determine the detailed geometry of a
propeller for optimum performance in given operating conditions.

30

Basic'Ship

Propulsion

FLUID COLUMN
FAR AHEAD

AREA 'Ao

:.31

This delivered power is also equal to the work done by the thrust on the
'
,',
fluid per unit time, i.e. :

ACTUATOR DISC
FAR ASTERN

Propeller Theory

PD "'"

r (;t + VI)

(3~~)

'

It therefore follows that:

I

~.--.--.--.PRESSURES
VELOCITIES

P2
I

VA+Y2

P,'
VA+vl

VA+v1

'

(3.5)

i.e. half the increase in axial velocity due to the propeller takes place ahead
of it and half behind it.

Po
VA

= 2 V2

VI

The same result may be obtained in a different way. By applying the

Bernoulli theorem successively to the sections far ahead and just ahead of
the propeller, and to the sections far behind and just behind the propeller,
one obtains:

P.'
1

~=~

~
Po+
P2+

~
PRESSUREVARIATION
Figure 3.1 : Action of an Actuator

Disc in the Axial Momentum

= PI + ~ p (;t + VI)2

~ p ;t 2

(;t

+ V2)2 = P~+

~ p (;t + VI)2

Theory.

= 2P[(VA+ V2)

PI - PI

where p is the density of the fluid. This mass of fluid is accelerated from
a velocity VA to a velocity VA + V2 by the propeller, and since the propeller
thrust T is equal to the change of axial momentum per unit time:
m (V4. + V2 - VA)

pAo (VA + VI) V2

(3.2)

The total power delivered to the propeller PD is equal to the increase in

the kinetic energy of the fluid per unit time, i,e, :

PD =
-

m [(VA + V2)2 - VA2]

T ("A + ~ V2)

(3,7)

~ V2)

2'2

- VA ]
(3.8')

V2

(3.1)

m=pAO(VA+VI)

~o that, noting that P2 = Po:

= P (VA +

(3.6)

pAo (V4 + VI)V2 (v4. + ~ V2)

The propeller thrust is given by:

T

= (p~ - PI)

pAo (;t + ~ V2)V2

(3,9)

,
so that by comparing Eqns. (3.2) and (3.9), one again obtains Eqn. (3,5).
The useful work done by the propeller per unit time is TVA. The efficiency
of the propeller is therefore:
T;t

T;t

PD

T (;t +

TJi=-=
(3.3)

Ao

1 + -.!.

1+ a

=--v=~ V2)

"A

(3.10)

32
where a

= Vl/VA

is the axial inflow factor,

and vland

Basic Ship Propulsion

Propeller Theory

V2 are the axial induced

which gives:

velocities at the propeller and far behind it. The efficiency 'T/iis called the
"ideal efficiency" because the only energy loss considered is the kinetic energy
lost in the fluid column behind the propeller, i.e. in the propeller slipstream,
and the other losses such as those due to viscosity, the rotation of the fluid
and the creation of eddies are neglected.

= 0.9425 ms-I

VI

= 0.2356

a
V2

= 1.8850ms-1

1/i

0.8093

PD

T VA

30.0 X 4.0

The thrust loading coefficient of a propeller is defined as:

CTL

=-

! pAo

(3.11)

the value of T from Eqn. (3.2) and noting that

tI2= 2a"A, and a = (1/'T/i)-

1/i

Vl

= a,.t,

= -

0.8093

= 148.27kW
30.0 x 1000

= -

1.1645

1, one obtains:

2
'T/i

If CT L reduces to zero, i.e. T = 0, the ideal efficiency 'T/ibecomes equal to 1.

If, on the other hand, VA tends to zero, 'T/ialso tends to zero, although the
propeller still produces thrust. The relation between thrust and delivered
power at zero speed of advance is of interest since this condition represents
the practical situations of a tug applying a static pull at a bollard or of a
ship at a dock trial. For an actuatotdisc
propeller, the delivered power is
given by:
TVA
1
./
(3.13)
PD = = 2 T VA(1+ V 1 + Cn)

(3.12)

= 1 + VI + Cn

This is an important result, for it shows that the maximum efficiency of a

propeller even under ideal conditions is limited to a value less than 1, and
that this efficiency decreases as the thrust loading increases. It therefore follows that for a given thrust, the larger the propeller the greater its efficiency,
other things being equal.
Example

1 +a

VA2
CTL

Substituting

33

'T/i

As VA tends to zero, 1 + VI + CTL tends to VCTL, so that in the Ihnit:

A propeller of 2.0m diameter produces a thrust of 30.0kN when advancing at a

speed of 4.0m per see in sea water. Determine the power delivered to the propeller,
the. velocities in the slipstream at the propeller disc and at a section far astern, the
thrust loading coefficientand the ideal efficiency.

Ii

PD

"

! T "A VCn =

[4 T VA

= ~4 D2 = 3.1416m2

= 2.0m

Ao

= 30.0kN

. p=1025kgm-3

VA2 ]

[ 2pAo ]

that is,

T = p Ao (VA+ vd 2 VI
so that!
1025 x 3.1416 (4.0 + VI) 2 VI

VA = 4.0ms-1

! p Ao
~

T3
D

= 30.0 x 1000

TrT
PDY~

= )2,

VA

=0

(3.14)

,,\

Basic Ship Propulsion

34

This relation between thrust and delivered power at zero velocity of advance for a propeller in ideal conditions thus has a value of.;2. In actual
practice, the value of this relation is considerably less.
Example

35

Propeller Theory
ACTUATOR DISC
AREA Ao
ANGULAR VELOCITY w

FAR ASTERN

A propeller of 3.0m diameter absorbs 700kW in the static condition in sea water.
What is its thrust?

.' " " "

-' --,-.~/
,. ',.
,. -,'"
7-

/
D = 3.0m

Ao =

~4 D2

= 7.0686m2-

,-

",'"

",-

"

--

/,,-

,./~~/~---~~==~

",'" "'~- ---~"""

",,'..L",,,,'"",,,,'"
",,,,'"""""""",
",-,- ---------".
"''''''''''''
-'-'/"

",'" '"

'" ",'" -- --

------

_./""",,,,'"",,,,"''''-,,,,,,;,,,,",,-':--:---::----------

J/

- - - -<>:::.-::::::::::::===

PD = 700kW

p = 1025kgm-3

FLUID VELOCITIES
VA +v2

T3 = 2pAoP'b

,.

FAR AHEAD

= 2x 1025 x 7.0686 x (700 x 1000)2kgm-3m2(Nms-1)2

w,

ANGULAR -

W2

VA
0

VA+v,

AXIAL

= 7100.39x 1012N3
3.2 : Action of a

Figure

Propeller

in the Impulse

Theory.

T = 192.20kN

The thrust developed by the element is determined from the change in the
axial momentum of the fluid per unit time:

3.3

Momentum

Theory Including Rotation

dT

In this theory, also sometimes called the impulse theory, the propeller is
regarded as imparting both axial and angular acceleration to the fluid flowing
through the propeller disc. Consider a propeller of disc area Ao advancing
into undisturbed water with an axial velocity VA while revolving with an
angular velocity UI. Impose a uniform velocity equal and opposite to VA on
the whole system so that the propeller is revolving with an angular velocity
c.Jat a fixed position. Let the axial and angular velocities of the fluid then
be VA + vI and Ull at the propeller disc and VA + V2 and Ul2far downstream,
as shown in Fig. 3.2. The mass of fluid flowing per unit time through an
annular element between the radii r and r + dr is given by:

dm [(VA + V2)

VA] = P dAo (VA + VI).V2

(3.16)

The torque of the element is similarly obtained from the change'in angular
momentum per unit time:
dQ

dm r2 (Ul2

0)

pdAo (VA+ VI)

Ul2 r2

(3.17)

The work done by the element thrust is equal to the increase in the axial
kinetic energy of the fluid flowing through the annular element. Per unit
time, this is given by:
dT(VA

+ VI)

~ dm [(VA

+ V2? -

VA2]

that is,
dm

p dAo (VA + VI)

where dAo is the area of the annular element.

(3.15)
p dAo (VA + V2) v2 (VA + VI)

~ p dAo (VA + VI) v2 (2 VA + V2Y

.'

36

Basic Ship Propulsion

.;\so that:
VI

(3.18)

2V2

This is the same result as obtained in the axial momentum theory,

Eqn. (3.5). The work done per unit time by the element torque is similarly equal to the increase in the rotational kinetic energy of the fluid per
unit time, i.e. :
dQUJl =

! dmr2

[UJ~ -

where a' = UJI/UJand a = VI/~ are the rotational and axial inflow factors,
VI and V2 are the axial induced velocities at the propeller and far downstream, UJIand UJ2being the corresponding angular induced velocities. It
may be seen by comparing this expression for efficiency,Eqn. (3.20), with
the expression obtained in the axial momentum theory, Eqn. (3.10), that the
effect of slipstream rotation is to reduce the efficiencyby the factor (1- a').
By making the substitutions:
dAo = 27rr dr,
UJl = a' UJ

0]

= ! dQUJ2
so that,

V2 = 2a ~

VI = a~,
UJ2 = 2a' UJ

in Eqns. (3.16) and (3.17), one obtains:

= ~ p dAo(~ + VI)UJ2
r2 W2

UJl

37

Propeller Theory

(3.19)

2 UJ2

(3.21)

dQ = 47rpr3 dr VAUJa' (1 + a)

(3.22)

The efficiency of the annular element is then given by:

'1/=-=

Thus, half the angular velocity of the fluid is acquired before it reaches
the propeller and half after the fluid leaves the propeller.
The total power expended by the element must be equal to the increase
in the total kinetic energy (axial and rotational) per unit time, or the work
done by the element thrust and torque on the fluid passing through the
element per unit time:

dT = 47rprdr VA2a(1 + a)

dTVA
dQw

47rprdrVA2'a(l+a)VA
47rpr3drVAUJa'(I+a)UJ

=--

a VA2
a'UJ2r2

(3.23)

Comparing this with Eqn. (3.20), one then obtains:

a VA2
'1/----- a' UJ2r2 -

I-a'
1+ a

or,
dQUJ = dT (~+

VI)+ dQUJl

a'(I-

a') UJ2r2

= a (1 + a) tA,2

(3.24)

This gives the relation between the axial and rotational induced velocities
in a propeller when friction is neglected.

that is,
dT (VA+ Vl)

= dQ

(UJ

UJl)

Example

and the efficiency of the element is then:

dTVA

'1/---'
-

(UJ

- UJI)VA

1- ~

dQUJ - (~+ VI)UJ - 1 +

UJ_-

~-

1- a'
1+ a

(3.20)

A propeller of diameter 4.0 m has an rpm of 180 when advancing into sea water at
a speed of 6.0 m per sec. The element of the propeller at 0.7R produces a thrust of
200 kN per m. Determine the torque, the axial and rotational inflow factors, and
the efficiency of the element.

Basic Sbip Propulsion

38
D

I ..'

= 4.0m

= 180rpm = 3.0s-1

= 0.7R = 0.7 x 2;0 =

dT
dr

211"n

611"radians

VA

~=

104m

= 6.0ms-1

200kN m-1

per see

= 411"prVA2a(1+a)

so that,

411"
x 1025x 1.4x 6.02a(l + a)

= 200 x 1000

,I
{'Ii
;l

39

Propeller Tbeory

3.4

Blade Element Theory

The blade element theory, in contrast to the momentum theory, is concerned

with how the propeller generates its thrust imd how this thrust depends upon
the shape of the propeller blades. A propeller blade is regarded as being composed of a series of blade elements, each of which produces a hydrodynamic
force due to its motion through the fluid. The axial component of this hydrodynamic force is the element thrust while the moment about the propeller
axis of the tangential component is the element torque. The integration of
the element thrust and torque over the radius for all the blades gives the
total thrust and torque of the propeller.

which gives,

L
a = 0.2470
a' (1 - a') w2r2 = a (1 + a) VA2

that is,

x 1.42 = 0.2470(1+ 0.2470)x 6.02

a'(l - a')(671')2
or,

at = 0.01619

dQ = 411"
P r3 VAw a' (1 + a)
dr

= 471'x 1025 X 1.43 x 6.0 x 611"x 0.01619 x 1.2470

1
J<-c-f

= 80.696 kNmm-1

Figure 3.3: Lift and Drag of a Wing.

1)

11-+ a'
a-IdT
-VA

= ..!k

~w

1 -+ 0.01619
0.2470
-

= 0.7889

200 x 6.0

- 80.696X

611"

0.7889

Consider a wing of chord (width) c and span (length) s at' an angle of attack Q: to an incident flow of velocity V in a fluid of density p, as shown in Fig. 3.3. The wing develops a hydrodynamic force
whose components normal and parallel to V are the lift L and the drag
D. One defines non-dimensional lift and drag coefficients as follows:

I
I

40

Basic Ship. Propulsion

=
=

41

Theory

~pAV2
(3.25)

D
CD

Propeller

at an angle of attack a, as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). The blade element will then
produce a lift dL and a drag dD, where:

L
CL

"i

dL = CL ~pcdrVA
(3.26)

~pAV2

where A = s c is the area of the wing plan form. These coefficients depend
upon the shape of the wing section, the aspect ratio sj c and the angle of
attack, and are often determined experimentally in a wind tunnel. These
experimental values may then be used in the blade element theory, which
may thus be said to rest on observed fact.
dL

dD = CD ~pcdrVA
If the thrus~ and torque produced by the elements between r and r + dr
for all the Z blades are dT and dQ, then from Fig.3.4(a):

dT

1
r Z dQ

dL cos {3.- dD sin {3

dL cos {3

(1 -

~~

dD
.
dL sm{3- dD cos {3 = dL cos {3 tan {3+ dL

VA

tan {3

(3.27)

where
tan{3

= -21rn r

(0) WITHOUT INDUCED VELOCITIES

Putting tan,
one obtains:

= dDjdL, and writingdL and dD in terms of CL and CD,

dL

dT = Z CL . ~ pc dr VA cos {3 (1
dQ

..LdQ
rZ

tan {3tan,)
(3.28)

rZCL' ~pcdrVA cos{3 (tan{3 + tan,)

The efficiency of the blade element is then:

Figure 3.4: Blade Element

Velocities

and Forces.

1}-

dT~
dQ 21rn -

~ 1- tan{3 tan,'
21rn r tan {3+ tan,

tan{3
- tan ({3+ ,)

(3.29)

Now consider a propeller with Z blades, diameter D and pitch ratio PjD
advancing into undisturbed water with a velocity VA while turning at a revolution rate n. The blade element between the radii rand r + dr when

It will be shown later that for a propeller to have the maximum efficiency
in given conditions, all its blade elements must have the same efficiency.
Eqn. (3.29) thus also gives the efficiency of the most efficient propeller for
the specified operating conditions.

expanded will have an incident flow whose axial and tangential velocity.
components are VA and 21rn r respectively, giving a resultant velocity VR

If the propeller works in ideal conditions, there is no drag and hence

tan, = 0, resultingin the blade elementefficiencyand hencethe efficiency

42

Basic Ship Propulsion

of the most effic::ient propeller being TJ= 1. This is at variance with the

.,' results of the momentum theory which indicates that if a propeller produces
a thrust greater than zero, its efficiencyeven in ideal conditions must be less
than 1.

dQ

= Z CL' ~pcdr VJ coslh

= rZCL.~pcdrVJcos{3r

(1 - tan/h tan-y)

Theory

Example

(3.30)

Z=4
n

.~
TJ

VA 1- tan{3r tan-y -

dQ27rn

tan{3
tan{h
tan{3r' tan ({3r+ -y) -

27rnr

tan{3r+tan-y

1 - a'
tan{3r
1 + a tan ({3r+-y)

tan{3r

VA(1 + a)
1+ a
27rn r ( 1 - a') = tan{3---,
1- a

In Eqn. (3.31), the expression for efficiency consists of three factors:

(i) 1/(1 + a), which is associated with the axial induced velocity, Eqn. (3.10),
(ii) (1 - a'), which reflects the loss due to the rotation of the slipstream,
and (iii) tan{3rftan({3r + I), which indicates the effect of blade element
drag. If there jJ; no drag and tan / = 0, the expression for efficiency,
Eqn. (3.31), becomes identical to the expression obtained from the impulse
theory, Eqn. (3.20).
In order to make practical use of the blade element theory, it is necessary
to know CL, CD, a and a' for blade elements at different radii so that dT/dr
and dQ / dr can be. determined and integrated with respect to the radius r.
CL and CD may be obtained from experimental data, and a and a' with the
help of the momentum theory. Unfortunately, this procedure does not yield
realistic results because it neglects a number of factors.

15

VA

1.0

4.0ms-l

2.0 S-1

= Ii = 0.7

aaO'
CL =

(3.31)
(a)

and

= 120 rpm =
r

tan{3
tan({3r+-y)

smce,
VA
tan{3 = 27rnr

D = 3.0m

(tan{3r+tan-y)

and:

dTVA

43

A four bladed propeller of 3.0 m diameter and 1.0 constant pitch ratio has a speed of
advance of 4.0m per sec when running at 120rpm. The blade section at 0.7R has a
chord of 0.5 m, a no-lift angle of 2 degrees, a lift-drag ratio of 30 and a lift coefficient
that increases at the rate of 6.0 per radian for small angles of attack. Determine the
thrust, torque and efficiency of the blade element at 0.7R (a) neglecting the induced
velocities and (b) given that the axial and rotational inflow factors are 0.2000 and
0.0225 respectively.

The primary reason for this discrepancy lies in the neglect of the induced
velocities, Le. the inflow factors a, a'. If the induced velocities are taken into
account, as shown in Fig. 3.4(b), one obtains:
dT

Propeller

= 0.5 m
p

6.0 per radian

0'0

= 2

CL
CD

= 30

1025kgm-3

Neglecting induced velocities:

tan<p

/D
1.0
= -P7rX
= -7rxO.7

tan f3

= -

tan,
0'

CL

V~

dT
dr

"A

CD

'P - (3 =

= -30 =

CL

= a_aCL
(00
0'
y;,2

27rx2.0x(0.7x1.5)

=
=

4.0

27rnr

= 0.4547

0)

6.0

= 24.4526

(3

16.8648

, = 1.9091

0.03333

2 + 7.5878 =
180 / 7r

1.0040

= 4.02 + (27rx 2.0 X 1.05)2

190.0998 m2 s-2

7.5878

+ (27rn r)2

ZCL

0 3032

<p

pcV~ cos(3 (l-tan(3

tawy)

..
Basic Ship Propulsion

44
dQ
dr

one obtains:

= rZCL~pcVJcos/3(tan/3+tan'Y)

dT
dr

= 113.640kN m -1

dQ

= 48.991kNmm

Substituting the numerical values calculated:

dr

dT
dr
1/

= 185.333kNm-1
=

dQ
dr

66.148kNmm-1

1/=-

= 0.8918

tan/3

3.5
(b)

Given:

= 0.2000

a'

= 0.0225

VJ = [(1 + a) VA]2+ [(1- a') 271'nr]2

45

Propeller Theory

[(1 + 0.2000) 4.0]2 + [(1 - 0.0225) 271'x 2.0 X 1.05]2

-1

1 - a' tan/31
1 - 0.0225 0.3722
=
x-=
1+ a tan(/31+ 'Y)
1+ 0.2000 0.4104

Circulation Theory

The circulation theory or vortex theory provides a more satisfactory

explanation of the hydrodynamics of propeller action than the momentum
and blade element theories. The lift produced by each propeller blade is
explained in terms of the circulation around it in a manner analogous to the
lift produced by an aircraft wing, as described in the following.

= 23.0400 + 166.3535 = 189.3935 m2 s-2

tan/3I -/31 =

a
CL

VA(1+ a)
271'nr(l-

a')

--

4.0(1+ 0.2000)
271'x 2.0 x 1.05(1- 0.0225)

20.41310

a CL
aa (ao + a)

A-

~-v
~

-- 0 .3722
vr

= cp- /31 = 24.4526=

20.4131 = 4.03950

2 + 4.0395
6.0
-180
71'

= 0.6325

0 .383
7

(0) VORTEX
FLOW

=k
(b)

UNIFORM

FLOW

~~
-_-r
-V-v~

.-

(c) VORTEX IN
UNIFORM FLOW

Figure 3.5: Flow of an Ideal Fluid around a Circular Cylinder.

,
Substituting these values in:

dT

-dr = ZCL
dQ
dr

pcVJ cos/31 (1- tan/31 tan'Y)

r Z CL

~pc VJ cos/31 (tan/31 + tan'Y)

-.

Consider a flow in which the fluid particles move in circular paths such that
the velocity is inversely proportional to the radius of the circle, Fig.3.5(a).
Such a flow is called a vortex flow, and the axis about which the fluid particles
move in a three dimensional flow is called a vortex line. In an ideal fluid, a
vortex line cannot end abruptly inside the fluid but must either form a closed
curve or end on the boundary of the fluid (Helrnholz theorem). A circular
cylinder placed in a uniform flow of an ideal fluid, Fig. 3.5(b), will experience