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1.Slaughteringandrawmaterialsformeatpreservation
Productqualityandshelflifeofpreservedmeatandmeatproductsdependonthemicrobiological
andbiochemicalstatusofthecarcassmeatusedforprocessing.Inotherwords,therawmaterial
mustbeascleanaspossibleandderivedfromslaughteranimalsingoodandhealthycondition.
Obviouslythewayofslaughteringanimalsplaysanimportantrole.Manyirreversiblequality
losses,especiallywithregardtothehygienicquality,originatefromimproperslaughteringand
carcasshandling.Slaughtertechniques,particularlyunderruralconditions,cannotandneednot
besophisticated,buttheymustallowcarcassmeatwhichcomplieswithbasichygienic
requirementstobeobtainedwhetherslaughteringatthefarm,orinslaughterslabsor
slaughterhouses.
Carelessslaughterandmeathandlingresultin:
improperandinsufficientbleedingoftheanimals,leavingarelativelyhighamountofblood
inthemuscle.Asaconsequencethemeatdoesnotreachthenecessarydegreeofacidity
anditsshelflifeisreduced
improperdehidingofthecarcass,leadingtoheavycontaminationofthemeatsurfacesby
frequentcontactwiththepersonnel,pollutedfloorsanddirtytoolsandequipment
impropereviscerationthroughaccidentalopeningofstomachsandtripes,leadingto
contaminationspreadingtointernalandexternalsurfacesofthecarcass
contaminationofthemeatwhencarcassesaresplitontheground
contaminationofthemeatduringtransport,whencarcassesorpartsofthemmakecontact
withuncleanclothes,hooks,barsorcontainers
contaminationofthemeatstoredunderunhygienicconditionsandbecauseoffaulty
handlinginmeatmarkets,shopsandprocessingplants.
Ithastobeborneinmindthatfaultymeathandling,apartfromaffectingthequalityandshelflife
ofmeatandprocessedproducts,mayalsoendangerthehealthofconsumers.Massive
contaminationwillnotonlyenhancemeatdeteriorationcausedbyfoodspoilingbacteria,butmay
alsocausepoisoningofconsumersbytoxinproducingmicroorganisms.Toxinproducingmicro
organismsfindafavourableenvironmentnotonlyinfreshmeatstoredforaprolongedperiodat
ambienttemperatures,butalsoundercertaincircumstancesinprocessedmeatorevenin
preservedmeat.Appropriatehygienicmeasuresduringslaughteringandmeathandlingare
thereforeindispensable.
Aproperwayofimprovingtheslaughterhygieneistocarryoutasmuchoftheslaughter
operationsaspossiblewiththecarcassinahangingposition.
RURALSLAUGHTERINGONTHEFARM
Slaughteroperationsofsmallanimalscaneasilybeperformedwiththecarcassinahanging
position.Problemsmayarisewhenslaughteringlargeanimalssuchascattle.Thebleedingofthe
animalandcuttingoffthehindfeetisdoneonthegroundandtheopeningoftheskinofthebelly
andlegregionmayalsohavetobedoneinthisposition.Tocompleteskinning,eviscerationand
splitting,simplewoodenstructuresandropestograduallyhoistupthecarcassarestrongly
recommended(seeFigs1and2).
Remarkableimprovementsinslaughterhygienecanbeachievedbythistechniquewithmuch
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lessvisiblecontamination(dirt)andalowerdegreeofinvisiblecontamination.Thestructurebuilt
forslaughteringcanalsobeusedforcuttinganddeboningthecarcass.
SLAUGHTERSLABS
Slaughterslabsareusedinruralcommunitieswherethethroughputofanimalsisverysmall,but
whereslaughteringinthefieldshouldbeavoided.
Animalsshouldbesuspendedfromawoodenormetalframeusingagantryhoisttoensurethat
carcassesarekeptoffthefloor.
Thesimplestslaughterslabconsistsofaconcreteplatformwithgantryhoistfacilities.Theplatform
shouldbeapproximately50cmabovethegroundandslopedtoadrain.Aroofshouldbeadded
asprotectionagainstadverseweatherconditions.
Slaughterslabsshouldbefencedandroofedandhavefacilitiesforhygienicslaughteringand
adequatedisposalofeffluents.Ifpigsaretobekilledascaldingvatshouldbeprovided.
FAO'SSMALLSCALEMODULARSLAUGHTERHOUSE
TheAnimalProductionandHealthDivisionoftheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationofthe
UnitedNations(FAO)hasdevelopedamodelprojectforvillagemeatindustryinwhichoneofthe
maincomponentsisasmallscalemodularslaughterhouse.Thedesignincorporatestheuseof
locallyavailableconstructionmaterialsandunsophisticatedequipment.Theslaughterhousecan
bebuiltinmodules,addingunitstothecentralslaughterhallforoperationssuchasbyproduct
utilization,meatpreservation,processingandbutchering.Designshavealsobeenpreparedfor
theconstructionofameatmarketinordertofacilitatetheintegrationofproduction,processing
andmarketing.
FIG.1.
Simplewoodenstructuretohoistslaughteranimalafterbleeding.

FIG.2.
Removalofskinfromthehangingcarcass.

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Itisintendedthatfromthebasicnucleusanumberofsmallscaleindustriesbedeveloped
consecutively,e.g.meatpreservationbylowcosttechnologies,traditionaltanning,handicrafts
basedonhides,skin,boneandhorns,etc.Theobjectiveistoincreaseemployment,inparticular
forruralwomen,createmarketoutletsforlivestockproductsandincreasetheincomeofsmall
producers.
Theprojectcouldbecomeafocusforfarmerorganizationandacentreoftechnicalassistancefor
producers.Theorganizationofsmallproducersisindispensabletoensuretheirparticipationand
forthesuccessandcontinuityoftheproject.
FAOispromotingtheestablishmentofslaughterhousesofthistypeinsomeruralareasbecause
thiswouldincreasetheavailabilityandqualityofmeat,improvetheutilizationofbyproducts,
avoidruralmigrationandincreaseemployment.Theslaughterhousesmay,therefore,constitutea
toolforruraldevelopment,increasingtheincomelevelinthecountrysideandvillages,thus
improvingthelivingconditionsoftheruralcommunities.
Ruralslaughterhousescanalsofacilitateveterinarycontroloflivestock(antemorteminspection)
andcarcassmeat(postmorteminspection).Slaughteringcanbeorganizedtofollowa
determineddailyorweeklytimescheduleforwhichcompulsoryveterinarycontrolscanbe
arranged.Inaddition,adequatetechnicalfacilitiesforefficientmeatinspectioncanbeprovided,
i.e.verticalpositionofthecarcassesandspecialplatformsforthepersonnel.Specialhooksor
inspectiontablescanbeprovidedfortheinspectionofinternalorgans.
ThedetaileddesignforasmallscalemodularslaughterhousewasdevelopedbyFAO.Itincludes
designs,specifications,andscheduleofquantitiesforaslaughterhouseandmeatmarketsuitable
forsmallcommunities.
Provisionismadeforslaughterofallspecies:cattle(orbuffalo),sheep,goatsandpigs,though
becauseofspacelimitations,concurrentslaughterof
differentspeciesisnotpossible.Theabattoircapacitywillbedependentonthemixofanimals
beingslaughtered.Dailythroughputsofapproximately10largestock(e.g.cattle)or50small
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stock(sheep,goatsorpigs)oracombinationthereofcouldbeachievedwiththisdesign.
Thefacilitiesaredividedintomoduleswhichcanbecombinedasrequiredtosuitaparticular
location.
Thefollowingmodulesareincluded:
Lairage
Slaughterfloor
Chiller
Triperoom
Meatcuttingandprocessingroom
Solidwasteandblooddisposal
Hidesandskinprocessing
Effluentdisposal
Electriclightandpower
Watersupply
Meatmarket
ApossibleoverallabattoirlayoutbasedonthesemodulesisshowninFig.3.Thislayoutshowsa
typicalarrangementforafacilitydesignedtohandlebeef,smallruminantsandpigs.Modifications
foralargebeefkilland/ortheeliminationofpigslaughter(e.g.forMuslimcommunities)are
possible.
Itisevidentthatwhenestablishingslaughterhouseseachcountryorevenseparatelocalitiesmust
adoptasolutionincorporatingspeciallocalconditions,locallyavailablematerialsandmanpower,
etc.
Thedesignsforeseeproceduresforslaughterofeachspeciesasfollows:
Cattle
Theanimalisledintothebleedingareawhereitisrestrainedbyatetherthroughthefloorring
priortostunning(usingacaptiveboltpistol).Afterstunningtheanimalisshackledbyonelegand
hoistedwitharopepulleyblock.Theanimalisthenstuckandallowedtobleedinthispositionand
thebloodcollectedinadrumfordisposal.
Oncebleedingiscompletetheheadcanberemovedandtheanimalloweredontothecradlefor
dressing.Itisalsopossibletodressthehanginganimal.Thefeetarethenremoved,theskin
openedupalongthebreastboneandthehidepartiallyflayed.Leghooksareattachedandthe
carcassraisedtoahalfhoistpositiononthespreader.Flayingcanthenbecompletedandthe
hideremoved.Thepaunchcanthenberemovedtotheinspectionbuggyandtheredoffal
(includinglungsiftreatedasedible)placedonhooksortheinspectiontableforinspection.
FIG3.
LayoutoftheFAOsmallscalemodularslaughterhouse.

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Afterinspectionthecarcasscanbesplitandquartered,thequartersbeingindividuallyhungon
thelowrail.
Oncethecarcasshasbeenpartiallyflayedandhalfhoistedasecondanimalcanenterthe
bleedingarea.
Pigs
Pigsarefirststunnedinthestunningareathenhoistedforstickingandbleedingandthen
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transferredtothescaldtank.Afterscaldingforapproximatelyfiveminutesat60Cthecarcassis
removedtothescrapingtable.Afterscrapingagambrelcanbeinsertedintothehindlegsand
thecarcasstransferredtotheoverheadrailforfinalscrapingandevisceration.Onceapigisclear
ofthescrapingtablethenextpigcanbeplacedinthescaldingtub.
Sheepandgoats
Thesewouldbeslaughteredanddressedontherailinthepigareainasimilarmannertopigs.
Thescrapingtableisremovedtoonesideduringprocessingofsheepandgoats.
CARCASSHANDLING
Afterslaughtercarcassesshouldbechilledinchillingrooms.Chilledmeatisarequirementfor
manymethodsoffurtherprocessing.However,inruralareasofdevelopingcountriesrefrigeration
facilitiesaregenerallylacking.Beforecutting,carcassesshouldthereforebecarefullyexamined
forsignsoftaintcausedbymicrobialspoilage.
Unchilledmeatasarawmaterialissuitablefordriedmeatandcertainmeatproductswhich
undergoaheattreatmentimmediatelyafterprocessing.
Whendealingwithhotcarcasses,cutsandtrimmingsshouldbeeitherconsumedorprocessed
(dried)onthedayofslaughtering.Itisobviousthatundertheseconditionsgoodhygieneduring
slaughteringandmeathandlingisofgreatimportanceforthequalityofthefinalproduct.The
highertheinitialcontamination,thefasterthemeatdeterioration,especiallyunderhighambiental
temperatures.
Inthiscontextanewwayofshorttermmeatpreservationthatcouldbeespeciallybeneficialfor
prolongedperiodsofhandlingofcarcassesormeatcutsduringtransport,etc.shouldbe
mentioned.Meatsurfacesaretreatedwithorganicacidssuchasacetic,lactic,citric,tartaricand
ascorbicacid,aswellassodiumsorbate.Thesecompoundsarefromdifferentnaturalfoodsand
nottoxicandmaybeusedaloneorincombinationasdippingsolutionsorspraysonthesurface
ofmeatandmeatproducts.Treatmentofcarcasseswiththeseproductshasprovedtobe
successfulunderconditionsindevelopingcountries.Withanaqueoussolutionof20percent
sodiumsorbate,5percentsodiumacetateand5percentsodiumchloridesprayedonwarmbeef
carcasses,theshelflifeofmeatat25to35Cwasdoubled.However,moreworkisneededon
thesubject,especiallyfortropicalconditions.
CUTTING
Aswholecarcassesofbeeforporkaretoolargetobeeasilytransportedinonepiece,theyare
splitintosidesorcutintoforeandhindquarters.Thedevelopmentofmeatprocessingintroduced
theneedforcuttingquarters,halvesorwholecarcassesintosmallerpieceswhich,accordingto
theirqualityandmarketvalue,areusedforculinarypurposesandprocessingrespectively.
Theculinarymeatintheformofprimarycutismostlysoldtowholesaledealerswhoboneandcut
itintosubprimalsandfinallyintoretailcut.Thepointatwhichwholesalecuttingendsandretail
cuttingbeginsisnotclearlydefined.Inthetraditional,small,independentbutchers'shopsthese
operationsmaytakeplaceonacuttingtablebehindthecounterinordertogivethebutcherthe
maximumopportunitytoselectthemostsuitablepieceofmeatandprepareitinamannerwhich
ismostlikelytosatisfytheconsumer.
Meatforprocessingcomprisespartsoflowerqualitybutalsohighqualitymeatforthe
manufactureofspecialproductslikehams,smokedporkloinsanddriedmeat.Itcanbedivided
intodifferentclassesaccordingtotheamountoffatandconnectivetissues.
Thereareseveralregional,country,andlocaldifferencesincuttingtheanimalcarcassinto
primaryorretailcutandbutcherypracticesvarydependingongeographicallocation,traditionand
habits,anddemandforhighqualitymeat.
Forthepreparationofdriedmeat,twomethodshavebeenrecommended.Inboth,carcassesare
dividedintotwosidesalongthebackbone.Eachsideiscutcrosswiseintotwoquarterswhichare
dividedintoprimalandretailcuts,andthenbonedandtrimmed.
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Thepistolacuttingsystem,withthesideofbeefquarteredbetweenthefifthandsixthribs,allows
thecompleteseparationofallfirstqualitymeatcutsinthehindquartersandloinregions.Fig.4
illustratesprimalcutsinthebeefcarcass.
Afterseparationoftheforequarters,theflankpieceisremovedbyfreeingthemusclesofthe
abdomenfromthoseoftheproximalpelviclimb.Separationiscompletedbyextendingthecut
downtheside,paralleltoandatadistanceofsome20cmfromthebackbone.
Thehindquarterpiece,whichcontainsallthefirstqualitymuscles,maybeseparatedintothehind
leg,rumpandloincutsbycuttingandsawingdirectlyacrosstheBicepsfemorisatapointjust
belowtheexposedpointofthepelvicbone.Theforequarterissimilarlydividedintotwoby
removingtheforelegandbladecutfromthethoraxandneck.Table1illustratesthedistributionof
primalcutswithinthecarcass.
Accordingtothesecondmethodthecarcassissplitintosides,alongthespinalcolumn.Afterthat,
thesidesarecuthorizontallyintotwoquarters:hindquartersandforequarters.Thecutlineruns
immediatelyafterthelastrib,whichexcludesleavinganyribsonthehindquarters.The
hindquartersarehookedbytheAchillestendonandtheforequartersbythelasttworibs(Fig.5).
Inbothcuttingsystemsfurtherdivisionintocommercialorretailcutsisusuallynecessaryinorder
toseparatethemusclesorgroupsofmusclesmostsuitablefordryingfromthosewhich,by
natureoftheircharacteristicsandretailvalue,shouldbesoldfreshorprocessedbyother
methods.
Table1
PistolasystemPrimalcutsexpressedinpercentageofcoldcarcassweight

Primalcut
Flankandrib
Hindleg
Rumpandloin
Forelegandblade
Thoraxandneck

Percentage
14
29
20
15
22

Source:ILO(1985)

FIG.4.
Beefcarcassshowingprimalcutsaccordingtopistolaprocedure.

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FIG.5.
Hindquarter(top)andtheforequarter(bottom)separatedbehindthelastrib.(Procedure
recommendedformeatfordrying.)

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Afterboning,themeatistrimmedtoimprovethequalityofthefinishedproduct.Trimming
consistsofremovingallorpartoftheextrafatlayers,coarsetendons,fascia,nervesandblood
vesselsand,wherenecessary,bitsofmusclewhichhavebeenimproperlycutorsuperficially
damaged.Infiltratedfat,particularlymeltedfat,mustalsoberemovedtoensureahighquality
finishedproductwhichkeepswell.Notonlydoesthisfathaveapeculiartaste,itissticky,
unpleasant,easilybecomesrancidandoftenformsabarrierwhichcaninterferewiththedrying
process.
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Thebonescanbedriedaswell.Theyshouldbecutintosmallerpiecesonacleanclog.
However,careshouldbetakentoleavetheconnectivetissueandligamentsintact,sothatthe
piecesofthebonescanbesuspendedfordryingafterhavingbeendippedintoasaltsolution
(seeChapter2).
SOMEIMPORTANTNONMEATINGREDIENTSFORMEATPROCESSING
Saltisanimportantingredientinthepreparationofmeatemulsionsforimpartingthetypical
flavourofprocessedmeatsandtocontributetokeepingquality.Thesaltcontentofmost
processedmeatsrangesbetween2.5to5.0percentofthefinalproduct.Ahighersaltcontent
wouldproduceasaltytaste.Tofunctionasapreservative,saltconcentrationsintheproductof
about17percentwouldbenecessary,fartoohighforapalatableproduct.
Nitratesandnitritesarecuringingredients.Thedevelopmentoftheredorpinkcolouristheir
mostobviouseffect.Inaddition,nitrites:
affecttheflavouroftheproductsthroughtheiractionasantioxidantsand
havebacteriostaticproperties,particularlyincannedproducts(sodiumnitriteisaneffective
inhibitorofthegrowthofthebacteriumClostridiumbotulinum).
Nitrateinitselfisnoteffectiveinproducingthecuringreactionuntilitisfirstbrokendowninto
nitrite.Thisisaslowprocesswhichdependsuponthepresenceofbacteriainbrineandmeat.
Thereforenitratehaslargelybeenreplacedbynitrite.
Nitriteprovidestheultimatesourceofthenitricoxidethatreactswiththemyoglobinpigmentof
themuscletissue.Levelsinexcessof200partspermillionofsodiumnitriteshouldnotbeused.
Sincenitrateandnitriteareaddedinsmallamounts,itisrecommendedthattheyarefirst
dissolvedinwatertoensureuniformdistribution.
Extendersingeneralareaddedtolowerqualityproductsforeconomicreasons.Someofthem
improvebindingproperties,cookingyields,slicingcharacteristicsandflavour.Theonesmost
oftenusedare:
driedskimmilkandmilkproteins
variouscerealflourssuchaswheat,rice,oats,corn
soyproductssuchasflours(containingabout50percentprotein),grits(whicharesimilarto
soyflourincompositionbuttheyarelargerinparticlesizeandmoreadaptabletomeat
products),texturedsoyprotein(similartogritsexceptthatthetextureischangedtomore
closelyresemblethetextureofgroundmeat),soyproteinconcentrates(containingabout
70percentofprotein,thatisavailableeitherinacoarsegranularformorasaflour),soy
proteinisolates(containingabout90percentprotein),usefulbothasbindersand
emulsifiers.
Variousnonmeatproteinsarebeingdevelopedforuseinsausageandprocessedmeats.These
includeproteinfromoilseedsotherthansoya,suchascottonseedandpeanuts,aswellasfrom
singlecellplantsourcesuchastorulayeast.Mostextendersareusuallylimitedto3percentinthe
drystateorto10percentafterswelling.
Seasoningisacomprehensivetermforingredientswhichimprovetheflavourofprocessed
meats.Saltandpepperformthefoundationuponwhichmanyseasoningformulaearebuilt.
Otheringredientssuchasspices,herbsandvegetablesaresupplementary,althoughnecessary
toobtainthedistinctiveflavourassociatedwithvariousproducts.
Spicesarearomaticsubstancesofvegetableoriginandincludecinnamon,cassia,clove,ginger,
mace,nutmeg,paprika,pepper,cardamom,corianderandmustard.Theyvaryincomposition.
Thearomaticandpungentcomponentswhichrenderthemvaluablearepresentinvolatileoils
andresins.Somesuccesshasbeenachievedinextractingthesecomponents.Spiceextracts
offertheadvantageofbeingeasiertodoseandtostore.
Condimentherbsincludesage,savory,bayleaves,thymeandmarjoram.Thedriedleavesofany
ofthemcanbeusedinthepreparationofsausagesandothermeatproducts.Condiment
vegetablesareonionandgarlic.
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Allspicesandseasoningsshouldbestoredunderdryconditionsandpossiblyinsealed
containers.Theyshouldnotbeexposedtodirectsunlightandshouldonlybegroundorcrushed
onthedayofmanufacture.

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