Oxford University Press

The Myth of Serial "Tyranny" in the 1950s and 1960s

Author(s): Joseph N. Straus
Source: The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 83, No. 3 (Autumn, 1999), pp. 301-343
Published by: Oxford University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/742418
Accessed: 29-10-2015 23:52 UTC
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American
Musics

TheMyth
ofSerial"Tyranny"
inthe1950sand1960s
N. Straus
Joseph
A listofAmerican-born
withestablished
before
composers
reputations
WorldWarII who in thefirst
serial
postwaryearsadopted
principles,
howevermomentarily,
is as diverseas it is fascinating
and wouldinclude
nameslikeSessionsand Copland,whowereknownin the 1920sfor
theirespousalofthecauseofAmericanmusic.Manycomposers
ofthe
nextgeneration,
madetheirinitialreputation
a subhowever,
through
serial
an
a
to
endorsement
that
for
time
the
from
scription
procedures,
mid-1950son seemedalmosta requirement
forartistic
survival.'
In thepostwarera,the 12-tonesystem
theAmerispreadthrough
swiftly
can compositional
in
and
the
1950's
and
60's
an
even
more
community,
difficult
called
Serialism
took
phenomenon
hold.2
Thanksto Boulezand Babbitt,whathad once beena stylesoonbecame
a discipline,
and one thatcouldbe taughtto students
muchmoreeasily
thantonalmodernism
withitsemphasison stylistic
diversity.
Bythe
had
become
ensconced
on
the
faculties
of
1960's,serialist
composers
America'smostprestigious
schoolsofmusic... . The generalperception
in musicalcircleswasthatserialism
had triumphed;
evenStravinsky
and
convertedin old age.As moreand morecomposers
subCoplandfinally
mittedto themethod'slockstepdiscipline,
thepublic,too,cameto agree
withthisjudgment-anditrespondedby,in effect,
givingup on new
musicaltogether.3
Chromaticidioms(mainlybutnotexclusively
basedon a
twelve-tone)
and somekindofcontrapuntal,
de"narrative,"
ongoingphrasestructure
formarethenormin Americanmusictoday[1967]justas
velopmental
orsomekindof"neo-tonality"
wastenand twenty
"neoclassicism"
years
ago.4
in an atrophied
or vestigialform,
is stillused
[W]hilethetonalsystem,
music,and evenoccasionallyin the
todayin popularand commercial
worksofbackward-looking
seriouscomposers,
it is no longer[1979]emofthemainstream.
It has beenreplacedor
ployedbyseriouscomposers
succeededbythetwelve-tone
first
initiatedbySchoenberg,
and
system,

301
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302 TheMusical
Quarterly
ofchromaticism
far
intoa world
extending
subsequently
developed
thedomains
envisioned
foritsuse.5
originally
beyond
werea
It is nowwidelybelievedthatthe 1950sand 1960sin thiscountry
In describing
postwarmusic,thestandard
periodofserialascendency.
serialism"
or"postwar
all beginwitha chapteron "integral
textbooks
oftheperiod,creating
serialism"
as theprincipalmusicaldevelopment
dominatedthemusicalscene.6Manycomtheimpression
thatserialism
poserson bothsidesoftheserialfencetooka similarview,eitherhailing
Rean unwelcomeorthodoxy.
a newcommonpracticeorcondemning
thisnotionthatin the 1950sand
accountsconfirm
centjournalistic
within
dominatedAmericanmusicallife,particularly
1960sserialism
theacademy.
false.The statusof
Buttheideaofserialdominationis essentially
serialmusicin Americaduringthe 1950sand 1960sand a hostofrelated
whoreceivedgrants
academicpositions?
questions(whoheldprominent
and rewas
music
and awards?
whose
recorded,
performed,
published,
viewed?)areempiricalmatters,
subjectto resolution
byfactual,objective
I
thatserialism
will
show
that
In
statistical
the
follows,
study
inquiry.
musicallifeAmerican
of
nevercamecloseto dominating
anyaspect
but
a
visible
indeed,thatitremained
phenomenon
effectively
marginal
theperiod.
throughout
in orientation.
notaesthetic,
The following
studyis sociological,
is intrinsically
serialism
I am notconcernedwithwhether
goodorbad,
an inevitableevolutionoran avoidablemistake,
naturalorunnatural,
Quesalthoughthoseconcernswere,and remain,alivein theliterature.7
and can neverhave definitionsofthatkindarecomplexand abstract
serial
tiveanswers.
Rather,I wantto knowwhatsortsofpowerserialism,
musiAmerican
in
the
exercised
serial
and
serial
works,
ideas,
composers
their
of
the
and
cal marketplace
1960s, period
alleged
duringthe 1950s
dominance.Questionsofthatkindarerelatively
simpleand concrete
answers.
and do admitofdefinitive
aboutacademicpositions,
one is inquiring
I willshowthatwhether
and
prizes awards,orattentionin
recordings,
publications,
performances,
15 percentofthe
wererepresented
thepress,serialcomposers
roughly
of
time,hardlya positionofdominance.Betweenhalfand two-thirds
marof
the
musical
corners
in
all
and
the
throughout period
composers,
conservative
idiom,witha stylethat
ketplace,wrotein a relatively
The othersignificant
maintained
tonality.
strongtiesto traditional
workedeitherin a freeatonalstyleor in a moreexgroupsofcomposers
oftraditionidiom.Becauseofthenumerical
preponderance
perimental
and
term
the
1950s
to
be
it
would
oriented
tempting
composers,
ally
1960san eraoftonaldominance.ButI thinkitwouldbe moreaccurate

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TheMyth
303
ofSerial
"Tyranny"
to call theperiodone ofpersistent
and healthydiversity
ofcompositionalapproach.Different
oftenacrimoniously,
but
groupscontended,
nonecamecloseto establishing
hegemony.
Of course,statistics
cannottellthewholestory.
Forexample,they
cannotmeasureprestige.
serialism
in thisperiodcommanded
Certainly
an intellectual
interest
outofproportion
to itsactualmeasurable
presence on themusicalscene.Itsoutsizedprestige
derivedfroma numberof
factors,
aura,itsassociationwiththemostrecent
includingitsscientific
and itssimplenovelty.8
It cameto seemintelEuropeandevelopments,
activeat thetimemay
lectuallychic,in certaincircles,and composers
havefeltsomeinternalpressure
to stayabreastofthelatestfashions.
I
will
far
show
share
Nonetheless,
that, fromhoardinga disproportionate
ofpowerormaterialsuccess,serialcomposers
received
only
generally
theirstatistically
ora bitless.
deserts,
proportional
butalso to reMygoal is notmerelyto debunka prevalentmyth,
storea senseofthepostwarperiodin thiscountry
as one offascinating
ferment.
SerialismemergedamongAmericancomposers
in thisperiod
as a viablewayto compose.Sometriedserialism
fora whileand later
turnedaway.Otherstrieditandpersisted
withit.At no timewasserialismmorethanone possibility
had neither
amongmany.Serialcomposers
themeansnor,generally,
thewillto dominate;therewasno conspiracy
orcabal.Duringthe 1950sand 1960s,mostcomposers
continuedworkthiscentury
themainstream
of
ingin whathas remainedthroughout
An
tonal-oriented
accurate
account
of
American
composition.
postwar
musicmustbe properly
balancedand adequatelyattentiveto thedocuofcompositional
menteddiversity
approaches.9

1. Methodology
This inquiry
is confined
to theyears1950-1969,to theAmericanscene,
and to Americancomposers
in theWesternclassicalconcert-music
tradition.ObviouslyEuropeandevelopments
but
for
impinged,
practical
reasonsI willgenerally
leave themoutofconsideration.
Forsimilarreasons,I willalso excludethemanyEuropeancomposers-amongthem
Bloch,Hindemith,
Krenek,Schoenberg,
Stravinsky,
Varese,Weill,and
afterWorldWar
Wolpe-who settledin Americabeforeor immediately
II butwhosereputation
wasprimarily
madein Europeorwhoseoutlook
remainedprimarily
Europeanin orientation.
Serialcomposers
areallegedtohave controlledtheacademy
decisionsand to have receivedthebulk
through
hiringand promotion
ofpublications,
performances,
recordings,
prizesand awards,and
reviews.
Foreach oftheseallegations,
I have attempted
to offer
an

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304 TheMusical
Quarterly
I compiledlistsofcomposers
accuratestatistical
whotaughtin
profile.
whohad theirmusicpublished,
orrecorded,
or
universities,
performed,
whoreceivedprestigious
deor
These
lists
are
described
in
grants prizes.
tailin whatfollows.Mycompletedatabaseof468 composers
activeduringtheperiodis theunionofthoselists(see appendix1).10
Each composeridentified
in thedatabasehas beenassignedto one
ormoreoffourstylistic
categories:
1. Serial(including
I defineserialand twelve-tone
in the
twelve-tone).
standard
to a precomposed
orderways.Serialmusicis musicreferable
in
of
music
is
serial
music
which
the
series
twelve-tone
tones;
ing
in thiscategory
consistsofall twelvetones.Representative
composers
areBabbittand Wuorinen.
2. Atonal.This broadcategory
consistsofmusicthatis neitherserialnor
tonal,in an extendedsenseofthatterm,butbasedon moread-hoc
ofmotivicand intervallic
procedures
relationship.
Althoughsome
commentaries
conflate
serialandfree-atonal
musicundersuchheadmodemmusic,"I willmaintainthedistinction
beingsas "dissonant
tweenthem.Representative
in
are
this
Carter
composers
category
andKirchner.
3. Tonal.The term"tonal"is usedherein a broadsenseto includenot
tonalmusicbutneoclassicalmusicas well.Music
onlytraditionally
thatis organized
around.tonal
use of
thatmakessignificant
centers,
diatonicscalesor triadicharmony,
orthatmakesextendedreference
to folktraditions
which
(Americanorothers)fallsintothiscategory,
includescomposers
whowouldhavebeenconsidered
at thetimeto
in theircompositional
idiom.Barber,
be conservative
Hanson,and
Schumanarerepresentative
composers.
This category
includesmusicthatdepartsin radical
4. Experimental.
Westernnorms,
waysfromtraditional
by,forexample,incorporating
orenvironmental
sounds.Cage
elementsofchance,indeterminacy,
in
and Feldmanarerepresentative
this
composers
category.
I have done mybestto assigneach composerto a singlecategory
basedon whatkindofmusiche orshewasprimarily
composing
during
wrotea substantial
theperiod.A numberofcomposers,
however,
amountofmusicin morethanone styleandwerethusassignedto more
I reliedon stanIn assigning
to categories
thanone category.
composers
dardreference
worksand a numberofknowledgeable
composers."
This is obviously
a challenging
and beforeI presentmy
endeavor,
I shouldoffer
fivedisclaimers
aboutmymethodology:
findings,
1. Mysurveyis necessarily
Somecomposers
activeduring
incomplete.
theperiodmaynothave cometo myattention,
or I mayhavebeen

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TheMyth
305
ofSerial"Tyranny"

unabletomakea reliable
determination
ofcompositional
I
style.
I haveoverlooked
havenoreasontothinkthatthecomposers
differ
from
thoseI haveincluded,
butmysurvey
cannotclaim
significantly
absolute
comprehensiveness.
2. Becausemanycomposers
havebeenassigned
tomorethana single
on
the
charts
willnotusuthe
numbers
statistical
stylistic
category,
add
a
in
for
way.So, example,
twenty-five
ally up
composers
simple
different
orientations.
embody
thirty
might
stylistic
3. Myfourstylistic
arenecessarily
andtheborderlines
crude,
categories
between
themarepermeable.
write
Manycomposers musicthatfalls
intodifferent
I feel
Nonetheless,
manyarehardtoclassify.
categories;
confident
thatthesecategories
in
broad
the
differoutline,
represent,
entstylistic
orientations
ofthegreatmajority
ofcomposers
intheperiodandthatmyascriptions
ofcomposers
tocategories
areboth
andcorrect.
meaningful
statistical
areintended
as probes,
studies
notas com4. Myindividual
In talking
accounts.
aboutjobs,publications,
prehensive
recordings,
I havetriedtocompile
andreviews,
performances,
prizes,
representativesamples,
butI cannotclaimtooffer
complete
descriptions.
5. In compiling
I countcomposers,
notcompositions.
statistics,
So,for
ifbothBabbitt
andBarber
hadmusicrecorded
a cerexample,
during
tainperiod,
eachwillbe counted
onceintherelevant
statistical
sumwithout
to
who
had
more
works
recorded
that
mary,
regard
during period.Thishastheeffect
ofdiminishing
theapparent
ofthe
impact
moreprolific
andthosewhohadbetter
accesstothemusicomposers
cal marketplace.
As a result,
therelative
dominance
oftraditionally
oriented
willgenerally
be understated
inwhatfollows.
composers
a statistical
ofmyentire
of468
database
1 provides
Figure
profile
American
activebetween
1950and1969.The tonalcomcomposers
formorethantwo-thirds
ofthetotal.By
dominate,
posers
accounting
serial
a
small
comparison, composers
representrelatively fraction,
just
under15percent.
Eventaking
theserialandatonalcomposers
together,
of"dissonant
modern
music"
accountfora distinct
composers
minority
ofcomposers.
Withthisgeneral
as
let
see
howthe
us
survey background,
of
fare
in
different
of
the
musical
contrasting
groups composers
parts
marketplace.

2. Who Controlledthe Academy?

Serialism's
mostpubliclyaggressive
proponents,
earlyand late,presented
and stillpresentitas theonlytruefaith.As such,theyhaveproclaimed
an orthodoxculturalchurch,withitshierarchy,
gospels,beliefsand

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306 TheMusical
Quarterly

Active American composers,

1950-69

468 composers

323

118
Serial
Tonal

Atonal
Experimental

1.
Figure

anathemas.Aftertheend ofWorldWarII itveryquicklycapturedand

dominatedAmericanacademiccircles,whichit monstrously
and bluntly
politicized.12

Firmbelieversin thatfaithareno longereasyto find,evenon thecamSerialism

puseswhereatonalityin itsmostrigorous
form-post-Webern
-was once theonlyesthetically
correctposition.13
I havehad [long,intenseconversations]
overthecourseofseveralyears
withcomposers,
of
were
whom
to recoverfromhavingbeen
many
trying
browbeaten
intosubmitting
to thedogmasofserialism
and/oracademic
Some
were
of
these
students
who
balked
at
their
atonality.
sacrificing
and
to
what
as
dated
creativity imaginations
theyperceived
enterprises
forthesakeofacademiclegitimacy.
Butotherswereolder;I remember
whoshedbittertearsas
especiallyan established
composerin hisfifties
theyearshe spentwriting
he recounted
musiche himself
detested."4
whofollowedtheatonalgospelofSchoenAfterthewar,thecomposers
and
Webern
had
taken
over
muchoftheavant-garde
and theuniberg
15
versities.
Duringthe 1950's,Serialismwasrisingtowardacademicdominance,and
CoplandesqueAmericanawasfallingintodisgrace.16

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TheMyth
307
ofSerial"Tyranny"

areingeneral
Commentators
that,whatever
mayhavebeen
agreement
thecaseinthelarger
musical
serialism
andserialcomposers
domiworld,
inthe1950sand1960s.To evaluatethisassertion,
I
natedtheacademy
whoheldacademic
at
a listofcomposers
unihavecompiled
positions
as
thatgranted
thedoctorate
versities
(Ph.D.orD.M.A.)incomposition
inrelatively
eliteandinwhotaught
of1970.Thesearethecomposers
and
fluential
institutions.
By1970,at theendoftheperiodunderstudy
one
to
of
serial
after
dominance,
years presumed
twenty
might
expect
inthesertobe working
findatleasta majority
oftheseelitecomposers
ial idiom.
Thefacts,
aresomewhat
different
however,
(seeFig.2). In 1970,
in
there
were152composers
doctoral
andI have
institutions,
teaching
beenabletoidentify
thestylistic
orientation
of111ofthem.Only
ofthese,
wereinanysenseserialcomone-fifth,
twenty-two
roughly
Andnotonlyisthata verymodest
buttheabsolute
posers.
percentage,
academic
serialcomposers
atdoctoral
institwenty-four
number-only
in
limited
of
the
serial
the
tutions-suggests relatively
scope
presence
theacademy.
Eventaking
theserialandatonalcomposers
we
together,
canseethatthesebroadly
areverymuchintheminornontonal
idioms
wasdomiity.As theperioddrewtoa close,theAmerican
academy
the1950sand1960s,bytonally
orinated,as ithadbeenthroughout
entedcomposers.
behelpful
It might
tonarrow
thediscussion
tofoureliteEastCoast
institutions
andPrinceton),
sincetheseare
(Harvard,
Yale,Columbia,
often
described
asparticular
ofserialdomination.
sources
I willdiscuss
themingeographical
from
north
to
south.
order,
Harvard
a serialist
ontheEastCoastoftheUnited
inthe'60s
States
[N]otbeing

waslikenotbeinga CatholicinRomeinthethirteenth
Itwas
century.
therespectable
thingto do, at leastonce.-7

the1950sand1960s,Harvard
hadonlyfourtenured
of
During
professors
Walter
Piston
retired
in
Randall
(who
1960),
composition:
Thompson
in 1965),LeonKirchner
in 1961),
(whoretired
(whojoinedthefaculty
andEarlKim(whojoinedthefaculty
in 1967).18In addition,
Harvard
hadsixassistant
ofcomposition
theperiod:DavidDel
professors
during
MacIvor
Robert
Tredici,
Fine,BillyJimLayton,
Perkins,
Irving
John

a
Moevs,andJamesYannatos.Of these,onlyPerkinscan be considered
serialcomposer.
Donald Martino,whoteachesat Harvardpresently,
is
theonlytenuredtwelve-tone
composereverto have taughtthere,and
he joineditsfaculty
after
thepresumed
long
heydayofserialism.
During

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308 TheMusical
Quarterly

Who controlled the academy?

I11 composers,at 39 doctorate-granting universities

72

38

Serial

Atonal

Tonal

Experimental

inColleges
andUniversities
2. Source:Directory
(1970-71).
ofMusicFaculties
Figure
the 1950s and 1960s therewere virtuallyno serialcomposerson the faculty;tonallyorientedcomposersran the show.

Yale
calledit,the
The ruckusin questionwasthe"greatsplit,"as Bernstein
on
one
cockbattle
side,intellectually
(pun intended)between,
pitched
the
inevitable
Serialism
as
advocated
who
sure,cutting-edge
composers
nextstepin theevolutionofmusic,and,on theotherside,composers
as the
irrelevant
whoclungto tonality-allthosefusty,
conservatives,
is
under
Serialistssawthem.... Nowadays,a revisionist
campaign
way
The 12-tonecomarguingthatthe"greatsplit"washugelyoverstated.
much
mandosquadnevercommandedanything
duringthefractious,
in comthe
was
uninterested
the
line
goes.True, squad
maligned1960's,
and
but
it
did
tonal
not
condemn
them, certainly
music,
poserswriting
music
nevercontrolledthem.Don't youbelieveit.I wasthere,studying
derantheplace,as wellas othercomposition
at Yale,and theSerialists
made
the
universities.
at
granted
appointments,
They
partments major
thetenure,recruited
thecomposition
students.'9

theearly
remained
AtYale,thelegacy
ofPaulHindemith
during
potent
ofhisdeparoftheperiod(he leftYalein 1952).In theaftermath
years
ture,the principalcomposerson the facultywereRichard Donovan

(1954-65),MelPowell(1958-69),and
(1954-60),QuincyPorter

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TheMyth
309
ofSerial
"Tyranny"
for
YehudiWyner(1963-70).20Otherswhoservedon thefaculty,
mostly
wereHope Baumgartner,
ElliottCarter,HalseyStevens,
verybriefterms,
LawrenceMoss,and BulentArel.Of all thesecomposers,
onlyMel Powa serialist,
ell can be considered
andhis musicresists
classification.
easy
Martinoalso taughtat Yale duringthisperiod,buthe wasnot
Ironically,
to teachcomposition
at thegraduatelevel(instead,he taught
permitted
classes)and wasdeniedtenurein 1966.Far
mostlyundergraduate
theory
fromdominating
thesceneor controlling
theacademicappointments,
theserialcomposers,
ofwhomtherewereonlytwo,wererelatively
mareither
The
and
or
were
tonal
fired
(Martino).
ginalfigures
quit (Powell)
(Porterand Donovan) and theatonalcomposers
(Wyneret
composers
theperiod.
al.) dominatedat Yale throughout

Columbia
tonalmusicata placelikeColumbia
inthe
towrite
Trying
University
1960'sand70'swaslikebeinga dissident
inPrague
thesamepeduring
riod,withsimilar
professional
consequences.21
the1950sand 1960s,thedominantcomposers
at Columbia
Throughout
wereJackBeeson(1950-69) and OttoLuening(1952-68). Bothcomtraditional
tonalidiom,althoughLueningalso beposedin a relatively
cameinterested
in electronicmediain thelate 1960sand,withVladimir
Elec(1964-69), helpedto foundtheColumbia-Princeton
Ussachevsky
tronicStudio.None ofthesethreewasevera serialcomposer.
Throughoutmostofthe1950sand intotheearly1960s,theywerejoinedon the
faculty
bytwoothertonalcomposers,
DouglasMoore(1953-61) and
arrival
HenryCowell (1953-62). Not until1966,withthesimultaneous
on thefaculty
ofWen-chung
and Charles
Chou, HarveySollberger,
didColumbiaeverhave a primarily
atonalcomposer,
much
Wuorinen,
lessa serialone,on itsfaculty
formorethana one-yearvisitorship
durreceivedtenure,
butofthetwoserial
ingthisperiod.Chou eventually
Wuorinenwasdeniedtenurein 1971aftera bitterbattle,
composers,
and Sollberger
leftas well.Columbiathuseffectively
subsequently
itself
of
its
serial
and ensuredthatduringthe
purged
only
composers
1950sand 1960sand up to thepresentdayitwouldneverhave a serial
composerin a tenuredposition.Traditionallyorientedcomposersdominated the scene.22

Princeton
Duringthe50'sand60's,Mr.Babbittandhiscolleagueson thePrincetonColumbiaaxiswonmanydisciples.Ifsimpler,
tonaland quasi-tonal

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310 TheMusical
Quarterly
musicwasnotactively
bannedatuniversities,
student
awards
andtenure
madeclearthatSerialism
wasthewaytointellectual
acappointments
ceptance.23
hasforsometimenowoccupied
theposition
ofelder
RogerSessions
statesman
oftheacademic
establishment
inAmerican
musical
composition.From
histhrone
inPrinceton,
hereigns
overthefashions
at
taught
countless
music
where
learn
to
university departments, tyro
composers
moreorlesslikehim.... Nobody
hasbeenmoreinfluential
in
compose
in
the
serial
promoting fifty-year-oldtechnique composition.24
heldprofessorial
rankin thePrinceton
musicdepartOnlysixcomposers
mentduringtheyearsfrom1950 to 1969:EdwardCone (1950-69), MiltonBabbitt(1952-69), RogerSessions(1954-65), EarlKim (1955-67),
(1968-69). Of thesesix,
J.K. Randall(1962-69), and PeterWestergaard
three
were
and
serial
(Babbitt,Sessions, Westergaard) primarily
only
even
So
at
the
serialists
did
not
Princeton,
dominate,at least
composers.
Of courseBabbittand Sessionsweretheprincipalfigures
numerically.
an appropriately
shareofattention
and commanded
disproportionate
and prestige.
Butevenat Princeton,
theone schoolin thecountry
where
than
a
there
a
serialcomposers
more
small
was
minority,
comprised
significant
ofcompositional
diversity
approaches.
The foregoing
surveyofserialism
paramongacademiccomposers,
for
obvious
at
elite
has
institutions,
ticularly
implications composition
thatifyouwerea studentseekinga doctoratein
students.
It suggests
in the1950sor 1960s,youwouldbe aboutthreetimesmore
composition
witha tonalcomposerthanwitha serialone.
likelyto endup studying
And tonalcomposers
dominatewherever
youlook.Theydominatethe
2
but
a
as
as
academy whole, Figure suggests, theyalso dominatedthe
theIvy
theEastCoast institutions,
moreeliteinstitutions
nationally,
axis.Of
Columbia-Princeton
and eventheinfamous
Leagueinstitutions,
in 1970,only
a doctoratein composition
thethirty-nine
schoolsoffering
claima serialdominance.So theidea
at Princeton
can one plausibly
in thisperiodwereforcedto writeserialmusic,thatthere
thatstudents
cannottellthe
false.Of course,numbers
wereno alternatives,
is entirely
and werewidely
tendedtobe younger
The serialcomposers
wholestory.
viewedas beingon thecuttingedgeofmusicalfashion.Composerswho
witha youthful
wantedto identify
themselves
mayhavefelt
avant-garde
wouldhavebeengenerto writeserialmusic.Butsuchpressure
pressure
The dominant,senioracademic comnot institutionally.
ated internally,
posers,the ones who largelycontrolledhiringand firingand who admitted and taughtthe majorityof compositionstudents,were largelytonal
in orientationthroughoutthe period.

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TheMyth
311
ofSerial
"Tyranny"

3. WhoseMusic GotPublished?
To evaluatetheentireextentofthepublicationofnewmusicin the
butmassiveundertaking.
1950sand 1960swouldbe a worthwhile
Inhave
I
relied
on
reviews
in
the
of
the
stead,
published Notes, journal
MusicLibrary
Association,duringtheperiod.This,I think,is as closeas
ofnewmusic
we arelikelytogetto a recordoftheprincipalpublications
American
I
confine
the
further
to
orchamber,
by
inquiry
composers.
As
3a-3d
solo
music
and
show,
chestral,
(see Figs.3a-3d).
Figures
piano
had theirworkspublishedduring
manymoretonalthanserialcomposers
remaina relathisperiod.Eventowardtheendofit,serialcomposers
whileserialand atonalcomposers
roughly
tivelysmallminority,
together
If
near
of
tonal
the
number
of
the
tonal
hegemony
equal
composers.
is erodedlate in theperiod,thatis moretheconsequenceofa
composers
riseofatonaland experimental
stylesthana shiftto a serialorientation.
The numberofserialcomposers
whoseworkswerepublishedand retheperiod.
viewedin Notesremainsstable,at a lowlevel,throughout

4. WhoseMusic GotPerformed?
audiences
havebeensubjected
Forfartoolong,classical-music
to-and
sometimes
suffered
exclusive
diet
of
new
music
almost
that
through-an
wasatonalanddifficult
toenjoy.
to
commission
or
schedule
Attempts
accessible
andemotionally
newmusicwereblocked
stimulating
bya cabalofatonalcomposers,
andclassical-music
academics
who
critics,
seemedtoshareonegoal:toconfine
allnewclassical
musictoan elite
withlimited
intellectual
exercise
audience
appeal.... A programming
revolution
musttakeplaceintheconcert
inthe
halls,intheorchestras,
willhavetostart
hall
operahouses.Serialism
spaceon concert
sharing
withnewmusicofbroader
programs
appeal.25
Musicalperformance,
ofnewmusic,is oftena local affair
particularly
and thushardto gaugestatistically.
Since around1910,newmusichas
commanded
a
small
share
oftheprograms
ofmainstream
musionly very
cal institutions
suchas symphony
orchestras
and operacompanies.Of
thenewmusiccomposedin the 1950sand 1960sin thiscountry,
little

was performedby mainstreaminstitutions,

and of that little,an immeasurablysmall amount was serial in construction.(It thusseems unreasonable to blame serialcomposersfordrivingaway an audience thatwould
have been veryunlikelyto have heard theirmusic in the firstplace.)
thecombinedorganization
Bythefifties
[LeagueofComposers/ISCM]
had beenseizedbyMiltonBabbittand othersofhisviewsand turned
intoa forum
foruncompromising
serialism.26

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312 TheMusical
Quarterly

waspublished?
music
Whose
101composers
1950-54:

Serial

Atonal

Tonal

Experimental

3a.
Figure

waspublished?
Whose
music
95composers
1955-59:

Atonal

Serial
Tonal

Experimental

3b.
Figure

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TheMyth
ofSerial"Tyranny"
313

Whose
music
waspublished?
1960-64:
66composers
45

14

Serial

Atonal

Tonal

Experimental

Whose
music
waspublished?
1965-69:
95composers
49

31

18
Serial

II onal

18
Atonal

Experimental

3d.
Figure
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314 TheMusical
Quarterly
It becomeseasierto measuretheimpactofserialism
ifthediscussionis focusedinsteadon organizations
devotedto performing
newmusic.Of these,thetwomostimportant
duringthe1950sweretheLeague
ofComposersand theU.S. SectionoftheInternational
Societyfor
Music
Both
had
been
in
founded
the1920s,and
(ISCM).
Contemporary
bothwereactiveintotheearly1950s,whentheybothsponsored
importantconcertseriesofnewmusicin New York.In 1954,underfinancial
and theconcertscontinuedundertheirjointauspressure,
theymerged,
theneworganization
wasmoribund
untilthe
picesin 1955.Thereafter,
1960s.
For
the
of
this
it
will
be
to evalustudy,
early
purposes
interesting
ate theirconcertprograms
bothas separateand,in 1955,as jointorganizations(see Figs.4a and 4b). Concertssponsored
bytheLeaguewere
whilethe
veryheavilyorientedtowardmoreconservative
composers,
it is striking
ISCM favoredserialand atonalcomposers.
Nonetheless,
thattheISCM also includeda numberofmoretonallyorientedcomKurka,Schuman,and Copland.
posers,including
in
The numberofconcertsthetwomergedorganizations
presented
a
of
1955wastoo lowto be statistically
but
list
meaningful,
composers
in thatyearsuggests
a diversity
ofstylesand a strongpresrepresented
oftonalcomposers
(I includethenonence,ifnota preponderance,
Americancomposers
here):Binkerd,
Copland,Ives,Klebe,Rathaus,
Talma,
Steuermann,
Valen,VillaSeiber,
Sessions,
Stravinsky,
Riegger,
"a
for
serialism"
and
call
this
forum
To
Vlad.
Lobos,
uncompromising
were
fliesin thefaceofthefacts.Throughthe1950s,serialcomposers
and even
excludedfrommainstream
institutions,
performing
largely
to them,theysharedspacewith
in institutions
thatweresympathetic
ofstyles.Nowhereis thereevidenceofserial
ofa variety
composers
domination.

4. WhoseMusicGotRecorded?
ofrecordIn 1956,theAmericanMusicCenterpublisheda discography
thecompositional
Figure5 summarizes
ingsbyAmericancomposers.27
work.Tonal
in
this
authoritative
the
of
represented
styles
composers
dominate
overwhelmingly.
composers
existsforthelateryearsoftheperiod,
No comparable
discography
thatwerereviewedin a vaso I have insteadcompiledlistsofrecordings
rietyofperiodicalsin theyears1964and 1969 (see Figures6a and 6b).28

The tonal dominance is less pronouncedthan in 1956 but stillunmistakable: the majorityof composersare tonal in orientation,while serial
composersrepresenta small and numericallystable minority.
With a fewexceptions,commercialrecordcompanies have always
been reluctantto recordcontemporarymusic,particularlymusicper-

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TheMyth
315
ofSerial"Tyranny"

wasperformed?
Whose
music
ofComposers,
75composers
League
1965054:
66

15
Atonal

Serial
Tonal

Experimental

4a.
Figure

Whose
music
wasperformed?
1950-54:
25composers
ISCM,
11

Serial
*

Tonal

* Experimental

Atonal

4b.
Figure
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316 TheMusical
Quarterly

wasrecorded?
music
Whose
135composers
1956discography:

Serial

Atonal

Tonal

Experimental

5.
Figure
The bestsourceforrecordedconteinoravant-garde.
ceivedas difficult
been
has
music
Inc.). This
CRI (ComposersRecordings,
long
porary
foundation
is
grantsand private
by
organization supported
not-for-profit
and thusis moreorlessimmuneto thedemandsofthe
contributions
in itscatalog
One wouldexpectto see reflected
commercial
marketplace.
madeto a significant
evidenceofmusicaljudgments
ofrecordings
degree
ofa smallaudienceofnewforthebenefit
themselves
bycomposers
madebyCRI from1950
musicdevotees.Figure7 summarizes
recordings
1969.
through
thefamiliar
patternrepressure,
Despitethelackofcommercial
for
the
dominate
scene,accounting a strongmapeats.Tonalcomposers
arestrongly
Serialand atonalcomposers
reprejorityofCRI recordings.
smallminorities.
sented,as one wouldexpect,butstillcomprise
accountforjustunderoneserialcomposers
As in theacademy,
recordedon CRI
But
the
fifth
ofall composers
composers
represented.
arenot,in general,
and thecomposers
teachingin doctoralinstitutions
recordedon CRI (I includein
thesamepeople.Of the283 composers
whosestyleI wasunableto ascertain),only
thecomposers
thisfigure
So Figorabout15 percentalso taughtat doctoralinstitutions.
forty-five
butwitha
different
ure2 and Figure7 aresorting
groupsofcomposers,

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TheMyth
317
ofSerial"Tyranny"

Whose
wasrecorded?
music
60composers
1964recordings:
45

15

3
U

Serial
Tonal

Atonal
Experimental

6a.
Figure

Whose
wasrecorded?
music
47composers
1969recordings:
28

15

Serial
Tonal

Atonal
Experimental

6b.
Figure

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318 TheMusical
Quarterly

Whose
music
wasrecorded?
identified
239composers
byCRI,1950-69:
Recordings
158

80
Serial
Tonal

U Atonal
Experimental

7.
Figure
similarand unmistakableresult:tonal composersoutnumberserialcomposersby about threeto one.

5. Who Got the Prizes, Awards,and Fellowships?

ManynowmaintainthattheSerialiststookoveracademia,insuring
thattheirquasi-scientific
method,whichwasidealfortheuniversity,
theargument
As theygainedprestige,
wastheonlyone encouraged.
ensembodies,new-music
continues,
theytookcontrolofgrant-giving
blesand competitions.
Everyoneelsewasshutout,especiallythosereactonalcomposers.29
tionary
and it is being
musicis a deepeningmorass,
Contemporary
avant-garde
that
smallgroupof
this
the
Establishment-in
further
case,
deepenedby
the
awards.But
hand
out
and
who
on
foundation
serve
juries
composers
I do notdespair,eventhoughI have a feelingthatourparticular
age,
is,paradoxically,
goingto turnoutto
amongall theagesofmusichistory,
durwerenotappreciated
be theonlyonein whichthegreatcomposers
these
And
who
are
lifetimes.
They
composers?
unappreciated
ingtheir
willnotallowto receivegrantsoreven
aretheonestheEstablishment
to be heard.30

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319
TheMyth
"Tyranny"
ofSerial
ofthosewho
serialcomposers
appearas a smallminority
Numerically,
or
was
music
heldacademicpositionsorwhose
performed,
published,
recordedduringthe 1950sand 1960s.It is harderto getan unambiguous
oftheprincipalprizes,awards,
butan assessment
measureofprestige,
availableto composers
andfellowships
maygivea senseofthesituation.
fewin number,
that
serial
the
case
Is it
althoughrelatively
composers,
honorsand awards?
receiveddisproportionate
nonetheless
meantoofewPulitzerPrizesto be statistically
Thereareprobably
Prize
Pulitzer
of
the
The
winners
are
the
results
but
suggestive.
ingful,
order,Gian-CarloMenotti
duringtheperiodwere,in chronological
(1950), DouglasMoore(1951), Gail Kubik(1952), QuincyPorter
(1954), Menottiagain(1955), ErnstToch (1956), NormanDello Joio
(1957), SamuelBarber(1958), JohnLaMontaine(1959), ElliottCarter
(1960), WalterPiston(1961), RobertWard(1962), Barberagain
(1963), LeslieBassett(1966), Leon Kirchner(1967), GeorgeCrumb
(1968), and KarelHusa (1969).31Thereis nota singleserialcomposer
in thetonal
ofcomposers
in thegroup,whichconsistsalmostexclusively
tradition.
The Artsand LettersAwardsoftheAmericanAcademyand Instimoremeaningful
tuteofArtsand Lettersprovidea potentially
picture
twiceas manytonalas serialcomposers,
(see Fig.8). Thereareroughly
halfof
nowcomprise
butserialand atonalcomposers
roughly
together
thetotal.
An evenclearerpictureemerges
froma consideration
ofGuggenheimFellowships
(see Figs.9a-9d). In theearlyyearsoftheperiod,the
That dominanceis somewhat
eroded
tonaldominanceis overwhelming.
neverreceivelessthana substanas theyearsgo by,buttonalcomposers
tialmajority
oftheGuggenheim
and theerosionhas as
Fellowships,
muchto do withtheemergence
ofexperimental
idiomsas itdoeswith
in
the
dramatic
rise
serialism.
entire
any
Throughout
period,serialcomreceived
one-fifth
of
the
under
almost
awards,
just
posers
exactlythe
samepercentage
ofacademicpositionsandCRI
theycommanded
Thereis no senseat all in whichserialcomposers
areattractrecordings.
in
the
form
of
or
out
of
awards,
ingprestige,
prizes,
fellowships,
proporin thepopulationofcomposers.
tionto theirnumbers

6. Whose Music Got Reviewed?

Publicattention,
in theformofarticlesand reviewsin thegeneraland
Butbefore
media,is anotherformand measureofprestige.
professional
a detailedaccountofreviewsofcontemporary
music,it is imbeginning
howsmallan impactWesternclassicalmusicin
portantto acknowledge

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320 TheMusical
Quarterly

Whowontheprizes?
Awards.
67composers
identified
Arts
andLetters
1950-69:

27
.22

Serial
Tonal

U Atonal
U Experimental

8.
Figure

Generalhistoculture.
socialorartistic
hadon thelarger
anyofitsforms
intheclasandmusicwritten
italmost
riesoftheperiodignore
entirely,
atall.3
sicaltradition
hardly
registers
composers
bylivingAmerican
Time
the
of
weeklies
the
period, was
Among general-circulation
music
its
Of regular
articles,
andmostinfluential.
thebiggest
onlya
Of
music.
tocontemporary
refer
oneinfour,
smallproportion,
perhaps
idiom
traditional
in
a
written
music
involve
all
relatively
these,
virtually
sourceofinforforwhomTimewasa principal
(seeFig.10).Forreaders
inthe1950s
of
these
more
mation-andtherewouldhavebeenmany
ofmedia-seand1960sthantherearenowamidthepresent
profusion
atall.A serialcomposition
rialism
byan American
hardly
happened
onceperyeardurthan
less
a
bit
on
was
composer mentioned, average,
ingthisperiod.
at
somewhat
wouldhavefared
better,
oftheNewYorker
Readers
music
American
tocontemporary
References
offrequency.
leastinterms
attention
far
more
as
at
morecommon,
weresomewhat
Time,
although,
thantoserialworks
idioms
inmoretraditional
(seeFig.
ispaidtoworks
ofserialmusicisderogamention
every
11).I shouldaddthatvirtually
isvirtuattheNewYorker
whosetenure
UnderWinthrop
Sargeant,
tory.
in
is
mentioned
music
serial
with
this
only the
period,
allycoextensive

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TheMyth
321
ofSerial
"Tyranny"
mostcontemptuous
tones.This is also trueoftheNewYorkTimesduring
thetenureofHaroldSchonberg,
fromthemid-1950sthrough
the 1960s.
So theimpression
givento generalreadersduringthisperiodwasthat
serialism
hardlyexisted,butto theextentthatitdid exist,itwasa bad
thing.
Formusicprofessionals
witha welland fornonprofessionals
in
interest
Chronicle
sectionoftheMusimusic,theCurrent
developed
wasan important
cal Quarterly
sourceofinformation
aboutthecontemscene(see Fig.12). Forthefirst
oftheperiod,the
porary
three-quarters
allocationofspacereflects
thefamiliar
musicalrealities:tonalcomposers
dominatethescene,receiving
a strongmajority
ofreviews.At theendof
theperiod,however,
thereis a noticeableshift.Now,whiletonalcomserialcomposers,
serialand atonalcomposers
toposersstilloutnumber
a
are
identified
as
gethercomprise majority,
althoughonlyone-quarter
serial.
Ifcontemporary
written
accountsmaybe takenas a guide,serialism
wasat besta marginal
phenomenonin Americanmusicalcultureofthe
1950sand 1960s.The classicalart-music
tradition
occupiedonlya small
cornerofourculturallife,contemporary
Americanmusica smallpatch
ofpaintin thatcorner,
and serialmusica speckon thepatch.Farfrom
thescene,whichever
sceneyoucareto lookat,serialmusic
dominating
wasalwaysat themargins.
whotaughtat theeliteuniversities,
whogot
Amongcomposers
theirmusicpublished,
and recorded,
whowontheprizes
performed,
and fellowships,
and whogotattention
fromthepressbetween1950
and 1969,roughly
arebasicallytonalcomposers-allowing
two-thirds
formybroaduseofthatterm-whileonlyabout15 percentareserial
Giventhestarkness
ofthatdisparity,
theassertion
thatsericomposers.
alismand serialcomposers
dominatedtheAmericanmusicalscenein
the 1950sand 1960smustbe judgedfalse.

7. HistoryoftheMyth
1950-59
musichastoa largeextent
consolidated
There
itself.
[1956:]Modern
was,inthecurrent
festival
forContempo[oftheInternational
Society

thatwenton in the
raryMusic]littleofthebreathless
experimentation
TwentiesorearlyThirties.Present-day
earsareinuredto dissonance.
The explosivesoundsofBartok,theextreme
dissonancesofSchoenberg,
thepolytonality
ofMilhaud,theneo-classicpatterns
ofStravinsky-all
thesehavefirmly
securedthemselves
in themusicallanguageand aretodaytakenforgranted.33

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322 TheMusical
Quarterly

Whowontheprizes?

identified
22composers
1950-54:
Fellowships,
Guggenheim
18

U3
*

Serial

Atonal

Tonal

Experimental

9a.
Figure

Whowontheprizes?

1955-59:
identified
38composers
Fellowships,
Guggenheim
29

13

Serial
Tonal

Atonal
Experimental

9b.
Figure
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TheMyth
323
ofSerial"Tyranny"

Whowontheprizes?
1960-64:
37composers
identified
Guggenheim
Fellowships,

21

13

Serial
STonal

Atonal
Experimental

9c.
Figure

Whowontheprizes?
1965-69:
45composers
identified
Fellowships,
Guggenheim

24

14

Serial
STonal

* Atonal

Experimental

9d.
Figure

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324 TheMusical
Quarterly

Whose
music
wasreviewed?
39composers
identified
Time,
1950-54:
35

4
Serial

Atonal

Tonal

Experimental

Figure
10a.

music
wasreviewed?
Whose
53 composers
identified
Time,1955-59:

41

10
I

Serial
Tonal

Atonal
Experimental

Figure
10b.

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TheMyth
325
ofSerial"Tyranny"

music
wasreviewed?
Whose
31 composers
identified
Time,1960-64:

21

Serial

Atonal

Tonal

Experimental

Figure
10c.

Whose
music
wasreviewed?
18composers
1965-69:
identified
Time,
11

4
L
*

Serial
Tonal

4
I

Atonal
Experimental

10d.
Figure

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326 TheMusical
Quarterly

Whose
music
wasreviewed?
NewYorker,
1950-54:
identified
39 composers

32

Serial

Atonal

Tonal

Experimental

Figure
11a.

Whose
music
wasreviewed?
1955-59:
47composers
NewYorker,
identified

41

8
Serial
Tonal

Atonal
Experimental

Figure
11b.

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TheMyth
327
ofSerial"Tyranny"

Whose
wasreviewed?
music
NewYorker,
1960-64:
48 composers
identified

35

SSerial

Atonal

STonal

Experimental

Figure
11c.

Whose
music
wasreviewed?
New
1965-69:
46composers
identified
Yorker,
31

12
SSerial

STonal

Atonal
Experimental

Figure
lid.

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328 TheMusical
Quarterly

Whose
wasreviewed?
music
45composers
Musical
1950-54:
identified
Quarterly,
31

10
66

DSerial

Atonal

Tonal

Experimental

12a.
Figure

Whose
music
wasreviewed?
1955-59:
identified
Musical
Quarterly,
56composers
46

15
*

Serial
Tonal

U Atonal

* Experimental

12b.
Figure

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TheMyth
ofSerial"Tyranny"
329

Whose
music
wasreviewed?
Musical
50composers
identified
1960-64:
Quarterly,
25

14

14
11

Serial

Atonal

Tonal

Experimental

12c.
Figure

Whose
music
wasreviewed?
Musical
62composers
identified
1965-69:
Quarterly,

Serial
Tonal

* Atonal

Experimental

12d.
Figure

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330 TheMusical
Quarterly
common
itgrows
harder
denominator
stillexists,
to
[1957:]Ifa single
hearwitheachdaythatpasses,
instead
ofeasier,
as onemight
expect
a maturing
from
national
Nowitisthedifferences
thatareeasier
style.
tohear.Thedazzling
ofstyles
inAmerican
musicis
symphonic
variety
ina newseries
reflected
ofrecordings
byComposers
Recordings,
Inc.34
... In
Fifties
[1959:]HowwilltheNineteen
shapeupinmusic
history?
the
current
flowed
toward
most
consolidation....
composition
pervasive
tofindindividual
waystoadaptserial
Increasingly
composers
sought
.
.
.
the
wereatwork,
to
their
own
While
consolidators
techniques
style.
directheexperimenters
werebusier
thanever.Theytookoffinvarious
....
The
tradiinto
the
field
of
of
more
electronics
tions,
notably
pursuit
methods
tionalcomposing
continued.35
In the1950sthe
has a strange
The mythofserialtyranny
historiography.
as an impormythhad notyettakenshape.Serialismis acknowledged
butonlyone amongmany.I havenotfounda single
tantdevelopment,
claim
of
serial
dominancein Americanmusicduringthis
published
decade(theEuropeansceneis considerably
Rather,commendifferent).
and
tatorsseemto agreethattheAmericansceneis one ofdynamic,
sometimes
multiplicity.
confusing,
In August1957,HowardTaubman,thechiefmusiccriticforthe
ofcontemporary
a surveythatis revealing
NewYorkTimes,undertook
and asked
views.36
He identified
"well-established"
fourteen
composers
to thirty-five.
themto identify
agedtwenty
younger
composers
promising
The groupofestablished
composers-MiltonBabbitt,ArthurBerger,
AaronCopland,IngolfDahl, IrvingFine,HowardHanson,AndrewImbrie,OttoLuening,DouglasMoore,RobertPalmer,VincentPersichetti,
WalterPiston,Bernard
Rogers,and WilliamSchuman-is heavilyorientedtowardmoretraditional
styles,
althoughthepresenceofBabbitt
The listofyounger
and Imbrieleavensthelistsomewhat.
composers
ofcomposers,
thesamerangeand proportion
showsroughly
including
DominickArgento,
JackBeeson,EasleyBlackwood,BenjaminBoretz,
KennethGaburo,EarlKim,Leo
MichaelColgrass,
JacobDruckman,
Kraft,
BillyJimLayton,DonaldMartino,LawrenceMoss,Hall Overton,
Ned Rorem,EricSalzMel Powell,GeorgeRochberg,
Daniel Pinkham,
Yehudi
Neitherin
and
Gunther
man,
Schuller,SeymourShifrin,
Wyner.
is theretheslightest
theselistsnorin Taubman'scommentary
suggestion
thatanysinglegroupis dominant.In the 1950s,then,accordingto the
virtuallyunanimousview of contemporaryobservers,the serialtyranny
had not yetbeen born.

1960-69
[1962:]Up toonlythelastfiveyearsorso,an aggressive
typeofdissonant
dodecamodernism
wasverymuchthestyle,whether
Schoenbergian

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331
TheMyth
ofSerial"Tyranny"

schoolwasbyfar
The twelve-tone
phonismorMilhaudianpolytonality.
and as timegoeson, itseemsmoreand morecertain
themostimportant,
thatthe
. . . Therealso areindications
influence.
thatitwasa withering
force.37
twelve-tone
hold,especiallytheWebemcraze,has spentits
we
serialmusicso lately
passedoutoffashion,
[1962:]In thepost-Webern
and
wastotallyorganized
usedto havetheproblemthateverything
ofequal importance.38
therefore
as a composopopular
[1963:][T]hemorerigiddogmasoftotalserialism,
sitional
wayoflifea fewyearsago.39
[1964:]It seemsclearthatsince 1950 (to takea mosthandydate) the
oftheperiodhas beenArnoldSchoenberg,
musicalfigure
dominating
justas thepreviousdecadeshad beendominatedbyIgorStravinsky.
led to
cameWebern,whosecondensedserialism
ThroughSchoenberg
inthe
musicalthinking
musicthattookoveravant-garde
thetotally-organized
nineteen-fifties.40

likemad.Orthodox
areexperimenting
[1965:]Rightnowtheyoungsters
isout.Styleratherthancontentis therage,themusicalequivaserialism
the
lentsofop and pop.Tonalityis notas dead as itseems;and,anyway,
oflivingcomarebuta tinypercentage
whoabjuretonality
composers
posers.41
aroundtodaywhoarenotrevolu[1966:]Thereareplentyofcomposers
Mr.Sessions'revolution
at all; thereareplentywhorepresent
tionary
Mr.Ussachevsky's
and plentywhorepresent
[i.e.,elec[i.e.,serialism],
all existat
tronicmusic].The astonishing
thingis thatthesecomposers
to be drawnfromthisfactis thatnone
thesametime,and theinference
hasbeendefinitive.42
oftherevolutions
is no longeravant-garde.
[1968:]The avant-garde
Thingsarebeginning
is in theprocessofusingthe
to consolidate,
and theyounger
generation
doctrinaire
is
workofthelast10 yearsas a matterofcourse.Everything
comgoingoutofthewindow,and thatis a healthysign.Theyounger
serialists
strict
(thankgoodness).43
posersareno longer
[1968:]In music,tenyearsago,theepigonesofSchoenbergand Webern
a formoftowaswriting
dominatedinternational
thinking.
Everybody
fromserial
musicthatstemmed
music,or a kindoffreer
tallyorganized
led to
thinking....Todayitseemsclearthattheentireserialmovement
a dead end.44
of
[1968:]Forwhatit isworth,I believethatmusictodayisintheprocess
onitbythepost-war
imposed
stranglehold
freefromtheincredible
breaking
I believethatbynowthevariouselementsofthatmusic-seriserialists.
electronic-havebeenweighedbytheyounger
generaalism,aleatory,
tion,and thata newmusicis in theprocessofbeingformed.45

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332 TheMusical
Quarterly
inmuchnewmusica sharpdivision
todiscern
de[1968:]Itispossible
between
to
on
content
within
the
veloping
composers
go working
ofserialism
andabsolute
bounds
hardlineforthe
music(theAcademy's
lasttwenty
and
those
who
seem
to
be
to
years)
strugglingbreakoutof
this
recent
straitjackets
imposed
by
past.46
The situationchangessuddenly
around1960.Now,claimsof
beginning
serialdomination
arefrequent.
Whatis striking,
however,is thatthey
arealmostinvariably
That
commentators
describeserial
is,
retrospective.
in
domination
notas something
as
existence
but
currently
something
thathas recently
ended.Serialdominancethusappearsto go directly
frombeingunbornto beingdeceasedwithouteverhavingbeenalive.
theentire1950sand 1960s,itis virtually
to find
Throughout
impossible
a publisheddescription
in force.Rather,
ofa serialdominancecurrently
ofthephenomenon,
whichall datefrom1960 or later,aldescriptions
mostalwaysreferto somepreviousperiod,now (thankfully)
ended.The
narrative
shapeofthestorythusdoesnothave themoreusualshapeofa
riseand a subsequent
fall.Rather,serialdominanceeitherdoesnotyet
existorno longerexists.That narrative
shapeis moretypicalof
chimerasthanofhistorical
events.

Since1969
the1970'sclassical-music
whether
audiences
During
begantowonder
alienation
andobfuscation
weretobefixtures
ofmodern
concert
life.
dissonance
and
extreme
Serialism,
Compositional
techniques
involving
on
had
become
entrenched
derived
the
so
page"
mathematically "spots
thatitseemed
there
wasno turning
back.47
inthepast
ofthetotalserialist
order
breakdown
[1980:][T]heseeming
and
of
that
thathegetheNortheastern
fewyears,
oligarchy propagated
in
this
mony
country.48
itwaseasytogetloston
after
theVelvetRevolution,
[1994:]InPrague
LeninAvenuebecame
familiar
streets.
Nameswerechanged
overnight:
hasbeengoingon inAmerican
Avenue... A similar
process
Europe
inthelastdecade,
as theideology
ofSerialacademic
musicdepartments
ismhaslostitsstranglehold.49
[1997:]The experienceto whichMr.Carter'smusicgivesauthoritative
beside
accessis thatofbelongingto a self-congratulating
coterie,lately
theclassicalmusiccomitselfwithrageat itslossofpowerto tyrannize
munity.50
soonbecamea trans-Atlantic
serialatonality
[1999:]YetSchoenberg's
whichhas onlyrecently
orthodoxy,
collapsed.5'

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TheMyth
333
ofSerial
"Tyranny"
Since 1970,themythofserialdominancehas begunto hardenintoacButcommentators
stillhave
ceptedfact,casuallyrepeatedas a truism.
troublepinningdownitsexactdates.Thereisgeneralagreement
thatit
is overand thatitendedonlyrecently,
butno consensusat all on exactly
andhumanrights,
whenthatwas.Some ideals,likedemocracy
seemto
be in an endlessprocessofbecoming.The serialtyranny,
in contrast,
seemsto have been in an endlessprocessofending,withouteverhaving
beenreliablyobservedin thefirst
place.

8. SourcesoftheMyth
Fora mythas pervasiveand tenaciousas themythofserialtyranny,
therecan be no singlecauseorsource.It is possible,however,
to identify
a numberoffactors
thatmayhave contributed
to itscreation,and that
evidenceto theconmayhelpto sustainit in thefaceofoverwhelming
trary.
1. A confusion
andatonality.
Somerelatively
uninformed
ofserialism
commentators
conflatethesetwocategories
undertheheadingof
"dissonant
modemmusic,"althoughmostofthosequotedin thisarticle arefullyawareofthedistinction.
Evenwhenthetwocategories
areconflated,
not
in anycornerofthe
do
dominate
however,they
musicalmarketplace.
Rather,tonallyorientedstylescontinueto be
themostprevalentthroughout
theperiod.
2. Therelatively
the
serial
Even thoughtheir
rapidgrowth
of
approach.
numbers
weresmall,theserialcomposers
had a fervor
and an energy
thatothersmayhave lacked.Theirapproachwas thefastest
growing,
and therapidity
ofthegrowth
mayhave servedto obscurethesmall
sizeoftheactualnumbers.
In fact,as we have seen,itwasapparently
that
between
15
and
20 percentofthejobs,recordings,
and
enough
awardswentto serialcomposers
to giveriseto themyththatin the
1950sand 1960severyone
waswriting
serialmusic.Furthermore,
the
15 or 20 percent,smallthoughit is,wasconsiderably
morethanserial
had claimedin the 1930sand 1940s,and whateverjobs,
composers
orawardstheygainedwouldhave to have comeat theexrecordings,
oftheneoclassicalmainstream.
penseofthecomposers
Peopledo not
liketo be displacedand mayunderstandably
theextentof
exaggerate
thedisplacement.
3. Stravinsky's
conversion.
In 1952,Stravinsky,
byfarthemostfamous
composerin theworld,adoptedtheserialapproachto whichhe remainedconstantfortherestofhislife.On bothsidesoftheserial
as an epochal
fence,Stravinsky's
changeofstylewasacknowledged

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334 TheMusical
Quarterly
eventand doubtlesshelpedtofoster
theimpression
that"everyone
wasdoingit."52Copland,whomadea similarserialturnat around
thesametime,mayhavehad a similarimpact.
rhetoric.
and alwaysa
Serialismwasonlyone alternative,
4. Provocative
in
the
diverse
musical
but
someserial
commitment,
scene,
minority
claimed
historical
and
aesthetic
for
their
ownmucomposers
priority
sic.No one likesto be toldtheyare"useless"(Boulez)oroutofthe
mainstream
(Wuorinen),andan understandable
angerat thesecharacterizations
have
led
some
to
the
may
exaggerate sizeoftheperceivedthreat.Some serialcomposers
mayhave beendeludedat the
timeabouttheextentoftheirowninfluence.
Ifso, theymayperhaps
be forgiven
theirenthusiasm
in whichtheywere
foran enterprise
and journalists
surveying
deeplyengaged.Historians
dispassionately
thescenehave no suchexcuse.
5. Theneedfora scapegoat.
New musichas longhad a precarious
status
withinthelargermusicalculture.This is a problemwithrootsin the
mid-nineteenth
andwithsericentury,
emerged,
longbeforeserialism
ous consequencestoday,longaftertheendoftheserialheyday,
such
as itwas.Modernmusichas longbeen in a stateofcrisis,seemingly
cutoffpermanently
froma largeaudience.In thisclimate,it is inevitableand understandable
to lookforsomeoneto blameand altoIt becomeseveneasierwhenthe
too
to
blame
gether easy
composers.
in
withthatfamiliar
can
be
associated
journaliscomposers question
ticwhipping
boy,theacademy.

9. Conclusion
The notionthatAmericanmusicin the1950sand 1960swasdominated
false.In lightofthat
and serialcomposers
is demonstrably
byserialism
a
of
serialism
to
fact,analogies
Lysenkoism,53
grayEasternEuropeanmeand ofserial
and
socialism56
totalitarianism,55 Soviet-style
tropolis,54
memandpolitburo
to Stalin,57
composers
Lenin,5sMarxists,59
Ftihrers
and thewidowof
MarkusWolf(theEastGermanspymaster),61
bers,60
EnverHoxha (theformer
ofAlbania),62appearas falseas they
dictator
areoffensive.63
The 1950sand 1960shavebeendescribedas a grayperiodofmusiwhen composershad to writeserialmusicor sufferthe
cal conformity
professionalconsequences, a timewhen therewas no otherway to get a
As I have
job or a grantor a recordingor gain intellectualrespectability.
shown,thisview is false.We need to rethinkthisperiod in American
but itsastonmusicand acknowledgenot itsmonochromaticconformity

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335
TheMyth
"Tyranny"
ofSerial
in whichmany
and ferment
This wasa periodofdiversity
ishingvariety.
musicwascomposed,
schoolsofthoughtcontendedand somewonderful
diin a variety
ofstyles.And,I shouldpointout,therewasconsiderable
within
"schools"
but
different
not
the
compositional
versity onlyamong
thisarticle,I have discussedserialism
as
themas well.Throughout
In fact,thedisundifferentiated
enterprise.
thoughitwerea monolithic,
serialmusicin their
parityof,forexample,Babbitt'sand Stravinsky's
besheersound,theirvisceralimpact,is at leastas greatas thedisparity
tweeneitherofthemand,say,themusicofSchuman.
in thispealternative
Serialismemergedas a viablecompositional
had no
riod,butonlyone amongmany.Serialismand serialcomposers
or
did
have
the
to
do
was to
to
coerce
What
they
compel.
power
power
newwaysofthinking
aboutbasicmusical
offer
an alternative,
to suggest
materials.
Butsuggestion
isnotthesameas coercion.It is timeto put
behindus in orderto regaina more
notionsofa serialtyranny
simplistic
nuancedsenseofwhatthismusic,and thiscrucialperiodin ourmusical
areall about.
history,

Appendix 1

Active
the1950sand1960s
Database
of468American
Composers
During
(1 = serial;2 = atonal;3 = tonal;4 = experimental)
Abel,Paul,3; Adler,Samuel,3; Albert,Stephen,3; Albright,
William,
T. J.,3; Anderson,
3; Alexander,
3; Amram,David,3; Anderson,
Joseph,
Leroy,3; Andrus,Donald,4; Antheil,George,3; Arel,Bulent,3; ArWalter,3; Ashforth,
Alden,4;
gento,Dominick,3; Aschaffenburg,
Aaron,3; Avshalomov,
Ashley,Robert,4; Avshalomov,
Jacob,3;
Babbitt,Milton,1; Babin,Victor,3; Bacon,Ernst,3; Bales,Richard,3;
Ballantine,Edward,3; Ballou,Ester,3; Barab,Seymour,
3; Barati,
3;
Barber,
Samuel,
3;
Barlow,
Samuel,
3;
Barlow,
George,
Wayne,3;
Barrows,
John,3; Bassett,Leslie,2, 3; Batstone,Phillip,1,3; Bauer,
Marion,2; Bavicchi,John,3; Bazelon,Irwin,1,3; Beale,James,2;
Becker,
Grant,3;
John,3; Beckwith,
John,4; Beeson,Jack,3; Beglarian,
Bennett,RobertRussell,3; Benson,Warren,3; Berezowsky,
Nicolas,3;
Arthur,
1, 2; Berger,
William,3; Berkowitz,
Jean,3; Bergsma,
Berger,
Sol, 3; Berlinski,
Herman,3; Bernard,
3; Bernstein,
Leonard,3;
James,
Wallace,2; Bezanson,Philip,3; Bingham,Seth,3; Binkerd,
Berry,
Gordon,3; Blackwood,Easley,2, 3; Blank,Allan,2; Blitzstein,
Marc,3;
Blumenfeld,
Harold,2; Boatwright,
Howard,3; Bolcom,William,3;

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336 TheMusical
Quarterly

Boretz,
1,2,4; Bowles,
Paul,3; Brant,
2,3,4; Brown,
Benjamin,
Henry,
Earle,4; Brown,
Newel,3; Brun,
Herbert,
1,2; Brunswick,
Mark,3;
Brustad,
3; Bucci,Mark,3; Burge,
David,4;
Bjarne,
Edward
Cadzow,
3; Cage,John,
4; Calabro,Louis,3; Canby,
Dorothy,
2;
Tatnall,
3; Canning,
Thomas,
3; Carrillo,
4; Carter,
Elliott,
Julian,
1;Cazden,Norman,
Theodore,
Castaldo,
3; Chanler,
3; Chasins,
Joseph,
4;
Abram,
3; Cheney,
Paul,2,3; Childs,Barney,
3; Chihara,
Timothy,
Chou,Wen-chung,
2,3; Citowitz,
3; Claflin,
3;
Israel,
Avery, Cogan,
2,3; ConstantiRobert,
4; Colgrass,
Michael,2,3, 4; Cone,Edward,
2,3; Cooper,
Paul,3; Copland,
Aaron,3; Cordero,
nides,Constantine,
Ramiro,
1,2;
2,3; Corner,
4; Cortes,
John,
Philip,
Roque,1;Corigliano,
Paul,3;
3; Crane,Robert,
3; Creston,
Cortese,
Luigi,3; Cowell,Henry,
Arthur,
2;
2,3,4; Cushing,
Charles,
3; Custer,
Crumb,
George,
Mario,2,4; Dawson,
3; Daniels,Mabel,3; Davidovsky,
Dahl,Ingolf,
3; Denny,
William,
3; Del Tredici,
David,1,3; DelloJoio,Norman,
David,3; Dick,Marcel,1,2;
William,
3; DesMarais,
Paul,3; Diamond,
3;
Diemente,
Edward,
3; Dodge,Charles,1,2,4; Donato,Anthony,
Celius,3; Downey,
2; DruckRichard,
2,3; Dougherty,
Donovan,
John,
Edwin,1; Duke,John,
3;
3; Dugger,
man,Jacob,
Cecil,
3; Edwards,
2; Effinger,
Eaton,John,
2,4; Edmunds,
John,
George,
Richard,
3; Ellsasser,
Halim,3; Ellis,Merrill,
3; Egge,Claus,3; El-Dabh,
3; Erb,Donald,
Herbert,
3; Engel,Lehman,
Arnold,
3; Elwell,
3; Elston,
Alvin,1,2,3; Evans,Gil,3; Evett,
Robert,
2,4; Etler,
3; Erickson,
Robert,
3;
Morton,
4;
Richard,
2,4; Feldman,
Farberman,
Harold,
3; Felciano,
3; Fine,Vivian,2,
Arthur,
3; Fine,Irving,
Fetler,
Paul,1,3; Fickenscher,
RossLee,1,3; Fischer,
3; Flagello,
Irwin,
3; Fitelberg,
3; Finney,
Jerzy,
Carlisle,
3; Foss,Lukas,2,3;
William,
3; Floyd,
Nicolas,3; Flanagan,
PeIsadore,
3; Fricker,
3; Freed,
Arthur,
3; Franco,
Johan,
Frackenpohl,
Anis,3.
ter,1,2; Fuleihan,
Earl,3; Gerschef1,2,4; George,
Kenneth,
2,4; Gaburo,
Gaber,Harley,
Vit2; Giannini,
Louis,3; Ghent,Emmanuel,
ski,Edwin,
3; Gesensway,
2,4; Gillis,Don,3; Giuf2,3; Gilbert,
3; Gideon,Miriam,
torio,
John,

3;
3; Goeb,Roger,3; Gold,Ernest,
fre,James,3; Glanville-Hicks,
Peggy,
Gould,Morton,3; Green,Ray,3; Grof6,Ferde,3; Gross,Robert,2; Gruenberg,Louis,3; Gutche,Gene,3;

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TheMyth
337
ofSerial"Tyranny"

Alexei,3; Haigh,Morris,
3; Hanson,Howard,
3; Harbison,
Haieff,
John,
Carter,
2,3; Harder,
Paul,3; Harman,
2,3; Hampton,
Calvin,3; Harris,
Herbert,
Donald,3; Harrison,
Lou,4; Haufrecht,
3; HeiRoy,3; Harris,
Hellermann,
4;
den,Bernhard,
3;
3; Helps,
William, Helm,Everett,
Robert,
Bernard,
Richard,
1,2; Hibbard,
1,2; Hermann,
3; Hervig,
3; Hodkinson,
2,
William,
2; Hiller,
4; Hoag,Charles,
Lejaren,
Sydney,
Lee,3; Hollingsworth,
3; Hoffman,
Richard,
1;Hoiby,
3; HovStanley,
Walter
Alan,3; Howe,Mary,
3; Huffman,
3; Husa,
haness,
Spencer,
3; Hutcheson,
3;
Karel,3; Huston,
Thomas,
Jere,
Andrew,
1,2; Isolfsson,
Pall,3;
Imbrie,
Hunter,
Frederick,
3; James,
3; Jenni,
Donald,3; Johnson,
Jacobi,
Philip,
Robert
4; Johnson,
2,
3; Johnson,
Lockrem,
Sherlaw,
3; Johnson,
Roger,
Charles,
3; Johnston,
4; Jones,
3; Jones,
3; Josten,
Benjamin,
George,
Werner,
3;
Leonard,
Kahn,ErichItor,1;Kastle,
3; Kauder,
1,
Hugo,3; Kay,Hershy,
3; Kay,Ulysses,
3; Kelly,
3;
3; Keats,Donald,3; Keller,
Homer,
Robert,
Kennan,
Harrison,
3; Kielland,
Olav,3; Kim,Earl,2,3;
Kent,3; Kerr,
3; Klein,Lothar,
Kirchner,
Leon,2; Klaus,Kenneth,
3; Klein,John,
1;
3; Kohn,Karl,1,2,3; Kohs,Ellis,2; Korn,Peter
Kleinsinger,
George,
Leo,2,3; Kraft,
Karl,2,3; Kraft,
William,
2; Kremenliev,
Jona,3; Korte,
Boris,
3; Kreutz,
3; Kubik,
Gail,3; Kupferman,
1,4;
Arthur,
Meyer,
Kurka,
Robert,
3;
LaMontaine,
2,3; La Violette,
3; Laderman,
Ezra,2;
John,
Wesley,
Latham,
William,
3; Layton,
2; Lazarof,
Henri,1,2; Lee,DaiBillyJim,
3; Lee,Noel,3; Lees,Benjamin,
3; Lerdahl,
Alfred,
2; Lessard,
keong,
3; Levy,
Marvin,
4; Levy,Burt,
4; Levy,
3; Lewis,Robert
Ernst,
John,
Hall,1;Lieberson,
Goddard,
3; Linn,Robert,
3; Lockwood,
Normand,
3;
Lombardo,
Robert,
2,3; London,
2,4; Lopatnikoff,
Edwin,
Nicolai,3;
Luckhardt,
Hilmar,
3; Luening,
Otto,2,3; Lybbert,
Donald,2;
Macero,
Attilio,
3; Mailman,
Martin,
3; Martino,
Donald,1; Martirano,
Salvatore,
1; Matilla,
Edward,
1;Mayer,
William,
3; McBride,
Robert,
2,

3; McDonald,Harl,3; McDowell,John,3; McKay,GeorgeFrederick,

3;
Thomas,2; Menasce,Jacquesde,3; Mennin,Peter,3; MenMcKinley,
nini,Louis,3; Menotti,Gian-Carlo,3; Meyerowitz,
Jan,3; Milburn,
Ellsworth,
2; Miller,Edward,2, 3; Mills,Charles,3; Moevs,Robert,2;
Monod,Jacques,1; Montico,Mario,3; Moore,Douglas,3; Morgan,

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338 TheMusical
Quarterly

Harold,
Robert,
Robert,
3; Morris,
3; Morris,
2; Moross,
1,2;
Jerome,
Robert,
Bain,1,3;
Moss,Lawrence,
2,4; Muczynski,
3; Murray,
Conlon,2; Nelson,Ron,2; Nemiroff,
Isaac,1;Newlin,
Nancarrow,
3; Nixon,Roger,
3;
Joaquin,
Dika,1;Nikolais,
Alwin,4; Nin-Culmell,
3;
Nowak,
Lionel,
1,
3;
Norden,
3;
Nordoff,
Paul,
3;
North,
Alex,
Hugo,
1;Orbon,Julian,
3; Osborne,
Ogdon,Wilbur,
Wilson,
3; Overton,
Hall,
3;
3; Parris,
Robert,
2; Perkins,
1; Perle,
Palmer,
Robert,
JohnMacIvor,
2,3;
1; Perry,
Vincent,
3; Phillips,
Burrill,
3; Persichetti,
Julia,
George,
Solomon,
Daniel,3; Pisk,
Piket,Frederick,
3; Pimsleur,
3; Pinkham,
Robert,
2; Porter,
Paul,2; Piston,
3; Pleskow,
Raoul,2; Pollock,
Walter,
Powell,
Mel,
1,
4;
Powell,
4;
3;
3;
2,
Pozdro,
John,
Quincy,
Morgan,
Leonard,
3; Read,Gardner,
3; Reale,Paul,3;
Randall,
J.K.,1,4; Ratner,
Reed,H. Owen,3; Reed,Alfred,
3; Reynolds,
2,4; Rhodes,
Roger,
2; Richter,
3; Riegger,
1,2; Rieti,Vittorio,
Phillip,
Wallingford,
Marga,
Earl,3; Rochberg,
1,3; Rogers,
3; Riley,
3; Robinson,
Terry,
George,
Nicolas,1,2;
Bernard,
2; Roussakis,
3; Rorem,
Ned,3; Rosen,Jerome,
Andrew,
Carl,2;
Dane,2,3; Rudin,
4; Ruggles,
Roy,Klaus,3; Rudhyar,
Russell,
3;
George,
Robert,
Sahl,Michael,
3,4; Salzedo,Carlos,3; Sanders,
3; Sapp,Allen,
R. Murray,
Max,3;
2,3; Schubel,
Donald,4; Schafer,
3; Scavarda,
William,
3; Schwantner,
1;
Gunther,
1,2; Schuman,
Schuller,
Joseph,
ShalRuth
1,
2;
2;
1,2; Serly,
Tibor, Sessions,
Roger,
Seeger, Crawford,
GerHarold,
3; Shapey,
Robert,
1; Shapero,
Ralph,2; Shapiro,
lenberg,
2; SiegAlice,4; Shifrin,
ald,4; Shepherd,
Arthur,
3; Shields,
Seymour,
Bruce,
3; Sims,Ezra,1,
3; Simonds,
meister,
Elie,3; Silverman,
Stanley,
Leland,
Hale,1,3; Smith,
Nicolas,3; Smit,Leo,3; Smith,
4; Slonimsky,
HarWilliam
Overton,
3; Sollberger,
Russell,
2,3; Smith,
2,3; Smith,
Mather,
3; Spies,Claudio,
Leo,3; Spelman,
Timothy
vey,1,4; Sowerby,
Robert,
Robert,
3; Stein,Leon,3; Stern,
1; Starer,
1; Stalvey,
Dorrance,
Grant,
3; Stock,David,3; Stout,
3; Still,William
2; Stevens,
Halsey,
Robert,
2;
Morton,
4; Suderberg,
Alan,2; Strang,
Gerald,1; Subotnick,
William,2;
Swanson,Howard,3; Swift,Richard,2; Sydeman,

Alec,
Deems,3; Templeton,
Clifford,
3; Taylor,
Talma,Louise,3; Taylor,
Les,2; Thompson,Randall,3; Thomson,
3; Tenney,
4; Thimmig,
James,
3; Tower,Joan,2, 3;
Virgil,3; Thorne,Francis,3; Toch,Ernst,

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TheMyth
339
ofSerial
"Tyranny"

Townsend,Douglas,3; Travis,Roy,3; Tremblay,

George,1; Trimble,
Lester,2, 3; Trythall,
Charles,3; Tuthill,Burnet,
3;
Richard,4; Turner,
Vladimir,
3, 4;
Ussachevsky,
Van Vactor,David,3; Vazzana,Anthony,
3; Verall,John,3; Vincent,
John,2, 3;
3; Walker,George,2; Ward,Robert,3; WardWagenaar,Bernard,
Steinman,David,3; Warren,Elinor,3; Watson,Walter,3; Waxman,
Franz,3; Weber,Ben, 1; Weigel,Eugene,3; Weigl,Karl,3; Weinberg,
Henry,1; Weisgall,Hugo,1, 2; Weiss,Adolph,1; Wernick,Richard,2;
Charles,1,4;
Peter,1, 2; White,Donald,3; Whittenberg,
Westergaard,
Wiener,Ivan,1; Wigglesworth,
Frank,3; Wilder,Alec, 3; WildingWhite,Raymond,
3; Williams,J.Clifton,3; Wilson,George,2; Wilson,
Oily,2, 4; Wilson,Richard,2; Winsor,Philip,4; Wolfe,Jacques,3;
Wolff,
4; Wood,Joseph,
3; Woollen,Russell,3; Wuorinen,
Christian,
Charles,1; Wykes,Robert,3; Wyner,
Yehudi,2;
Yannatos,James,2, 3; Yardumian,
Richard,3; Young,La Monte,4;
Zador,Eugene,3; Zonn,Paul,2, 4; Zupko,Ramon,2.

Supplementto Appendix 1

Orientation
ofUndetermined
Composers
Stylistic
Adolphus,Milton;Alexander,Leni;Andrix,George;Archibald,Bruce;
Ashford,
Theodore;Berl,Paul; Beyer,
Howard;Bode,John;Brozen,
Michael;Bubalo,Rudolph;Burton,Stephen;Burton,Eldin;Cacioppo,
George;Cameron,Clarence;Chambers,
JoeClarence;Clabro,Louis;
Cohn,Arthur;
Cotel,Morris;Cumming,
Richard;
Connolly,Justin;
Dietz,Norman;Dority,
Dvorkin,
Edmundson,
Garth;
Judith;
Henry;
Ehrhardt,
Michael;Ellstein,Abraham;Epstein,Alvin;Fisher,Stephen;
Fortner,
Arnold;Frohne,Vincent;Goodenough,ForJack;Franchetti,
rest;Grant,Parks;Grant,Robert;Griffith,
Peter;Gruen,John;Gyring,
Elizabeth;Haines,Edmund;Hartley,
Gerald;Heilner,Irwin;Hemmer,
Eugene;Hively,Wells;Holmes,Paul;Huggler,
John;Humel,Gerald;
Kraehenbuehl,
David; Lawrence,Harold;Lewis,Edward;List,Kurt;
Matthews,
Holon; Merriman,
Thomas;Middleton,
Robert;Miller,
Fredric;
Malloy;Mourant,Walter;Myrow,
Nagel,Robert;Newman,

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340 TheMusicalQuarterly

StanNorton,
Parks,
Theodore;
Gordon;
Peck,Russell;
Persky,
Spencer;
Procter,
Presser,
Leland;Prostakoff,
William;
Alejandro;
ley;Planchart,
Putsche,
Thomas;Rettick,
William;
Ronefeld,
Peter;Ronsheim,
Joseph;
Alexander;Schlein,Irving;Schwartz,
John;R6zsa,Mikl6s;Sammler,

Alan;Skelly,
Alan;SmiPaul;Schwartz,
Elliott;
Scott,Tom;Shulman,
Stewart,
Robert;
Noel;Stark,
Richard;
Straight,
ley,Pril;Sokoloff,
Willard;
Tamkin,
David;Tanenbaum,
Elisa;Thome,Joel;Toensing,
Carl;Walker,
Richard;Tucker,Gregory;
Uber,David;Van Buskirk,
Richard;Waxman,Donald;Weiner,Stanley;White,Paul;White,

Wickman,
Florence;
Willis,Richard;
Michael;Whittaker,
Howard;
Wolfe,
Winslow,
Richard;
Elie;Young,
Yarden,
Jane.
Stanley;

Notes
1. GlennWatkins,Soundings:
MusicintheTwentieth
(New York:Schirmer,
Century
1988), 528.
2. Alex Ross,"Atonal,ofCourse,butDeep DownHe's Got Rhythm,"
NewYorkTimes,
6 June1993.
December1977.
3. Terry
Teachout,"The New Tonalists,"
Commentary,
Music:An Introduction
4. EricSalzman,Twentieth-Century
N.J.:
(EnglewoodCliffs,
Prentice-Hall,
1967), 138-39.
5. CharlesWuorinen,SimpleComposition
(New York:Longman,1979),3.
Music(New York:Norton,1991);
6. See, e.g.,RobertMorgan,Twentieth-Century
Watkins,Soundings;
Century:
StyleandStructure
BryanSimms,MusicoftheTwentieth
Music(Engle(New York:Schirmer,
1986); and ElliottAntokoletz,
Twentieth-Century
woodCliffs,
1992).
N.J.:Prentice-Hall,
see NachumSchoffman,
7. Fortworecentfull-length
arguments
againstserialism,
andtheFailureofSerialism
ChordalIndeterminacy
FromChordstoSimultaneities:
(New
Error(Philadelphia:
York:GreenwoodPress,1990),and WilliamThomson,Schoenberg's
ofPennsylvania
Press,1991).
University
to
withscienceand resistance
to a cold-warfascination
ofserialism
8. The relationship
Cold
"'MusicfortheMasses':MiltonBabbitt's
masscultureis exploredin MartinBrody,
TheMusicalQuarterly
WarMusicTheory,"
77, no. 2 (1993): 161-92.See alsoWilliam
ed.
Brooks,"The Americas,1945-70,"in ModernTimes:FromWorldWarI tothePresent,
RobertMorgan(London:Macmillan,1993),309-48.
balancedaccountsoftheera.
9. The textbooks
offer
citedin note6 abovedo generally
becauseofitsnoveltyand
musicaldevelopments
serialism
amongpostwar
Theyfeature
ofits
theextentorpervasiveness
intrinsic
do notoveremphasize
interest
butgenerally
Foradditionalbalancedaccounts,see Brooks,"'TheAmericas,1945-70"and
influence.
ArnoldWhittall,MusicSincetheFirstWorldWar(London:J.M. Dent & Sons, 1977).
100
I cameacrossthenamesofapproximately
10. Duringthecourseofmyinquiries,
theirstylewith
buttheyhad lefttoolittletraceforme to identify
additionalcomposers,
to appendix1.
anyassurance.Theyarelistedas a supplement

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TheMyth
341
ofSerial"Tyranny"

11. Standardreference
worksincludeTheNewGroveDictionary
Music,ed.
ofAmerican
H. WileyHitchcockand StanleySadie (London:Macmillan,1986); Baker'sBiographical
8thed.,rev.NicholasSlonimsky
(New York:Schirmer,
1992);
Dictionary
ofMusicians,
and TheHarvardBiographical
Harvard
Dictionary
ofMusic,ed. Don Randel(Cambridge:
worksand containedin
Press,1996). Information
University
providedbythesereference
fromJosephDureviewswassupplemented
bypersonalcommunications
contemporary
dataforthis
RobertMorris,
Nichols,and David Olan. In gathering
biel,Leo Kraft,
Jeff
I also had assistancefromElizabethPlayerandJamunaSamuel.
study,
12. GeorgeRochberg,
Music,a House
quotedin K. RobertSchwarz,"In Contemporary
StillDivided,"New YorkTimes,3 August1997.
NewYorkTimes,
13. Donal Henahan,"AndSo We Bid Farewellto Atonality,"
6 January
1991.
14. Susan McClary,"A Responseto LindaDusman,"Perspectives
ofNewMusic32,
no. 2 (1994): 149.
15. David Denby,"The TroublewithLenny,"
New Yorker,
17 August1998.
16. K. RobertSchwarz,"A RegionalFavoriteGains Prominence,"
NewYorkTimes,
1 November1998.
in C. GagneandT. Caras,Soundpieces:
Interviews
withAmerican
17. JacobDruckman,
(Metuchen,N.J.:ScarecrowPress,1982), 156.
Composers
18. ElliotForbes,A History
HarvardUniverofMusicat Harvardto1972 (Cambridge:
ofHistory,
1988).
sityDepartment
19. AnthonyTommasini,
"WhenBernstein
Saw theFuture,"
NewYorkTimes,22 July
1998.
20. LutherNoss,A History
oftheYaleSchoolofMusic,1858-1970(New Haven:Yale
School ofMusic,1984). The datesin parentheses
aredatesofservice.
21. MichaelBeckerman,
NewYorkTimes,
"TonalityIs Dead, LongLiveTonality,"
31 July1994.
22. A balancedaccountofmusicallifeat Columbiathatsharestheconclusions
ofthe
presentstudymaybe foundin PeterDavis,"Milton'sPoetics,"NewYorkMagazine,30
November1998,129: "Accordingto ancientlegend,thenortheastern
academicEstablishment
ruinednewAmericanmusicforeveryonein mid-century,
and it tookyearsto
axis,we aretold
repairthedamage.Composerswhomadeup theColumbia-Princeton
overand over,infected
theentirecountry
withtheirpoisonousinfluence
as theypromotedmountains
ofunlistenable
crushedperformances
ofmusicthatdidnottoe
works,
theserialist
partyline,and instilledthebeliefamonglayaudiencesthatall newmusic
wasarid,dissonantpedantry
to be avoidedliketheplague.Today'sclimateofaccessible
thank
has
and newmusicis
God,
pluralism,
finally
putan end to thatreignofterror,
once againlistener
That mythcontinuesto be propagated
friendly.
byzealotswiththeir
ownpoliticalagendas,mostlyrevisionist
stilleagerto
critics,and impresarios
composers,
call thevillainsofthepastto account.. . . I wasa composition
studentat Columbiaback
is ofa climatethatencouraged
ratherthanrigidconthen,and myrecollection
diversity
whosetastesrangedfarand
formity.
Myclasseswerefullofyoungwould-becomposers
ofstylesthattookin
wide,and at concertsofnewmusicone couldencounter
a variety
fromneo-Brahms
to thelatestaleatoryeccentricities.
everything
HardlydogmaticpostWebernserialists,
ourteachersat thetime-DouglasMoore,OttoLuening,andJack

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342 TheMusical
Quarterly

Beeson-were
oriented
toward
conservative
Americana
intheir
ownwork,
although
towelcome
whatever
wasputbefore
themas longas a student
could
theywereready
he
knew
what
he
was
prove
exactly
doing."
23. Anthony
StillMoreLifeina 'Dead'Idiom,"
NewYork
Tommasini,
Times,
"Finding
6 October1996.
"IsMusicDead?"NewYorker,
24. Winthrop
11May1968.
Sargeant,
25. PeterGelb,"OneLabel'sStrategy:
MakeItNew,butMakeItPay,"
NewYork
Times,
22March1998.Gelbisthepresident
ofSonyClassical.
26. John
AllAmerican
intheLateTwentieth
Music:Composition
Rockwell,
(New
Century
York:Alfred
A. Knopf,
1983),18.
wasprepared
27. Thediscography
MusicCenterincooperation
with
bytheAmerican
theCommittee
onRecordings
MusicoftheNational
ofAmerican
MusicCouncil(New
York:
American
MusicCenter,
1956).
28. I havedrawn
from
the"IndextoRecord
inNotes,
Reviews"
whichpromysample
videsa quarterly
indexofrecord
reviews
from
a largenumber
ofperiodicals,
including
Atlantic
American
Record
Guide,Grammophone,
Monthly,
Harper's,
HighFidelity,
theNewYork
andSaturday
Review.
HiFilStereo
Review,
Times,
29. K. Robert
"InContemporary
Schwarz,
Music,a HouseStillDivided."
30. Winthrop
"Musical
Events:
TheDeadHandofthePresent,"
NewYorker,
Sargeant,
1966.
27 August
31. No Pulitzer
Prizeinmusic
in 1953,1964,or1965.
wasawarded
32. See,e.g.,James
Grand
TheUnited
1945-1974
T. Patterson,
States,
Expectations:
Oxford
to
(NewYork:
Press,
1996).Itsindexcontains
University
onlytworeferences
music(onetoWoodstock
andonetoacidrock),witha note"SeealsoRock'n'roll."
intheSixties
Morris
GatesofEden:American
Culture
Dickstein,
(NewYork:BaSimilarly,
sicBooks,1977),makes
atalltoanyAmerican
intheWestern
noreference
composer
classical
anda single
tradition
reference
theriotatthepremiere
toStravinsky
(recalling
oftheRiteofSpring)
butdevotes
tenpagestotheBeatlesandtwenty
toBobDylan.
33. HaroldSchonberg,
theOctave,"
NewYork
17June1956.
Times,
"Splitting
NewYork
13January
"Records:
34. Edward
Downes,
Americans,"
Times,
Contemporary
1957.
A Synthesis
35. Howard
"ExittheFifties:
theDecade,"New
ofIdeasMarked
Taubman,
York
13December
1959.
Times,
inU.S.
36. Howard
"Between
20and35:Roll-CallofYoung
Taubman,
Composers
Makesan Impressively
New
York
1957.
4
List,"
Times,
Long
August
but
"Where
AreThey?U.S. HasMuchCompositional
37. HaroldSchonberg,
Acti-'ity,
LacksPower,"
NewYork
1962.In thisandallsubseGeneration
17January
Times,
Young
theitalics
aremine.
quentquotations,
NewYork
25February
38. EricSalzman,
Stockhausen
Times,
"Recordings:
Explained,"
1962.
39. Everett
atI.S.C.M.Festival,"
23June1963.
NewYork
Helm,"NoSensations
Times,

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TheMyth
343
ofSerial"Tyranny"

TheAvant-Garde
IsVery
butIs
40. HaroldSchonberg,
Busy,
"Largely
Ignored:
13September
NewYork
Scorned
1964.
Times,
bytheEstablishment,"
"Future
oftheSymphony,"
NewYork
24October1965.
41. HaroldSchonberg,
Times,
TwinBill,"NewYorker,
28May1966.
"Musical
Events:
42. Winthrop
Sargeant,
NewYork
"TheNewAgeIs Coming,"
1968.
14January
43. HaroldSchonberg,
Times,
A TouchofRomanticism?"
NewYork
8 Sep"Needed:
44. HaroldSchonberg,
Times,
tember
1968.
"AreReports
NewYork
ofItsDeathGreatly
45. HaroldSchonberg,
Exaggerated?"
29September
1968.
Times,
"Current
TheMusical
46. DonalHenahan,
Chronicle,"
54,no.1 (1968):83.
Quarterly
New
a DayofOverdue
"ForanEarly
47. PaulHorsley,
Post-Modernist,
Vindication,"
12July
York
1998.
Times,
inNewMusic,"
10February
NewYork
48. John
Rockwell,
Times,
"SignsofVitality
1980.
Is Dead,LongLiveTonality."
49. Beckerman,
"Tonality
"Letter
totheEditor,"
NewYork
50. Richard
27July
1997.
Taruskin,
Times,
BookReview,
51. DanaGioia,"Let'sReview,"
NewYork
Times
24January
1999,12.
52. I discuss
serialturnin"Babbitt
andStravinsky
under
theSerial
Stravinsky's
" Perspectives
ofNewMusic35/2(1997):17-32.
'Regime,'
53. Richard
"DoesNature
CalltheTune?"
NewYork
18September
Taruskin,
Times,
1994.
Is Dead,LongLiveTonality."
54. Beckerman,
"Tonality
55. John
inNewMusic,"
NewYork
10February
Rockwell,
Times,
"SignsofVitality
1980.AlsoRichard
AllPundits:
No MorePredictions,"
NewYork
Taruskin,
"Calling
2 November
1997.
Times,
56. Taruskin,
"DoesNature
CalltheTune?"
"Does
Nature
57. Taruskin,
CalltheTune?"
58. Beckerman,
Is Dead,LongLiveTonality."
"Tonality
59. Beckerman,
IsDead,LongLiveTonality."
"Tonality
60. Julian
London
7 February
1998;quotedinCharles
LloydWebber,
DailyTelegraph,
oftheAvant-Garde,"
NewYork
Review
14May1998.
Rosen,"Who'sAfraid
ofBooks,
refers
tonontonal
modernist
LloydWebber
composers
generally.
61. Taruskin,
AllPundits."
"Calling
62. Taruskin,
AllPundits."
"Calling
63. Andironic,
andother
modernistic
werealways
contoo,inthatserialism
styles
demned
andforbidden
inSovietRussia.

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