Servicing PLC 120V I/O modules

Nov 1, 1995 12:00 PM

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Repairing all types of I/O modules, from fairly simple to quite complex, can be done with
common tools and procedures.
Input/output (I/O ) modules used in PLCs are very reliable; however, they occasionally fail.
When they do, we usually discard the defective units or send them back to the PLC manufacturer
for service. There's another recourse, one that can substantially reduce the costs associated with
module failures--doing the troubleshooting and repairing yourself. It's not that difficult.
Understanding I/Os
Before attempting to troubleshoot and repair a defective I/O module, you need to know how to
trace out the circuits on the PLC's 120VACI/O printed circuit board. Simplified circuits are
shown in Fig. 1.
[FIGURE 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Circuit configurations vary with the different manufacturers of the equipment and the model of
I/O you're working on. Generally, the input circuit reduces and rectifies the input voltage before
it's fed into an opto-isolator integrated circuit. The purpose of the opto-isolator is to isolate the
incoming voltage from the rest of the circuitry. The output of the opto-isolator drives some type
of integrated circuit (designated "U1" in the diagram), which in turn drives an indicating LED
and sends a signal to the central processing unit (CPU).
In the basic output circuit, the signal coming from the CPU goes into another opto-isolator. From
here, the signal goes through a resistance network before it's used to drive a triac, which controls
the line current going to the load.
Identifying the circuits
While one manufacturer's I/O module differs from another, they all have certain similarities. The
components on their printed circuit boards can be cross referenced and are readily available, and
you can identify the various active components and find pin and lead nomenclature.
Once the circuits are identified, you should prepare a sketch, label the edge contacts, and keep
the sketch for future reference. An example of a circuit sketch is shown in Fig. 2. The keyway on
the board gives you a reference point.
[FIGURE 2 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

The individual circuits can now be tested and repaired. Usually, only one section per module will
prove to be defective. By energizing the various circuits and comparing voltage readings on the
same board between a good section and a defective one, you should be able to find the problem.
Using an I/0 tester
Having a test setup for checking 120VAC printed circuit boards greatly speeds up
troubleshooting. An I/O tester is shown in Fig. 3. It can only be used for a particular type of
module. Since there are various types of I/O modules, you'll have to assemble a tester for each
I/O being tested. Don't be alarmed; this task is fairly simple, once the card edge contacts are
identified.
[FIGURE 3 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Since most industrial plants standardize on one or two makes of PLCs to be used, an I/O
servicing procedure to identify the circuits can be set up with little effort. The most important of
the initial steps is documentation. Schematic diagrams of the circuit boards are generally
available from the manufacturer. Even without this information, a lot of service work still can be
performed.
Using a digital V-O-M set on the low ohms scale, it's possible to follow the various foil traces on
the card and identify the edge contacts. Since most circuit boards have foil traces on both sides,
tracing can be aided by holding the circuit board over a flashlight or some other source of light.
A back-illuminated drawing board is excellent for circuit tracing.
More sophisticated PLCs have much more complex input and output circuit boards, and building
a tester without a schematic diagram from the manufacturer in these cases could be difficult.
Nevertheless, these complex boards have certain similarities to the simpler ones.
Testing procedure
First, plug in the defective board into the appropriate socket of the I/O tester (either input or
output), and test each section of the module circuit board individually by moving the appropriate
toggle switch (marked "Input A," "Input B," etc. in Fig. 3) to the ON position. The LEDs for
circuits A, B, C, and D on the circuit board and tester should light. If an LED fails to light, this
pinpoints the defective section.
Second, with the circuit board still in the I/O tester, take voltage readings with a voltmeter at the
various points along the defective circuit and compare them with those taken at the same points
on a circuit that's been tested and is OK.
For example, suppose we're testing an input card. We first verify that 120V is available at various
parts of the input circuit. With one probe on the "AC common" terminal, place the other probe on
the " AC input " card edge terminal. A 120V reading should be seen. Depending on the actual
circuit configuration, moving the probe progressively toward the rectifier ahead of Terminal 1 of
the opto-isolator will produce specific voltage readings that can be compared to those in

correctly operating circuits. If a break exists somewhere in this path, a reading of 0V will be
measured beyond that point.
If the readings taken on the AC circuit are good, then the voltage in the DC circuit should be
checked. With the V-O-M set on a low DC scale and its negative probe set on the "[-V.sub.cc]"
terminal, the plus probe can trace the voltage from the pins of the opto-isolator to the pins of the
integrated circuit. Comparisons of readings then can be made between the circuit being tested
and those obtained at similar points in a section of the card that's working properly. The DC
voltage across resistors and capacitors between the opto-isolator and the integrated circuit also
can be checked and compared.
Let's take an example. Suppose that on the input card of the PLC for which the tester shown in
Fig. 3 is used, a voltage of +0.9VDC is measured between Pins 1 and 2 of an opto-isolator of a
good section. By applying a variable DC power supply to inject this signal into the opto-isolator
of a failed section, we see that the LED on the module and the tester turn ON. Thus, the problem
is located somewhere ahead of Pins 1 and 2.
Breaks in printed circuits
Problems may be associated with circuit discontinuities, such as a foil break. Locating such a
break is fairly easy. With the circuit removed from our tester, we can make a close inspection
with a magnifying glass or use a continuity tester to reveal a break between points.
We can repair this break by soldering a small strand of wire over it. This will make the section
operational again. The circuit can then be placed back into the I/O rack of the PLC.
Troubleshooting and repair time is kept to a minimum.

Conducting a power quality site analysis

Nov 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Waggoner, Ray
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There are three locations where you can determine the extent of harmonic interaction: the
nonlinear load, the next upstream transformer, and the point of common coupling with the utility.
Because we hear and read so much about the extent of harmonics, we might be concerned as to
how this new disturbance may cause problems on our facility's electrical lines. We need to
remember what harmonics consist of and what types of loads produce them. Only then can we
begin to hunt this culprit down.
The basics of harmonics
Nearly all new electrical devices have power supplies that may cause a disturbance to a power
source's current sine wave. The characterization we are looking for is the current spectrum: the

actual demand made upon our source of energy. This spectrum is defined in terms of integer
multiples of 60 Hz, which is known as the fundamental or 1st harmonic. The multiples are then
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc. The ways in which the load device asks for its current needs, in different
amounts of these multiples, determine the extent to which the sine wave is distorted. If the
proportion of multiples is high compared to the value of the 60 Hz, we say the distortion is large;
if the proportion is low, we say the distortion is small.
Since the spectrum we speak of is composed of multiple sine waves (three, five, or seven times
the 60 Hz frequency), we know that all those requested components will come from the 60 Hz
energy source. The power company has a large capacity of sine wave currents, and is able, up to
a reasonable limit, to send those different frequencies to the load as it makes its demands. An
example would be you going to a buffet line for a slice of roast beef. When you request your
portion, you ask for a well-done piece. However, several in line behind you request the same. At
some point, the server has to advise the next person in line that no more well-done meat is
available.
In the same way, we are concerned that the growing demands of harmonic currents on all
electrical systems will result, at some future time, in their incapability to support our needs
without some modification of the sine wave shape (i.e. distortion for all of us).
So much for where these current requests come from (nearly every modern load). Let's examine
what effect harmonic currents can have on our distribution systems. These currents are "thieves"
running on our systems, robbing us of electrical capacity. They need this capacity in order to run
through the system from the supplier to the load device requesting them. They also steal from the
power company system if they are of sufficient quantity, and they can cause voltage changes or
distortion on entire busway systems as the distorted currents pass through the output impedance
of a transformer, making a voltage drop at each harmonic order in the spectrum.
This "thievery" is similar to the stealing of system capacity that occurs when we experience poor
displacement power factor (PF). For example, with poor PF, we must carry more "charging" or
"filling-up" energy into our windings, coils, and motors just to get them ready to produce work.
When we add another nonworking component,this time,high frequencies (180 Hz, 300 Hz, etc.),
we further increase the size of the system needed to sustain the work output. Fig. 1 shows the
total size that the system must now be; this size is the length of the colored diagonal vector in the
six-sided box. If we had only the PF problem, the vector would be in the plane of the kW-kvar
axis. But, now we have the two thieves: displacement and high frequency distortion, represented
by the isometric drawing. To run the same work, we need more kVA.
[Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Our challenge is to keep both thieves under control and maximize the work for this size of
electrical system. When we do this, we achieve high total PF.
In the case of the high frequency distortion, we know it's not going to do any work, but it will
consume capacity and space on our conductors; it will cause overheating of apparatus; and it will
cause overloading and failure of transformers that are not rated to handle the heating effects.

How to look for harmonics

As we enter the power system to look for the high frequency culprit, we can do some preliminary
investigation to see if the problem is present and how bad it is. We do this with our existing
meters, before we buy or involve expensive spectrum analyzers or harmonic measuring devices.
Let's go through this first approach.
Using a true rms meter and a peak reading meter, we measure the current at a load device. If it's a
100%, 60 Hz sine wave current, the ratio of its peak to its rms value is 1.414:1. This value is
called the current waveform's cress factor and is always this ratio for a pure sine wave.
Suppose we measure something considerably different, let's say 3.0:1. This is an indication of a
distorted wave shape, since it's so far from the 1.414:1 ratio. In fact, you could probably do all
right even with a wave having a crest factor plus or minus 7% that of the true sine wave. As such,
you can set for yourself a range around the 1.411:1 number. As long as your peak-to-rms ratio is
somewhere between 1.3:1 and 1.5:1, you don't need to make a further detailed study. This is
shown in Figs. 2 and 3. If you're outside this range, ask for help in getting a more detailed study
and a more sophisticated instrument, as you are into distortion.
[Figure 2 and 3 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Let's say this first approach shows we have a high' crest factor, and our ratio is outside the 7%
range. In fact, it's terrible, approaching the peaked waveshape in Fig. 3: 3.0:1. Now let's make
the preparations to measure the actual current spectrum being asked for by this load device.
We can do this with a handheld indicating instrument, which will measure the rms, percent
harmonic current in each harmonic order (3rd, 5th, 7th, etc.), actual amps at each order, and total
harmonic distortion (THD). Different instruments will do this and more, showing waveshape,
capturing the shape, showing bar graphs of the amount of each harmonic, etc. Two instruments
we use regularly are battery-powered, handheld, and very easy to use. More are coming into the
market and should be considered as the instrumentation gets more portable.
Where to look for harmonics
Where do we look in our facility? How should we judge what's a problem? Is it a problem at one
point but not at another? These are certainly logical questions when starting to look for high
frequency.
Remember, there are three zones of concern in your facility that should serve as a gauge for
harmonic interaction events.
The proliferating device. Let's pick a variable frequency drive (VFD) as an example. Say we
measure the 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics, with a spectrum of 40%, 25%,13% and 8%
respectively as the distortion for each harmonic in percent of fundamental. That is a fairly typical
VFD spectrum for the common six pulse type of rectifier/converter. Our question is, does this

level cause this drive a problem, or any other load equipment at this point in the facility? NO?
Then there is enough inductance in the system to "swallow up" the high frequency current.
The next upstream transformer. Are these currents large enough to create a voltage distortion on
the secondary bus so as to affect other devices fed from that bus? No? Then the size of the
transformer and its relatively low impedance, compared to what must be low level of harmonic
currents, has kept you from danger.
The point of common coupling with electric utility. This is usually the service point. Do you
measure either harmonic currents or voltages that are in excess of the maximum stated in IEEE519? No? Then you have passed the last of the three zones and do not have a problem. You have
used your capacity, (wiring, transformers, bus systems, etc.) to dissipate the currents being asked
for by the VFD. While you have no need to spend any money for a "fix" at the present, watch out
that your management does not wish to suddenly use the so-called excess capacity to install more
load. At that time, you may need to examine which is the least expensive alternative for the new
capacity: adding harmonic traps to solve the harmonic mitigation needs, thus freeing up system
capacity to do the new work, or investing in new switchgear and apparatus to provide the
increased current capacity for the new work. The best answer will be to mitigate the harmonics,
free up your system ampere capacity at a lower cost than new switchgear, and proceed to handle
the new load at the lowest cost possible.
RELATED ARTICLE: REVIEWING PARTS 1 AND 2
In Part 1, we examined a site for "mystery disturbances: those happenings that do not correlate to
sources of power delivery disturbances. These occurrences (spikes, impulses, surges) are
generally transitory in nature, here briefly and then gone. As such, we need to capture them with
an analyzer in order to see them at all. We also looked at those disturbances connected with the
power distribution system, both inside and outside of our facility. We are reminded to verify what
kind of problem we are trying to solve in order to know where to look.
In Part II we were in more familiar surroundings, where the disruptions are more notice ably
repetitive (sags, swells, momentary interruptions, etc.).
In Part 3 here, we look at other repetitive disturbances: The harmonic currents and voltages
produced on the power system when nonlinear power supplies make demands of a linear, 60 Hz,
sine-wave-producing power delivery system.

Energy management plan slashes power bills

at Bell Labs
Nov 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Lawrie, Robert J.
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Energy reduction techniques employed at the huge research and development center save $1.4
million per year.
AT&T has been involved in a corporate-wide energy savings plan since those bleak, oil-shortage
days of the early 1970s. Because AT&T operates hundreds of facilities throughout the country,
reductions in energy usage. especially a reduction in electric power use, result,in millions of
dollars saved on a corporate-wide basis.
Examples of the effectiveness of AT&T's energy-saving methodology are the programs that have
been implemented at AT&T Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, N.J. Over the years, various energysaving endeavors have been tried; however, the most effective measures have been accomplished
in recent years, resulting in a significant increase in dollars saved.
Multiple power-reduction ideas
The total electric power cutbacks carried out recently at Bell Labs will result in an annual power
bill savings of at least $1.4 million. This is the result of a team effort by facility engineers and
maintenance and operations personnel as well as various department managers. Budd Sauselein,
P.E., a facilities engineer and certified energy manager, worked closely with in-plant mechanical,
control, and installation people as well as with plant management and outside contractors. He
points out that the major facets of the plan are:
* AT&T corporate support for energy savings;
* Retrofit of lighting throughout the facility;
* Installation of premium-efficiency (PE) motors;
* Use of variable frequency drives;
* Use of computer monitoring and control;
* Implementation of a demand limiting/power curtailment plan;
* Diversification and control of chiller plants; and
* Electric and fuel rate restructuring.
* Lighting retrofits
The replacement of inefficient lamps has been a general policy since the early 1970s; however,
recent advances in lighting technology spurred Sauselein into action. He began by trying pilot
tests with various types of equipment to see which was the most effective, efficient, reliable, and
had the fastest payback.

Also, it was vital that Bell Labs technical people not be disturbed. Therefore, lighting changeouts
had to be carried out in a quick and essentially invisible manner. This also applied to any retrofit,
be it an energy-saving installation, an operations change, or a maintenance procedure.
Original lighting in the facility was predominately two- and four-lamp fluorescent units
furnished with 4-ft, T-12 lamps and magnetic ballasts. Also, nearly 1400 75W incandescent
lamps were installed in high-hats in lobbies, meeting rooms, the cafeteria, and other public
places.
After testing various brands of lamps, reflectors, and ballasts, Sauselein decided to retrofit the
majority of existing fluorescent fixtures with 32W T8 lamps and electronic ballasts (Photos 2 and
3). But as often found in retrofit work, all did not go smoothly.
[Photos 2 and 3 OMITTED]
For example, in one 40-year-old building, the existing two-lamp fixtures were found to be very
inefficient, so new fixtures with the new system were scheduled to be installed. When
refurbishing started, installers found that sprinkler piping above the ceiling made fixture
replacement difficult. To simplify the work, Sauselein decided to keep the old fixture cans in
place and retrofit the units with single-lamp inserts coated with a white metal powder finish, and
acrylic plastic diffusers.
Light output of the new units is excellent due to the high efficiency reflectors and the colorrendering index of the new T8 lamps. Electric energy used by each fixture having the new singlelamp/electronic ballast system was reduced from 96W to about 32W. This results in a 67%
reduction in power consumption while providing much better light output.
The total kW reduction obtained with this system at the facility is 1150kW. Considering usage
per one eight-hr shift, the total saved is 9200kWh per day or about 2.3 million kWh per year (250
days per year). At 7 cents per kWh, the annual energy savings on lighting alone comes to more
than $161,000. And this does not include demand reduction savings.
Another lighting retrofit project included the removal of more than 1400 75W incandescent PAR
lamps from high-hat fixtures throughout the facility. These lamps were replaced with 13W
compact fluorescent lamps, resulting in an approximate reduction of 86.8kW. Based on the same
usage and cost criteria, the approximate savings is more than $12,000 yearly.
Additional savings accrue from the installation of two-level switching to control office lights and
infrared occupancy sensors in rest rooms, storage areas, mechanical rooms, and other appropriate
locations.
PE motors
Whenever a 25-hp or larger, frequently running, standard-efficiency motor burns out, it's usually
replaced with a PE motor. Such motor replacements are carefully checked to be sure the

application is appropriate for a PE motor and that payback will not exceed two years. In most
instances, a utility rebate helps to defray the initial cost of the motor.
Most new large motors are specified to be of energy-efficient design where application is
appropriate. For example, PE motors are installed on a cooling tower serving the facility's
revamped cooling system. Ten 2-speed PE motors, each driving a cooling fan, are installed on
the cooling tower roof (Photo 4). These motors, each rated 75 hp, 460V, have nominal
efficiencies of 93.6 on high speed (1775 rpm) and 91.7 on low speed (885 rpm). The benefit of
two speeds is noteworthy because this characteristic allows the system to run one or more motors
at half speed when demand is reduced. This results in very large power savings because of the
change-of-speed to energy-cubed relationship of variable torque loads. For example, when motor
speed is reduced 50%, motor horsepower is reduced from 75 hp to 9.4 hp. This is calculated by
cubing 0.5 (0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 0.125) and then multiplying by the motor's horsepower (0.125 x
75=9.4 hp).
[Photo 4 OMITTED]
Numerous new PE motors are also installed in the new steam-driven chiller plant. These include
eight 250 hp,460V vertical condenser water pump motors (Photo 5) that have efficiency ratings
of 95.8 nominal and 93.4 guaranteed minimum. Also, seven 200 hp, 460V primary chilled-water
system pump motors (Photo 6) have efficiency ratings of 96.2 nominal and 95.8 guaranteed
minimum.
[Photo 5 and 6 OMITTED]
Other typical installations are at two of seven secondary chilled-water stations. One station uses
three new 125-hp, 460V PE motors (Photo 7). An adjacent station has three motors each rated 50
hp. These have efficiencies of 95.4 nominal and 95.0 guaranteed minimum.
[Photo 7 OMITTED]
Most of the larger motors are controlled by solid-state starters so that redundant motors in the
system can be operated in steps as per the plant operating plan as well as to assure maximum
reliability. As a result, motors are started and stopped more frequently; thus a "soft-start" method
was deemed to be best.
Variable-frequency drives
Some of these motors are powered by variable-frequency drives (VFDs), resulting in significant
power savings when running at lower speeds because of the speed/cubic power relationship
discussed earlier. These VFDs range in size from 80kVA drives powering 75 hp pump motors to
300kVA units. A typical VFD installed in a motor control center is shown in Photo 8.
[Photo 8 OMITTED]
Computer monitoring and control

Computerized control and monitoring of all systems is the responsibility of John Anderson,
operations supervisor. He utilizes several computer software systems, some of which are
developed in-house by a computer programmer while others are commercial systems modified to
meet facility operation and energy-management requirements.
Computer operations are headquartered in a main control room (Photo 1) with satellite control
functioning from two remote locations.
[Photo 1 OMITTED]
The most comprehensive program is a building-management system that monitors and controls
the refrigeration/chiller plant systems, pumping stations, and electrical equipment and systems.
Also, computer control is applied to the facility HACR (heating, air conditioning and
refrigeration) system, which has many large motors and equipment that can be remotely
monitored and controlled, providing significant energy savings.
There are two main computer control systems in the control room. The original system is a pentouch, screen-based system, upgraded to a pen-and-mouse system. It presently has 10,000 points,
upgradable to 27,000 points. This system monitors and controls motors, pumps, valves, dampers,
and temperature levels throughout the HACR system. It also monitors security functions and
controls lighting.
A newer windows-based system currently has 1500 points and controls a new chiller plant,
including pumping stations. A software gate between the two systems allows for some
redundancy.
Also, computers are used to monitor power on each of the 12 main 13kV feeders that supply 45
substations. This feature eventually will become part of a planned sub-metering system. In the
future, excessive power usage can be identified and corrective action taken.
The computer monitoring and control is vital to the controlled reduction of power demand,
resulting in significant savings both day-to-day and in a utility power-curtailment plan.
Demand limiting
Demand charges by the utility make up a substantial part of the monthly electric bill. A demand
charge is what a utility charges a facility for the maximum power (kW) used for a particular
period. At Bell Labs, this charge is based on the highest 15-min power-usage period occurring
during the month between 8 a.m. and 8 p.m., Monday through Friday. Each month, a new
demand charge is determined. The demand rate at Bell Labs is close to $10 per kW. For example,
if on duly 20 between 2 p.m. and 2:15 p.m., the maximum power used (or demanded) from the
utility is 15,000kW, and it's the highest for the month, the demand charge for that month would
be $150,000. If during the following month on a particular day during a 15-min period, the
demand is 17,000kW, the demand charge would be $170,000 for the month, and so on.

It's easy to see that a great amount of money can be saved by keeping energy demand down as
much as possible. At the same time, it's essential that workers, particularly creative scientists and
development engineers, not be disturbed. As a result, steps taken to reduce demand are very
carefully analyzed to obtain the most benefit with the least disturbance.
The most effective procedure that results in the greatest demand reduction is the change-over of
chillers from electric to steam-driven absorption. The facility's four electric chillers, each rated
2000 tons, are driven by 1400 hp, 4160V motors. Four units that remain steam-driver are 1500ton absorption chillers and are dual source units that can be fueled by oil or gas. If the electric
chillers can betaken off-line, demand is reduced by approximately 5200kW (based on .65kW per
ton).
Also, computer monitoring and control of equipment and systems determines what is doing
what, and allows selective removal of least-needed equipment.
Curtailment program with utility
The facility recently entered into a demand-curtailment agreement with the local utility. This
plan was developed and implemented by Eugene Dimond, P.E., John Anderson, certified energy
manager, and John Godown, shift supervisor. Typical loads that can be shed include motors that
drive nonessential air-handler units, fans, pumps, or other noncritical loads. Lighting is turned off
in selected areas. Also, base demand is "automatically" lowered by using higher efficiency
equipment throughout the facility. In addition, the raising of air-temperatures in selected
locations reduces operation of chiller equipment, greatly reducing demand.
The program requires that Bell Labs reduce demand at the utility's request in return for a rebate
that ranges from $2 per kW to $25 per kW. The plan is in effect from June to September, not to
exceed 25 days per year, on whatever day the utility needs a reduction in power. The dollar rate
returned to Bell Labs depends on how much the facility is able to reduce load on those
designated, high-demand days.
According to Eugene Dimond, the program results in a payment to Bell Labs that could be as
much as $300,000 annually. An accompanying demand graph, on page 34, shows how demand is
reduced and how the program works.

Making effective lighting retrofits

Nov 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Kaplan, Hyman
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The correct intensity of light must be provided for the task being illuminated, without producing
glare, when striving for operating cost reductions.

The increasing cost of electrical energy and the growing interest in conservation are resulting in
many lighting retrofits. However, many of these retrofits are carried out without concern for the
duality of the illuminated environment (loss of light uniformity, excess glare, etc.). Using
products now available, there isn't any reason why an energy retrofit should not maintain, if not
enhance, the visual quality of the space involved while conserving electric usage.
Reasons to retrofit
There are three major reasons for retrofitting a lighting system: high utility costs, excess
illumination and/or inappropriate lighting.
High utility costs. Growing utility costs are a highly motivated reason to carry out a retrofit.
Times have changed, and the cost of providing electricity to a facility has substantially increased.
Over the past 10 years, there have been major increases in the price of fuel used to produce
electric power.
Excess illumination. Excess illumination results from several factors. These include: a change in
the actual task usage of the space (the use of computers with video screens greatly changes the
lighting requirement for task lighting); initial over design; and a reassessment of needs.
Inappropriate lighting. Inappropriate lighting is similar to excess lighting; however it includes
lighting in areas where not needed as well as a lack of same where a need exists. Examples
include lights left on when a space is not occupied or when there is adequate ambient daylight to
perform a task. We experience these types of energy waste almost every day.
Once one or more of the above reasons are recognized, an analysis of the existing system should
be carried out. This analysis should include a study of the various components of the lighting
system, since retrofitting these systems can involve many or few components. An evaluation of
the total system is highly recommended so that an accurate assessment of both the cost factors
and the illumination aspects can be made.
The following main components should receive your attention.
Fluorescent lamps
The first and most obvious replacement consideration focuses on the lamps presently in the
fixture. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 (commonly referred to as EPACT) addresses this with the
elimination of full-wattage halophosphor fluorescent lamps. This ruling includes the entire group
of these generally used lamps(e.g., cool white, warm white, daylight, etc.) because these lamps
produce lower efficacy (66 to 77 lumens per lamp watt without consideration of the ballast) than
present technology offers. And, most halophosphor lamps have poor color rendering. A good
replacement is the triphosphor (rare earth elements) fluorescent lamp, which offers
improvements in efficacy (80 to 82 lumens per lamp watt) while providing good to very good
color rendering.

Reduced-wattage lamps with comparable reduced lumen rating are still available, in both the
halophosphor and tri-phosphor types. These lamps are energy conservation replacements for fullwattage lamps and offer a 15% reduction in wattage. However, there is also an almost equivalent
reduction in lumen output. For example, if you replace a full-wattage (40W), 4-ft, cool white,
halophosphor fluorescent lamp rated at 3050 lumens with a reduced-wattage halophosphor lamp,
the difference would be a reduction of wattage down to 34W and a reduction in light output
down to 2650 lumens (a 15% reduction in wattage and a 13% reduction in lumens). There would
be no difference in the color rendering between similar type lamps.
An example of a very simple retrofit would be to replace a full-wattage halophosphor lamp
(probably cool white, the most commonly used) rated at 3050 lumens with a reduced-wattage
triphosphor lamp rated at 2800 lumens. The result would be a savings of 6W per lamp (15%
savings), with a reduction of only 8% of light output. This type of retrofit is possible due to the
higher efficacy rating of the reduced-wattage triphosphor lamp.
Triphosphor lamps can readily be obtained from most lighting equipment sources; they are a
standard product of all the major lamp manufacturers, each of which have their trade names for
the lamp. Because each lamp manufacturer uses different trade names, the industry has
standardized the identification of triphosphor lamps with the nomenclature "RE" for rare earth,
compared to "CW" for cool white, "WW" for warm white, etc. In the lamp designation, the "RE"
is followed by a "7" for a 70-to-79 color rendering index (CRI) (good rendering) or an "8" for an
80-to-89 CRI (excellent). After that, there are two digits that identify the correlated color
temperature of the lamps in 100[degrees]K rating. Thus, the designation "35" indicates a
3500[degrees]K color temperature. An example of a full wattage, 4-ft, fluorescent ("F40"),
triphosphor ("RE") lamp with a good color rendering index ("7") and color temperature
equivalent to cool white at 4100K ("41") would be an F40/RE741 lamp.
Fluorescent ballasts
The next option in retrofitting a fluorescent system is to change the ballast. This device provides
a starting voltage that spikes to ignite the lamp; it also provides a constant arc current to maintain
the lamp's operation. High frequency electronic ballasts, which have become a popular retrofit
item during the past few years, offer substantial improvements in performance and reliability
while also offering a major reduction in operating costs. A high frequency electronic ballast
operates a lamp at 20,000 to 50,000 Hz, compared to 60 Hz for a magnetic type. This high
frequency causes the lamp to operate about 10% more efficiently, with a decreased ballast input
wattage for the same lumen output.
Harmonic contribution. In 1994, the lighting industry finally produced a document that set
performance standards for high frequency electronic ballast operation and safety: ANSI C82.111993, High Frequency Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts. This new standard establishes, as a maximum
value, a 32% total harmonic distortion (THD). In most cases, the THD for electronic ballasts
today is the range of 20%, and some ballasts even offer lower values. For the most part, you get
what you pay for. There are ballasts made today that produce very low harmonics (in the range of
5%). This low harmonic level has no effect on the power consumed but may have a very
dramatic effect on the extent of harmonics present. These ballasts also cost more. For

comparison, the magnetic-type ballast (core and coil type), which has been the standard used
with most fluorescent lamps, has a THD of approximately 24%.
Unlike fundamental currents that cancel each other at the neutral of a 3-phase wye circuit
(partially or completely, depending on the load balance), the THD currents from each phase are
additive. If a circuit using a magnetic ballast system with 24% THD is totally balanced, the total
current flowing through the neutral will be approximately three times 24% of the 80%
permissible loading (for each phase) per the NEC, or 58% of the maximum current allowed on
any one of the three balanced phases. It can be less than that when any phase has a lower current
than is allowed.
When high frequency electronic ballasts are used, the maximum current on the neutral, based on
the allowed percentage of THD from ANSI C82.11-1993, will be three times 32% of the 80%, or
77% of the maximum current allowed on any one phase. In this scenario, as with the case above,
the currents at the neutral will be well below the neutral's capacity and will conform to an
acceptable installation.
Before ANSI C82.11-1993 was adapted, there were some cases of electronic ballasts exceeding
the 32% now established as a limit. This could possibly cause a dangerous overload situation on
the neutral conductor. When designing or retrofitting a lighting system, you should specify
electronic ballasts that meet or exceed the requirements of the ANSI standard.
Ballast factor. A function of the combined lamp/ballast operation is ballast factor (BF), which is
the percentage of lumens from a lamp that is operated by the actual ballast being used, compared
to the lumens from the same type lamp operating with a test bench or laboratory standard ballast.
This means that BF represents the percentage of lumen output of lamps based upon their lumen
rating. Magnetic ballasts used today operate at about 94% BF (94% of labeled or rated lumens)
for full wattage (40W) 4-ft, T12 lamps; for reduced-wattage (34W) lamps, magnetic ballasts will
operate at 87% BF.
Due to the circuitry of high frequency electronic ballasts, such ballasts can be designed to have a
low (around 70%), normal (around 85 to 95%), or high (above 100%) BF.
The lumen output of a lamp is the lumen rating of the lamp multiplied by the BF of the ballast
used. Thus, depending upon what BF is chosen when specifying high frequency electronic
ballasts for a lighting system, the lumen output of the lamps being served will have a
corresponding percentage output based on the lamp's rated lumens. Lamp life does not appear to
be substantially affected when using relatively low or high BF. However, when a lamp is
operated at below 70% BF or above 130% BF, lamp life will decrease. Thus, selecting a ballast's
BF can be an important element in obtaining the desired lighting level.
Power consumption. Power consumption by the lamp/ballast combination varies almost linearly
with the ballast factor. For example, a two-lamp, 4-ft, T12 fluorescent system will require 52W at
77% BF and 60W at 88% BF. Fig. 1, details different ballast factors for various magnetic and
electronic ballasts.

[Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

When considering a retrofit using electronic ballasts, the next obvious consideration is to use T-8
fluorescent lamps ("8" means 8/8 or 1 in. in dia) in lieu of T-12 lamps ("12" means 12/8 or 1 1/ 2
in. in dia), the latter being the most commonly employed today. The 4-ft, T-8 lamp is rated 32W
and 2850 lumens (all are at least RE7), which means a lamp-only efficacy (not including ballast
effect) of 89 lumens per watt, compared to a 4-ft, T-12, RE7 lamp rated at 40W and 3200
lumens, with a lamp-only efficacy of 80 lumens per watt.
The contact pins for T-8 and T-12 lamps have the same size and configuration; thus, the lamps
appear to be interchangeable. Physically, they can be interchanged but be careful: T-8 lamps will
require a different ballast to operate properly.
Incandescent lamps
The incandescent lamp, still one of the most popular types (but quite inefficient, as shown in Fig
2, and Fig 3) can also be retrofitted. The standard medium base lamp can be replaced with a
compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) and ballast package with the CFL lamp wattage rating at
approximately 33% of the incandescent wattage. However, you must be careful about lamp size
and shape; you must make sure that the CFL is compatible with the space available within the
fixture. The shape and position of the CFL lamp can also affect the quantity and distribution of
light output of the fixture.
[Figure 2 and 3 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Reflector-type lamps (R and PAR types) with a diameter exceeding 2 1/2 in. are also controlled
by EPACT, with a requirement for higher efficacy as of October 1995. This will result in most of
these types of lamps being replaced with halogen types, which produce approximately 20% more
light for equivalent wattage. The standard 150W, PAR 38 lamp in use today can be replaced with
a newly designed 90W, PAR 38 halogen lamp with almost no reduction in light output. A rule of
thumb is that there is a saving of approximately 40% power using the new halogen PAR lamp,
compared to a conventional PAR incandescent lamp. However, this is not true for the R lamp as,
presently, there is no halogen lamp that can replace it.
But this is not the final answer. The technology of infrared reflection (JR) for halogen sources is
a major breakthrough. This technology consists of a film on the outer wall surrounding the
tungsten filament that reflects the infrared energy back onto the filament. The result is extremely
high efficacy, over 25 lumens per watt, compared to 10 to 15 lumens per watt for standard
incandescent and 15 plus lumens per watt for the halogen lamps. A 60W halogen IR-type PAR 38
lamp will produce almost the same illumination intensity as a standard 150W source, with a 60%
reduction in consumed power.
The incandescent lamp will never become fully obsolete. A basic concept when using this type
lamp is to stop selecting lamps by wattage. Instead, use the lumen rating of the lamp (the actual
light output) at the operating voltage, and then compare the watts used by the various sources
that produce the actual lumens desired. For example, a 60W incandescent can be replaced with a

52W halogen lamp or a 18W CFL/ballast module. And, the compact fluorescent has a rated lamp
life of 10,000 furs, compared with 1000 hrs and 2500 hrs respectively for incandescent and
halogen lamps. Another example is a 60W, 120V standard lamp that will produce 900 lumens. A
130V-rated lamp will have to be 75W to produce the equivalent lumens at 120V. Although the
130V lamp will have a rated life of approximately 3000 hrs when operating at 120V (thus being
considered along life lamp) compared with 1000 hrs for 120V use, the long life lamp will
consume 75kWh of energy per 1000 hrs of operation, versus 60kWh of energy for the regular
lamp. The extra 15kWh cost results in an additional $1.50, at $.10 per kwh. Additionally, the
long life (130V rated) lamp costs between two to four times as much as the standard lamp.
Therefore, the additional cost of energy, without any savings in lamp cost, make the standard
lamp the most cost-effective choice, unless the labor cost to replace the lamp is extremely high.
Then, the 10,000-hr-rated CFL package becomes the best selection.
A further result of the EPACT legislation is that all packages for medium-based screw-in lamps
will have to have rated lumens, wattage, and lamp life at the operating voltage clearly marked on
the package.
High intensity discharge lamps
For energy savings, there are some direct replacement lamps within the family of high intensity
discharge (HID) lamps, though the replacement lamps are very specialized. The HID types
include mercury vapor (MV), metal halide (M-H), and high pressure sodium (HPS). To obtain
better color as well as operating cost improvements, MV lamps should be replaced with M-H
lamps whenever possible. The following ratings of MV lamps can be replaced: 175W, 250W,
400W, and 1000W. For the 400W and 1000W lamps, the M-H replacements are the 325W and
the 950W units respectively. In addition to a reduction of power usage, these lamps will provide
improved color rendering (65 to 70 CRI for the M-H compared with 45 CRI for the MV). The
lumen output of the M-H replacement lamp will increase by 30% for the 325W (a 75W savings)
and over 50% for the 950W (a 50W savings). The 175W and the 250W M-H replacement lamps
will provide greater luminance and better color rendering but no reduction in power.
The HPS replacement lamps cover all of the conventional sizes, with the 150W HPS replacing
the 175W MV, the 215W HPS for the 250W MV, the 360W HPS for the 400W MV, and the
880W HPS for the 1000W MV. Power savings range from 10% to 16%, with an increase of as
much as 50% in lumen output. The coloring rating of the HPS lamps is 22 CRI, which, like the
MV they replace, is poor.
There are some concerns regarding HID lamp replacement. These include ballast compatibility,
which should be verified with each installation, and lamp shape, which can greatly affect the
photometric performance. In many instances, the easiest way to confirm satisfactory replacement
operation is to actually try one or two replacement lamps.
HID ballasts
Most ballasts that are presently used for HID lamps are still the core-and-coil (magnetic) kind
specially designed for each particular type HID lamp. The exceptions are some electronic

ballasts that have been developed for 50W and 70W M-H lamps; these ballasts operate the lamp
more efficiently and are considerably smaller and lighter.
With the expanding use of HID lamps, it appears that the next step will be the development of
electronic ballasts designed to accommodate most of the HID lamps now available. It's not
known when these ballasts will be available or what special features, if any, they will have. In
regard to M-H lamps, which can take more than 10 min to achieve full light output during restart
(when hot), a potential benefit of using electronic ballasts is that the circuitry design of the
ballast may allow a more rapid restart.
Fixture components
In addition to lamps and ballasts, light fixtures have two key components that play an important
role in providing illumination: the internal reflector and the shielding (lens or louver) medium.
These two components control where the light is directed and how efficiently the light is
transmitted. Because of their key roles, most retrofit schemes can involve one or both
components.
One of the most over-emphasized retrofit procedures for fluorescent fixtures is the installation of
a specular reflector inside the fixture. The original white painted reflector that most fixtures use
has about an 89% (scattered) reflection. This means it reflects 89% of the lumens that strike the
surface, but not in a mirror-like manner. The reflected component of the generated light is
somewhat diffused. As a light fixture ages, the internal reflector becomes dirty and does not
reflect the original rated value. But, if the fixture is cleaned when the lamps are replaced, the
reflector again will approach its original rating, to about 85%, unless the paint finish has been
severely degraded. The most effective specular reflector has a 95% efficiency; an average
specular reflector has about a 93% efficiency, about 8% to 10% more reflectivity than the
cleaned painted surface.
Because a specular reflector can be shaped to redirect the light, it can affect the direction of light
from the fixture and produce more or less light at different locations in a room. There are two
distinct ways in which shaped specular reflectors can be effective. In the first situation, a
combination of retrofitting the fixture with a specular reflector and replacing full wattage
halophosphor lamps is carried out; however, the original ballast(s) remains. The replacement
lamps are energy saving (T12) RE7 lamps, the total fixture is cleaned, and a new specular
reflector installed. The resulting light level will be between 95% to over 115% of the level at the
time prior retrofitting, depending upon the operating time of the existing lamps and dirt
accumulation prior to retrofitting. The resultant light output of the retrofit will be accompanied
by a 15% savings of power and energy usage. While there is an energy savings, it's doubtful
whether there is a reasonable payback.
The second situation would be a retrofit with specular reflectors that would also include
replacement of the lamps and ballasts. The result can be a major improvement of the power
consumed. Consider a typical 2-by 4-ft fluorescent fixture with three, 4-ft, T12 reduced-wattage
halo-phosphor lamps, using tandem wired magnetic ballasts for each pair of fixtures (three 2lamp ballasts for each set of two fixtures). The power being consumed is 123W per fixture. If

this fixture was retrofitted with a specular reflector insert and electronic ballasts, and if the
lamps, sockets, and ballasts were reconfigured to two 4-ft, T-8, RE 7 lamps, the illumination
output of the retrofitted fixture would be from 80% to 115% of its original value, with a 50% to
30% savings in power usage respectively, depending upon the ballast factor of the replacement
ballasts.
Lenses and lowers
A fixture's lens is the plastic or glass material located at the fixture opening. It allows the light
produced within the fixture to pass through it unaffected, or to be directed in a diffused mannerr,
or to be redistributed from concentrated to wide distribution. By itself, a lens cannot actually
save energy, but in combination with lamp and ballast changes, a lens can be used to redirect the
light for a more usable distribution of illumination. There are also retrofit parabolic louvers that
can be used. These have 1-in. to 2-in. square openings and are 0.75 in. to 1.2 in. deep.
Certain lenses can change a fixture's light output to a very wide distribution, with the greatest
candlepower located between 20 to 50 degrees out from either side of an imaginary line directly
below the fixture. In comparison, a standard lens generates its greatest light distribution between
0 to 25 degrees.
A lens retrofit allows the fixture to provide a wider and more uniform distribution. In turn, this
may allow fixtures to be spaced further apart, which means fewer lamps and lower operating
costs. Or, lamps and ballasts can be removed from existing fixtures while light uniformity is
maintained.
On the other hand, the open-type parabolic louver has a distribution similar to a standard lens,
but with the advantage of having more lumens transmitted through its openings. The brightness
cut-off is approximately 45 degrees from either side of an imaginary line directly below the
fixture. These louvers are applicable for use in visual display terminal (VDT) computer
environments.
RELATED ARTICLE: TERMS TO KNOW
Color rendering index (of a light source): Also known as CRI. The degree of shift that color
pigments of objects undergo when illuminated by a light source as compared with the color of
the same object when illuminated by a reference light of source of comparable color temperature.
Efficacy: The ratio of the total luminous flux being emitted from a light source divided by the
total power input going to the light source. It is expressed in lumens per watt.
Halophosphor fluorescent lamp: A commonly used fluorescent lamp that employs a calcium
halophosphate coating applied to the inside of the lamp. This coating radiates energy across the
entire visible spectrum.
Triphosphor fluorescent lamp: A fairly recently developed fluorescent lamp that uses three types
of rare elements in the phosphor coating applied to the inside of the lamp. When activated, each

of these elements visually peaks at different areas of the visible spectrum. These three wave
lengths are better matched to eye sensitivity than the light output of the halophosphate coated
lamps.
Total harmonic distortion: Also known as THD. Basically, this phenomenon relates to the sum of
all the harmonic waves, being multiples of the fundamental (60 Hz wave), present in a circuit or
in an electrical system. Specifically, it is the square root of the sum of the squares of the RMS
(root mean square) harmonic voltages or currents divided by the RMS fundamental voltage of
current.
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Illustrated changes in the 1996 NECode

Nov 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Hartwell, Frederic P.
0 Comments ShareThisNew
A new NEC is on top, with some of the most far-reaching changes ever made as we begin the
next 100 years of the Code. Part 3 of a 4-part series.
This analysis of the changes represented in the 1996 edition of the National Electrical Code
(NEC) covers only the most significant of the many changes were indeed major, including seven
new articles, (with another article deleted), and others were for very minor editorial reasons.
Major or minor, if you are involved with the particular subject matter, the most minor change can
assume major proportions in unexpected ways . Every proposal was made for a reason, and this
magazine article is no substitute for careful study of the Code itself. This month's issue covers
from Art. 500 through the end chapter 5.
Sec. 500-2 (fourth paragraph). This is the former final paragraph relocated, and with a very
important change. All threaded conduit joints must now be made up wrenchtight. The permission
to use a bonding jumper across a loose joint has been deleted.
EC&M tip: Explosionproof unions are available if enclosures are oriented such that turning a
conduit completely wrenchtight is impossible. Be sure the union is rated for the appropriate class
and group. What happened: This paragraph used to refer to "minimiz(ing)" sparking if fault
current moves over the conduit, and then gave permission to use a bonding jumper if the joint
couldn't be made tight. Now, the word "minimize" has been replaced by "prevent," and the last
sentence on bonding jumpers has been deleted. Note that not all conduit in these articles is
threaded. There are places where heavy-wall threaded conduit isn't required, such as in Class I
Div. 2 areas. Therefore, this paragraph now refers to "threaded" conduit.

Background: Fault current flowing over a conduit and approaching a loose joint (assume the old
bonding jumper is in place) will divide between the conduit and the bonding jumper, with the
current ratio dependent on the relative impedances. If enough current flows over the conduit (a
likely possibility), there will be sparks thrown out of the loose joint even though perhaps a
majority of the current passed over the bonding jumper. In a hazardous location such a shower of
sparks is obviously a grave explosion hazard.
The other reason to make the joint tight is to ensure the explosionproof (or dust-ignitionproof)
integrity of the system, particularly in cases where the seal is being used to, in effect, complete
an explosionproof enclosure. Remember, Class I systems aren't designed to prevent explosions
by excluding hazardous agents from the wiring system, which is assumed to be impossible. They
are designed to contain explosions within the wiring system, which are assumed to be inevitable
from time to time, so as to not ignite the surrounding atmosphere. A loose joint may not perform
this function, and this paragraph now has an additional clause to that effect.
Sec. 500-3. "If Art. 505 is used, area classification, wiring, and equipment selection shall be
under the supervision of a qualified Registered Professional Engineer."
Background: This is a new, additional paragraph to this section. Art. 505 is the zone concept, and
particular care must be exercised over the installation. Remember, this system originated in
Europe where the population densities are higher, the societies more highly regulated, and as a
natural consequence of that culture, electrical installations are more intensively engineered and
supervised than in this country.
There are many rules in the that relax requirements as a trade-off based on qualified maintenance
and supervision in industrial occupancies. This requirement is an implicit recognition of a tradeoff between more intensive and qualified supervision and the new system that relaxes some
important requirements in the majority of what have historically been Class I Div. 1 locations.
In order for the concept to be valid, the assumptions must be valid. This provision calls for
qualifications, and it calls for accountability. Both the professional qualifications, and the
accountability to a professional board of registration of the individual in charge should be
rigorously policed by the authority having jurisdiction.
Sec. 501 -4(a) Ex. 1. Rigid nonmetallic conduit can now be used below grade in Class I Div. 1
locations, provided it is encased in concrete.
EC&M tip: Don't forget that where steel conduit leaves concrete encasement below grade, UL
has determined that severe corrosion is likely at the soil/concrete interface, at least for several
inches each way. You must apply supplementary corrosion protection at that point, and UL has
evaluated no such coatings. Therefore you will need to discuss with the AHJ what will be
accepted locally. There are special asphalt paints and asphalt-impregnated wraps available for
this purpose.
What happened: Rigid nonmetallic conduit can be run below grade in a Class I Div. 1 (but not
Div. 2) location. The following restrictions apply:

* The conduit must be encased "in a concrete envelope" at least 2-in. thick and buried at least 24
in. There will be differences of interpretation over whether the 24-in. measurement is taken to the
conduit or to the envelope. The literal text seems to refer to the envelope because the thickness
rule and the burial depth rule are in the same clause, both modifying the words "concrete
envelope." On the other hand, other burial tables in the Code, including Table 300-5, measure to
the conduit. The likely intent was to measure to the conduit, but the AHJ will need to make the
interpretation.
* You must make a transition to rigid or intermediate metal conduit at each end of the run, with
the metal conduit not less than 24 in. in length between the end of the nonmetallic conduit and
the point of emergence or to the "point of connection to the aboveground raceway." This means
that even if the raceway enters a basement area, the same last 2-ft minimum must be in metal
conduit, which will allow a seal fitting to be installed. This is important because customarily the
Div. 1 location follows the conduit to its emergence, so a seal is required at the Div. 1 boundary.
The steel conduit stem facilitates that installation.
* Since the nonmetallic conduit must be encased, the transition to the final 24-in. minimum
metallic conduit stem must occur within the concrete. This, in turn, means that unless the
concrete encasement extends all the way to the point of emergence from the soil, you will have
to deal with the severely corrosive, soil/concrete interface problem as previously noted.
* Since this is rigid nonmetallic conduit, it has no inherent equipment grounding continuity and
an equipment grounding conductor must be installed to provide continuity of the metal parts of
the raceway system and for grounding noncurrent-carrying metal parts.
Background: This practice has been used in industry, particularly in large ductbanks. In addition,
it is recognized without concrete encasement in gasoline stations (Sec. 514-8 Ex. 2), bulk storage
plants, (Sec. 515-5), and new with this Code, service stations (Sec. 51 1-4 Ex.).
In general, areas below the grade surface in classified areas with heavier-than-air flammable
liquids in particular are subject to concentrated vapors as a result of periodic spills. Although the
wind rapidly dilutes the vapors above ground, they will accumulate below grade, and if a conduit
passes thorough; they will invade the conduit over time. Although this change doesn't literally
apply to Div. 2, that doesn't make a lot of practical difference because most of these areas below
grade are classified as Div. 1 anyway.
Note that neither the new exception for service stations nor this exception has been correlated
with Sec. 347-3(a). That section forbids the use of rigid nonmetallic conduit in hazardous
(classified) locations, with specific approval for articles where it is recognized (including Sec.
514-8 and 515-5). Since provisions in Chapter 5 automatically supplement or modify the general
rules in the first four chapters, the changes here take effect whether or not Sec. 347-3(a) is
correlated. Presumably it will be in the next cycle, however.
Sec. 501-4(a) Ex. 2. A special type of metal-clad cable can now be used in Class I Div. 1
locations.

EC&M tip: This is not Type MC cable in the usual sense; it is MC cable that is specifically
designed and listed for Class I Div. 1 locations. It has a gas/vapor-tight corrugated aluminum
sheath, with an overall nonmetallic jacket and separate grounding conductor(s).
What happened: Type MC cable specifically listed for the application can now be used in Class I
Div. 1 locations. This is a new Ex. 1 to the subsection. There are several conditions on this, all of
which must be met:
* The location must be in an industrial facility with restricted public access.
* The conditions of maintenance and supervision must be that only qualified persons will service
the installation.
* The termination fittings must be listed for the application, Note that Sec. 501-5(d)(1) provides
specific requirements for sealing this cable; each individual conductor (after the jacket and any
coverings are removed) must be surrounded by the sealing compound.
* In addition to the rules in this article, Sec. 334-3 and 334-4 on permitted uses and prohibited
uses for Type MC cable, including the general language in Sec. 334-3 disallowing this cable
where it is subject to physical damage, will apply to these installations, and a new FPN makes
the appropriate references. Background: This cable has been used on offshore oil platforms for
some time. Type MI cable tends to absorb too much moisture from the air unless the terminations
are done with great care. Conduit systems breathe, with the result that moist, salt-laden air enters
the system and corrodes even the coated varieties from the inside, where incipient failure cannot
be readily detected.
Sec. 501-5(c). A new paragraph (6) requires that the cross-sectional area of the conductors in a
seal fitting cannot exceed 25% of the cross-sectional area of a conduit of the some body size
unless specifically approved for a higher percentage of fill.
EC&M tip: Pay close attention to the manufacturer's instructions, because there will be a
maximum fill indicated on instruction sheets packed with each seal fitting. This is even more
important now, because the new cross-sectional area tables in Appendix C have different crosssectional areas depending on whether you are using rigid metal or intermediate metal conduit.
Furthermore, the way this is set up, the directions will always take precedence over this code
rule. If the directions call for a larger fill, this section says to use the directions. If the directions
call for a smaller fill, then Sec. 110-3(b) says to use the directions.
Background: When the UL standards for seal fittings were overhauled in the late '60s, the 1968
NEC had set an upper limit of 25% wire fill (for most but not all conductors) in raceways for
new work, and 40% for old work. Since a poured seal cannot be rewired, UL put the 25% fill
into the standard. In 1971 the went to a straight 40%, but nothing happened on the fill
requirements for seals. Meanwhile people who didn't know, which was most of the country,
proceeded to attempt 40% fills in seal fittings that were only designed for a 25% fill.

This was exceedingly dangerous, because seals require a very high standard of workmanship or
the compound won't surround each individual conductor, which is essential to obtain an
appropriate seal. Remember, a poured seal cannot be inspected, so enforcement is difficult. For
these reasons, UL modified the standard, and now requires manufacturers to include the detailed
directions with each fitting.
There are now seals that accommodate a 40% fill by using the casting for a larger trade size
fitting, but tapping it so the threads are those of a smaller trade size. Another approach is to take
a standard explosionproof junction box, and put a seal cover on it. These are commonly
available, but most have never actually been listed for this purpose so far. This latter approach,
however, gives plenty of room, either to spread out a full 40% fill, or to open up a
multiconductor cable to expose the individual conductors.
Sec. 501-5(d). A new paragraph covers the seals at the terminations of the new Type MC cable
now allowed in Class I Div. 1 locations.
The subsection has been reorganized, with each paragraph numbered.
* The first paragraph (1) covers the new Type MC cable allowed in Sec. 501-4(a)(1) Ex. 2. Each
individual conductor (after the jacket and any coverings are removed) must be surrounded by the
sealing compound. In addition, the fitting must comply with the requirements for seals generally
in subsection (c).This is new in the 1996 NEC.
* Paragraph (2) is the existing rule that requires a cable in a conduit that can transmit gases
through its cable core to be sealed both to the jacket and to the individual conductors. The
existing exception for just sealing to the cable wall and then using a special fitting at the cable
termination in the enclosure to minimize the transmission of gas, follows this rule.
* The third paragraph (3) covers cables that can't transmit gas through their cores. There are no
changes to the rules for this type of cable.
Sec. 505-5(d)(2) Ex. This exception now requires the "approved means" in the enclosure at the
end of the cable to "minimize" (no longer "prevent") the entrance of gases or vapors and
"prevent" the propagation of flame into the cable core. A new sentence says that on shielded and
twisted pair cables, it is not required to separate the twisted pair or remove the shielding.
This exception (see discussion under "Paragraph 2" above) was new in the 1993 NEC, and now
uses similar phrasing as Sec. 501-5 (FPN No. 1). No seal can completely prevent the migration
of vapor or gas through it, especially under enough pressure. As of this writing, no products have
been listed that comply with this exception. Any such product must include some mechanism to
retain enough potting compound at the end of the cable within the enclosure so as to be sure that
an explosion can't propagate into the cable core.
The new sentence appears to have been misplaced and improperly worded. It now only applies to
the performance criteria for the device/compound that might be listed in the future under the
exception. In this form, it overturns the reason this exception was introduced in the first place,

namely, to allow sealing to individual conductors up in the enclosure. Here there was plenty of
room and the shielding could be opened/pairs untwisted for a very short distance to allow
sealing, and then retwisting and reshielded without loss of any continuity.
The new sentence would have to be a stand-alone second exception to the same rule to have its
intended effect. Given the comparatively loose shielding on many multiconductor cables, some
of which surrounds multiple cable pairs, interpreting the new second sentence as written as
having the effect of a standalone exception would be almost tantamount to removing Sec. 5015(d)(2) from the NEC. See the discussion under Sec. 5015(c)(6) for a better approach.
Sec. 501-11. New rules in the opening portions of this rule set generic standards for the use of
flexible cord in hazardous locations, instead of requiring a case-by-case listing at the end of the
section.
What happened: In addition to portable lighting and other portable utilization equipment, now
flexible cord can be used for certain other purposes in these locations. This rewrite of the
opening to Sec. 501-11 recognizes, in industrial occupancies with qualified maintenance and
engineering supervision, the use of cord " for that portion of the circuit where the fixed wiring
methods of Section 5014(a) cannot provide the necessary degree of movement for fixed and
mobile electrical utilization equipment." The cord must be "continuous" and protected, by guards
or by location, from damage. All previous restrictions, such as being rated for extra-hard usage,
still apply.
Background: Although Sec. 501-11 applies to both Div. 1 and Div. 2 locations, flexible cord with
even fewer restrictions is already permitted by Sec. 501-4(b) for Div. 2 locations. Therefore, the
new wording actually only affects Div. 1 environments, as the cross reference indicates [Sec.
501-4(a) only applies to Div. 1 locations].
The new rules will allow flexible cord in areas where traditional Class I Div. 1 wiring simply
doesn't have enough flexibility. Note that the usual industrial language about qualified
maintenance and supervision has been changed to specifically require qualified engineering for
these uses.
Article 505-class 1, Zone 0, 1, and 2 Locations EC&M Overview: What is the zone concept?
Under the traditional NEC rules, hazardous (classified) locations are divided into divisions
depending on how frequent the hazardous atmosphere or dusts are expected to be present. If the
hazardous material is merely in secure storage, that storage area gets a less severe classification
than an area where people routinely work with it. Under the traditional rules, the former location
is Division 2 and the latter is Division 1.
European standards organizations have gone one step further and divided what we call Division
1 locations into Zone 1 and Zone 0, the latter classification reserved for areas such as inside a
vented tank where the hazardous agent exists on a routine basis. They then assign more stringent
requirements to the Zone O locations. Areas like our Division 2 have a Zone 2 classification.
They also tend to have a work environment that is much more intensively engineered and

supervised than we do. Having made these distinctions, and thereby having excluded the worst
case (Zone O) from Zone 1, and having greater engineering support, they allow products into
Zone 1 locations that traditional code practices would exclude from Division 1, including
nonexplosionproof lighting.
EC&M Overview: How, Where can you use this concept in your plant?
Art. 505 represents the Zone classification concept imported into the NEC, after a 25-year battle.
First, everyone will now agree that you can apply the Zone classifications in a new facility
coming out of the ground. The major questions will arise in trying to use the system in existing
installations. Therefore, the most important single issue, or at least the one to be resolved first, is
whether, and how, you can apply the new system in your plant.
The requirement in Sec. 500-2 (second paragraph) for each room, section or area to be classified
independently, has led some to conclude that the zone system cannot coexist in the same facility
as the traditional division system. Although that would be administratively convenient, there is
actually no support for that in any of the literal text at present. Each time a classification
boundary is reached, by definition one has also reached a point where a new classification
applies.
Take, for example, a semi-open wet pit with volatile hydrocarbons and a mixer. That is a Zone O
location. At some fairly minimal distance from the wet pit, however, you reach a zone boundary,
to Zone 1. Nothing prevents a design engineer from marking the Zone 1 boundary, add making a
new classification On the wet pit area of Class I Div. 1. That would allow Sec. 501-11 (flexible
cord) to apply to a removable mixer in the wet pit (which would not he allowed in Zone 0), and
then Zone 1 w ring outside the immediate area, including increased safety, nonexplosionproof
lighting (which would not be allow d in Class I Div. 1).
Another example would be a new piece of process equipment, perhaps an extruder, made in
Europe and evaluated to IEC standards as creating a Zone 1 area classification. If the equipment
is moved into an existing clean room with other equipment previously wired to Class I Div. 1
rules, now what? Does it have to be rewired? Here the problem might be resolved by setting up a
unified classification for the entire room, instead of maintaining boundaries.
What you would do now is to call in the PE responsible for classifications. A savvy PE might
then say, "No problem. The entire room is now Zone 1" (assuming it meets the criteria, which is
likely). If the AHJ happens to be standing by, that pronouncement may well be questioned,
particularly in terms of the existing wiring. How can that all be Zone 1 all of a sudden? Simple.
Sec.505-15(b) allows all Class I Div. 1 wiring methods, and Sec. 505-20(b) Ex. allows all
equipment approved for Class I Div. 1, in a Zone 1 location.
Both examples violate the expressly stated views of the panel regarding mixing systems: "It is
not the intent to mix the zone and division classification systems." The first example is
questionable but may be safe; the second example is probably safe. Probably neither example
violates the present Code, although the AHJ has to decide in his or her jurisdiction. Both
examples present administrative headaches and the danger of confused and misapplied

requirements. Be prepared for a lot of controversy as we gradually get accustomed to integrating

the new system.
Sec. 505-2 and Ex. The general rules of the NEC apply to these locations, except as modified by
Art. 505.
This is the usual statement, which merely reinforces Sec. 90-3.
Sec. 505-5. This section covers the IEC gas groupings. Since the groupings all start out with a
"II", a FPN answers the obvious question, explaining that group I electric apparatus is far use in
underground mines.
Those applications are excluded from the NEC per Sec. 902(b)(2). The groups are as follows:
* (a) Group IIC. Acetylene, hydrogen, or gases or vapors of equivalent hazard. A FPN says this
grouping is equivalent to Class I, Groups A and B. This is controversial, since two of the
traditional groups have been made into one. One major issue is the grouping of hydrogen
(traditionally classified as Group B) with acetylene (Group A). There will be problems in some
cases particularly where an arcing device requires an explosionproof (Europe: "flameproof" )
enclosure. For example, flat joints usually can't be used with acetylene, but they can with
hydrogen.
* (b) Group JIB. Acetaldehyde, ethylene, or equivalent. A FPN says this is supposed to be
equivalent to Group C.
* (c) Group IIA. Acetone, ammonia, ethyl alcohol, gasoline, methane, propane, or equivalent.
The first FPN following explains that this is supposed to be equivalent to Group D.
Three more FPNs follow:
* (FPN No. 2). This note explains that the gas subdivisions are based on the maximum
experimental safe gap (MESG) and minimum igniting current (MIC), per IEC 70-l A. This is
comparable to Sec. 500-3(a)(FPN No. 2).
* (FPN No. 3). This note explains that the positioning of various gases and vapors into the gas
groupings is based on their MESG and MIC, as described in IEC 79-12.
* (FPN No. 4). This note points out that the different equipment markings and these Group II
classifications must be carefully watched in order to avoid confusion with the traditional Class I,
Div. 1, Groups A, B, C, and D markings.
Sec. 505-7. This section includes the actual zone classifications.
* (a) This subsection covers Zone 0.

This zone includes areas where ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors are present
continuously or for long periods of time. The word "long" isn't defined, but the first two FPNs
refer to other standards and also provide a narrative of typical Zone 0 locations, including the
interior of vented vessels with flammable liquids, and inside exhaust ducts used for flammable
vapors in ignitable concentrations.
There are two more FPNs. The third suggests that good design is to keep wiring out of Zone 0, or
to only use intrinsically safe systems if that is impossible. The last note leads into Zone 1 by
detailing what a normal operation is, which is relevant because Zone 1 applies during normal
operations. "Minor releases" are part of normal operations and merit a Zone 1, instead of a Zone
O classification.
* (b) This subsection covers Zone 1.
This zone includes locations where hazardous vapor could exist under normal operating
conditions, or as a frequent occurrence from maintenance, or where a breakdown could cause
enough of a failure that the electrical system could be an ignition source. These first three items
reflect the same considerations as in Sec. 500-5(a), which is the definition of a Class I Div. 1
location. That is no accident. Zone O plus Zone 1 equal the traditional Division 1. Conversely,
Zone O is simply the most hazardous portion of a Div. 1 location, carved out and treated under
different rules. In addition, the FPN that follows is very similar to the note following Class I,
Div. 1 [Sec.500-5 (a)(FPN)]. The last item identifies a Zone 1 location as necessarily surrounding
a Zone 0 location, unless positive pressure with safeguards against failure are provided. This is
similar to a comparable provision for Div. 2 adjacent to Div. 1, in Sec.500-5(b).
* (c) This subsection covers Zone 2.
This zone is functionally identical to the traditional Div. 2, as reflected in the definition. The FPN
that follows is similar to the first sentence of Sec. 500-5(b)(FPN No. 1), about hazardous
concentrations only under accidents or unusual operating conditions. It stops there, however, and
doesn't cover the other material in the notes to Sec.500-5(b).
Sec. 505-10. lilts section covers listing and marking of equipment.
* (a) This subsection, entitled "Listing," permits equipment that is listed for Zone 0 to be used in
Zones 1 or 2 of the same gas group. If the equipment is listed "or otherwise acceptable" for Zone
1, then it can be used in Zone 2, also within the same gas group.
The "otherwise acceptable" could come from a Class I Div. 1 listing; see Sec.505-20(b) Ex.
* (b) This subsection covers marking requirements.
The equipment must show the class, zone, gas group, and temperature class referenced to a 40
[degrees] C ambient. The temperature classes are given in Table 505-10(b). Those markings (T1,
T2, T3, T4, T5, T6) are exactly consistent with the markings in Table 500-3(d) as far as they go,
but omit the intermediate classifications (T2A, T2B, T2C, T3A, etc.)

* An exception to these marking rules covers equipment operating at elevated temperatures. It

must be marked with both the maximum ambient temperature and the operating temperature or
temperature range at that ambient temperature.
The same exception was also included in Sec.500-3(d) as Ex. 5. You use the marking to be sure
the equipment doesn't run above the ignition temperature of the gas. You can also judge the same
equipment at a lower temperature ambient. For example if a piece of instrumentation has a 50
[degrees] C temperature rise, and is suitable for use in a 150 [degrees] C ambient, it should not
be used around diethyl ether (autoignition temp. 160 [degrees] C) at that temperature. On the
other hand, the same instrumentation could be used safely in a 40 [degrees] C ambient.
Sec. 505-15. This section covers wiring methods.
* (a) This subsection covers Zone 0. Intrinsically safe wiring or nonconductive optical fiber cable
or systems with approved energy-limited supplies are permitted. In addition, for either
intrinsically safe or nonincendive circuits, rigid metal conduit or intermediate metal conduit, or
Type MI cable can be used. Power circuits are not permitted.
This is the key aspect of the change for those who believe this is a safer protocol; no power
circuits in a Zone 0 environment. In addition, conduit must use tapered threads and be made up
wrenchtight in accordance with all the rules in the last paragraph of Sec. 500-2. Note that this is
an error and refers to the former location of this material, which has now been relocated as the
fourth paragraph. The conduit must also be sealed in accordance with the normal Div. 1 sealing
rules in Sec.501-5(a) (c) and (d). A FPN indicates that the references in those sections to Div. 1
are to be interpreted as Zone 0.
* (b) This subsection covers Zone 1. The wiring methods in Zone 1 can be any of those allowed
for either Zone 0 or for Div. 1.
In addition, all requirements for making seals that would apply in Div. 1 must be adhered to in
these Zone 1 locations. Note that the actual wording is that Class I Div. 1 wiring is permitted.
Although unintended, the actual wording does not incorporate a clear requirement for seals.
* (c) This subsection covers Zone 2. The wiring methods in Zone 2 can be any of those permitted
for Class I, Div. 1 or Div. 2 and Class I, Zone 0 or Zone 1 locations are permitted.
All requirements for sealing are carried over by reference, and also cables approved for Div. 2
hazardous locations, such as Type MC cable, are permitted.
Sec. 505-20. This section covers equipment.
* (a) This subsection covers Zone 0, and only equipment specifically listed and marked for this
purpose can be used.
It will take time to put together all the product standards and start the listing process.

* (b) This subsection covers Zone 1, and only equipment specifically listed and marked as
suitable for the location is permitted under the main rule. An exception, however, allows Class I
Div. 1 (or Zone 0) equipment to substitute for Zone 1 equipment.
It must be of the same gas group, and with a similar temperature marking if possible. Note that
the literal text of the exception precludes equipment marked "Class I Group B" (for hydrogen)
from being substituted in a Group IIC environment, because that isn't the same gas group; only
equipment rated for both Groups A and B could be used. As noted in the gas group discussion,
this is a real problem for hydrogen atmospheres. In Europe there is a common marking "Group
IIB plus Hydrogen" for just this reason, but that won't help products marked in the traditional
way.
* (c) This subsection covers Zone 2, and only equipment specifically listed and marked as
suitable for the location is permitted under the main rule. An exception, however, allows Class I,
Div. 1 or Div. 2, (or Zone 0 or Zone 1) equipment to substitute for Zone 1 equipment.
It must be of the same gas group and with a similar temperature marking if possible.
Sec. 505-25. Grounding and bonding must comply with Art. 250 and the additional requirements
in Sec. 501-16.
Sec. 51 1-4. A new exception allows rigid nonmetallic conduit to be used as a wiring method
where buried at least 24 in. below grade in a hazardous [classified) location at a garage within
the scope of this article.
The full wording matches similar wording in Sec. 514-8 Ex. 2 and Sec. 515-5(a). It must include
an equipment grounding conductor, and the last 24 in. on each end must be threaded rigid or
intermediate metal conduit. It does not require concrete encasement. Similar wording was added
for Class I Div. 1 locations generally in Sec. 501-4(a) Ex. 1, which requires concrete encasement.
That rule has not been correlated with this rule, or with the rules in Art. 514 and 515. The result
is a conflict, because the general requirement for concrete encasement theoretically applies in
any Class I Div. 1 area.
When a general rule and a specific rule are in conflict, you should consider allowing the specific
rule to stand within its scope, unless there is some evidence that it was intended to abolish all
specific rules when the general requirement was adopted. In this case the specific rule was added
at the same time, by the same panel, as the general requirement.
The AHJ will have to decide, but it was intended that concrete
encasement be permitted to be omitted at these locations. The panel was concerned that under the
general case there could be problems with poor backfill that would be less of a problem in the
limited excavations involved in Art. 511 installations.
Sec. 517-13(a). A new exception (No.3) grants limited relief for wiring lighting in patients care
areas.

EC&M tip: This new exception has not been correlated with Sec. 517-13(b); the other
requirements still apply if the literal text is enforced. Check with the AHJ to see whether there
will be any leeway possible on the other subsection (b).
What happened: Sec. 517-13(a) requires a No. 12 copper equipment grounding conductor
minimum in all branch circuits serving patient care areas, to provide a secure equipment
grounding return path from receptacles and metal surfaces. These circuits must be run in metal
raceways. The new exception does only one thing: waive the requirement for an insulated
equipment grounding conductor. This is in the form of a new Ex. 3, and it applies to "Light
fixtures more than 7 1/2 ft above the floor."
What did not happen: This exception does not remove the metal raceway wiring method rule.
Although Ex. 1 does relieve this requirement, two exceptions cannot be applied at the same time.
This exception also does not change any of the wiring method requirements in Sec. 51 7-13(b),
which apply "in addition to the requirements of Section 517-13(a)."
What was supposed to happen: This change was intended to allow a blanket waiver of all branchcircuit wiring method restrictions where a fixture over 7 1/2 ft above the floor was installed. The
idea was that although this is a patient care area, patients wouldn't be coming into contact with
ceiling fixtures. There really isn't anything wrong with that concept, but the present text is
unfortunately far removed from the intent.
Sec. 517-18(c) Instead of installing "tamper resistant receptacles in pediatric areas, now you can
use a restrictive cover.
What happened: A new exception now allows a cover that "by its construction, limits improper
access to the energized parts of the receptacle."
Background: This is open to a little interpretation, as AHJs try to figure out just how much
"limitation" this new exception requires. Certainly a lock with keys only in the possession of the
medical staff is limiting, but what about latches? If the latch takes the same or more force as a
child-resistant pill bottle to open, is that sufficiently limiting? The AHJ will need to be consulted
on this.
Sec. 517-19(a) Critical care locations fed from two critical branch transfer switches need not be
supplied by normal power.
What happened: A new additional exception (No. 2) allows all branch circuits in a critical care
location to originate from the emergency system, provided two different transfer switches supply
each such location.
Background: The reason for the normal power requirement is to make sure that there is some
power available in the event of a failure in a transfer switch. If there are two independent transfer
switches serving each patient bed area, the result is even higher reliability. This change allows
for, but does not require, that possibility.

Sec. 517-19(b). At least one of the six required receptacles at patient bed locations in critical care
areas must be connected to a normal system branch circuit.
This change clarifies that the normal circuit ordinarily required to supply critical care patient bed
locations must supply at least one receptacle at each of those locations. Remember, a receptacle
is a single contact point, and a duplex receptacle is, therefore, two receptacles.
This change has not been correlated with the change immediately preceding it, which means
there may well not be a normal system branch circuit at the bed location. Since the actual
wording is "the normal system branch circuit required in Section 517-19(a)" and since that
subsection now includes the exception allowing two emergency system circuits from different
transfer switches, it would be reasonable to apply that new exception to this provision as well.
Sec. 51 7-30(b). A standby generator used as the source of supply for a hospital emergency
system, can now be permitted to supply other hospital loads not part of that system, provide they
have their own transfer switch. Other restrictions apply.
EC&M tip: The literal text of this new provision includes a potentially dangerous blunder (see
drawing). Be sure to discuss your options carefully with the AHJ before making use of this.
What happened: A new paragraph (5) was added to cover " loads served by the generating
equipment not specifically named in Sections 517-33 and 517-34." These loads require their own
transfer switch(es) and there must be provisions so the transfer won't take place if the generator
will be overloaded, or the loads must be shed if the generator becomes overloaded.
The problem is that Sections 517-33 and 517-34 cover the critical branch and the equipment
system, respectively. Sec. 517-32, on the life safety branch, was inadvertently omitted. It is now
a literal requirement of the 1996 NEC to shed the life safety branch if the generator approaches
overload from nonessential load! This, of course, is a direct conflict with Sec.700-5(b), and
should never be allowed.
Background: Sec. 3-3.2.1.5 of NFPA 99 recognizes on-site generation as a source of power to
both essential system and other loads, with conditions. If a single generator is used, it must be in
such a way that the mean service interval between overhauls must not be reduced to less than
three years. If multiple generators are used, the essential system must be capable of being
supplied with the largest single generator out of service. Many facilities use their generating
equipment for other loads. If done properly, there is no problem, and the NFPA 99 Committee
has agreed to further amend Sec. 3-3.2.1.5 for the next edition in a way that is consistent with
this NEC change, albeit without the life-safety branch problem.
Sec. 517-30(c)(3). Hospital emergency system wiring must now be in nonflexible metal
raceways. Two new exceptions apply, for Type MI cable and for flexible connections for medical
headwalls and equipment connections.
What happened: There are three important changes, as follows:

* Hospital emergency systems must be wired in metal raceways (previous code), and now those
metal raceways must be nonflexible. This change was made in the main rule.
* Type MI cable can be used as a substitute for metal raceways. If it contains a branch circuit for
a patient care area, then it must comply with Sec. 517-13(b). This is a new Ex.5.
* Flexible raceways and cables are permitted to be used in prefabricated medical headwalls, or
"when necessary for flexible connection to equipment." This is a new Ex.6.
Background: There have been many cases of designers carefully studying Sec. 517-13(b),
picking out an appropriate cable such as Type AC with a separate equipment grounding
conductor, and then having the entire job turned down because the branch circuits were part of
the hospital emergency system. The emergency system protection rules apply to branch circuits
as well as feeders.
The rule and the new Ex. 6 combine to exclude flexible wiring methods from most home runs,
only allowing them at the end of the run where necessary to make equipment connections that
require flexibility, or in prefabricated medical headwalls. The other exception is for Type MI
cable. This cable is OK as normally shipped for feeders and non-patient care area duties.
If it will be a branch circuit for a patient care area, then it will have to be configured with an
additional conductor, which will provide a separate equipment grounding conductor as required
by Sec. 517-13(a). In addition, only the copper variety is suitable, because the sheath must meet
Sec. 517-13(b), and Sec. 250-91 (b)(7) and Sec. 330-22 disallow a steel sheath as a grounding
return path.
Sec. 517-30(d). New provisions in this subsection clarify and dramatically change the
requirements for sizing the elements of a hospital emergency standby system. The feeders are
still calculated under Art. 220, but the generator need not be.
What happened: Although the feeders still calculate under Art. 220, the generator(s) need only be
sized large enough so that there is "sufficient capacity and proper rating to meet the demand
produced by trite load of the essential electrical system(s) at any one time." Demand calculations
for this purpose can be based on;
* Demand factors and historical data, OR
* Connected load, OR
* Feeder loading as determined by Art. 220, OR
* Any combination of the above
Background: Some AHJs have been requiring generators to be sized based on all connected
loads, and Art. 220 doesn't adequately address diversity in many industrial and commercial
facilities. Generators have been sized at over twice the actual required capacity, which is

detrimental to engine performance and not in accordance with the required testing protocols in
NFPA 99. In addition, the NFPA 99 Committee is moving (in Sec. 3-3.2.1.7) in the. same
direction as this NEC change.
Sec. 517-45. A new section covers the essential electrical system requirements for an ambulatory
health care center.
What happened: Ambulatory health care centers must have sufficient capacity in their standby
electrical systems so that within 10 sec. of an outage there is sufficient power, for at least 1 1/2
hr, to energize:
* Task illumination as required for life safety and the safe cessation of procedures in progress;
* Anesthesia and resuscitative equipment in areas where inhalation anesthesia is in use;
* Life support equipment, "where procedures are performed that require such equipment for the
support of the patient's life. "
The standby power source can be a generator or integral, self-contained batteries with the
equipment. If, however, there is a critical care area within the facility, then a full essential
electrical system as would otherwise be required in hospitals shall be
installed.
Background: These facilities are very common, both for outpatient surgery and for kidney
dialysis. Please refer to the discussion in Sec. 517-3 (definitions) for more information.
Sec. 518-4. A new exception (No. 3) allows electrical nonmetallic tubing and rigid nonmetallic
conduit in limited places of assembly as long as the high-rise fire-finish concealment rule for
ENT is observed.
What happened: Rigid nonmetallic conduit and electrical nonmetallic tubing are now permitted
in restaurants, conference and meeting rooms of hotels or motels, dining facilities, and church
chapels. This permission is restricted to the traditional locations for ENT in high-rise
construction (concealed in walls with a 15-min finish rating or above suspended ceilings with a
similar rating). This exception does not waive the restrictions in Sec. 300-22(c) that exclude
these methods from air-handling ceilings.
Background: This is the first time nonmetallic wiring methods have made it into any normal
places of assembly that have a fire rating. The idea is that if the fire-finish principle in Sec. 3313(2) is valid for high-rise construction, it should be equally valid, if not more so, for
comparatively low-impact places of assembly, usually close to ground level, with abundant
means of egress.
Article 525--Carnivals, Circuses, Fairs, and Similar Events. A new article provides
comprehensive NEC coverage for "carnivals, circuses, fairs, and similar events."

What happened: A new Art. 525 covers these attractions, and includes many important new
requirements, as follows:
* Sec. 525-3. This article doesn't apply in permanent structures; Art. 518 and 520 apply instead.
If other articles and Art. 525 differ, then Art. 525 applies only to the portable wiring and
equipment.
* Sec. 525-6. Mechanical protection must be provided on rides and concessions for electric
equipment and wiring as needed to prevent damage.
* Sec. 525-10 Power Sources. Power sources must comply with their applicable articles and the
following additional requirements:
* Sec. 525-10(a) Services. If in locations accessible to unqualified persons, they must be
lockable. They must be on solid backing and protected from weather (unless weatherproof).
* Sec. 525-10(b) Separately Derived Systems. Generators must comply with Art. 445, and
transformers, in addition to complying with Art. 450, must comply "with applicable requirements
of Sec. 240-3(a), (b), (c), (d) and Sec. 250-26." This presumably refers not to the transformers
themselves but to the systems supplied by transformers, and covers separately derived system
grounding requirements and conductor overcurrent protection rules, including the tap rules.
* Sec. 525-12. Overhead conductors must comply with Sec. 225-18 for vertical clearances, and
at least 15 ft horizontally from all other amusement rides and attractions.
* Sec. 525-13. Normal wiring method rules generally apply. Open conductors are prohibited
except as part of a listed assembly or in festoon lighting, installed per Art. 225. The wiring for
one amusement ride must not be supported by another ride.
Flexible cords must be listed for extra-hard usage, wet locations, and sunlight resistance. They
must be continuous, without splices or taps between boxes or fittings. Cord connectors must not
be laid on the ground. Cords laid on the ground and accessible to the public must be covered
with approved nonconductive mats, arranged so as not to be a tripping hazard. Single conductor
cords are permitted in sizes No. 2 and larger.
* Sec. 525-14. Boxes or fittings required at outlets, junction points, etc.
* Sec. 525-15. Portable distribution and termination boxes must be designed so no live parts are
exposed to accidental contact, and if used outdoors, the box must be weatherproof and arranged
at least 6 in. above the ground. Busbar ampacities must at least equal the feeder overcurrent
device rating, and suitable busbar connectors must be provided as required for conductor
terminations. Receptacles must have overcurrent protection within the box, set no higher than the
ampere rating of the receptacle (or higher if allowed by Art. 430 for pure motor circuits.) Note
that this disallows a 15A configured receptacle on a 20A circuit. Single pole connectors must
comply with Sec. 530-22. Note that this rule does not, and probably should, reiterate Sec. 400-10
requiring strain relief for cord terminations.

* Sec. 525-16. Overcurrent protection to comply with the usual requirements.

* Sec. 525-17. Motors and associated equipment to comply with Art. 430.
* Sec. 525-18. GFCI requirements in Sec. 305-6 don't apply in this article. There are no such
requirements; this waiver wasn't correlated with the final action on Sec. 305-6. See the
discussion at Sec. 518-3 (b) Ex. 2 for more information.
* Sec. 525-20. Grounding to be in accordance with Art. 250.
* Sec. 525-21. Metal raceways, metal electric equipment enclosures, and metal frames and parts
of rides, concessions, trailers, trucks, or other equipment that support or contain electrical
equipment must be bonded. This could include, but would be very problematic to arrange, for
festoon lighting passing through a tent frame.
* Sec. 525-22. Usual rules for equipment grounding conductors. Regrounding of the grounded
circuit conductor is not permitted on the load side of the service or separately derived system
disconnecting means.
* Sec. 525-30. Every ride and concession must have a fused disconnect switch or circuit breaker
within sight and within 6 ft of the operator's station, and readily accessible to the operator even
while the ride is in motion. If accessible to unqualified persons, the disconnect must be lockable.
The disconnect may be remote from the operator if there is a shunt-trip mechanism to open the
disconnect, provided the ride operator can open the disconnect by closing a switch in the ride
console.
Art. 530, Part G. This new part recognizes a new 60/120V distribution system designed to
eliminate the effects of electronic noise on audio and video production work,
What happened: The new system, as shown in the drawing, uses two ungrounded circuit
conductors at a potential of 120V, and the system secondary is mid-point tapped,and grounded to
hold the system to 60V to ground. It can be used to reduce electronic noise in audio/video
production or "other sensitive electronic equipment locations" provided it is restricted to
electronic equipment only. In addition, the following restrictions apply:
* Sec. 530-71(a). Standard panelboards, such as 120/240 single-phase panelboards are permitted,
but the voltage system must be clearly marked on the panel face or door. Common-trip two-pole
circuit breakers must be used for all circuits, and they must be identified for use at the system
voltage. In general, circuit breakers work OK as long their voltage rating isn't exceeded, and that
won't be a problem on this system. As shown in the drawings, all loads supplied by these systems
will use two ungrounded circuit conductors.
* Sec. 530-71(b). Junction box covers shall be clearly marked to indicate the distribution
panelboard and the system voltage.

* Sec. 530-71(c). Feeders and branch-circuit must be identified as belonging to this kind of
system at all splices and terminations by color, tagging, or equally effective means. The means
chosen must be marked on all panelboards, and on the building disconnect. This is intended to
reduce the possibility of confusion during future alterations.
* Sec. 530-71(d). The voltage drop on any branch circuit must not exceed 1.5%, and the total
drop including the feeder contribution must not exceed 2.5%. These circuits are operating with
only one-half the voltage to ground, which means that in any ground fault, only one-half the fault
current would flow across the same fault. The intent of the rule is to maximize the available
voltage so overcurrent devices will trip open as quickly as possible in the event of a fault. This,
along with new Sec. 695-8(e) on fire pumps, is the only place in the Code that a mandatory rule
on voltage drop appears.
* Sec. 530-72. The system is a separately derived system and must be grounded accordingly, as
shown in the drawing. The neutral connection at the center tap of the transformer has no circuit
load function; its sole function is to stabilize the voltage to ground and to provide an equipment
grounding return path. It supplies, on the downstream side of the main bonding jumper for the
system, equipment grounding terminal bars. They must be marked "Technical Equipment
Ground."
If there were a succession of panelboards and the system designer decided to isolate the return
path from the enclosing raceways and panelboard enclosures for further noise reduction, this
section allows the use of insulated grounding conductors and having the equipment grounding
bars isolated from the enclosures. This is the same procedure allowed in Sec. 250-74 Ex. 4 and
Sec. 384-20. Note, however, that such raceways and enclosures must still be grounded. This can
happen using any of the recognized equipment grounding conductors in Sec. 250-91 (b).
Conversely, the exception allows for a raceway grounding return path without any additional
grounding conductors, provided that the impedance of the grounding return path over the
raceway does not exceed the impedance of a separate grounding conductor installed to meet
these minimum requirements. Remember, if the circuit conductors have been increased to meet
the voltage-drop requirement, then Sec. 250-95 requires a corresponding increase in the size of
grounding conductors on the same circuit. In this case the raceway impedance must be compared
with the lower impedance of the larger equipment grounding conductor that would otherwise
have been substituted. The FPNs that follow reinforce this concept.
* Sec. 530-73 (a). Where receptacles are used to connect equipment, all of the following
conditions shall be met:
* (1) All 15- and 20A receptacles shall be GFCI protected.
* (2) All outlet strips, adapters, receptacle covers, and face-plates shall be marked:
"WARNING--TECHNICAL POWER"; "Do not connect to lighting equipment"; "For electronic
equipment use only"; "60/120 Volts 10 AC"; "GFCI Protected."

* (3) A conventional 125V 10 15A or 20A receptacle must be located within 6 ft of all
permanently-installed 15A or 20A 60/120V technical power system receptacles.
* (4) All 125V 10 receptacles used for 60/120V technical power shall be uniquely configured and
identified for use with this class of system.
The reason for these requirements is to make as certain as possible that the receptacles aren't
used for cord- and plug-connected loads designed for use on systems with only one ungrounded
conductor. For example, if a floor lamp were connected, the screw shell would remain alive at
60V to ground, even with the switch off, assuming a single-pole lampholder.
Item (1) then adds an additional level of safety by requiring GFCI protection at or ahead of all
receptacle outlets. Be careful if you are considering using a 2-pole GFCI for this purpose. Its
electronic circuitry may not work on a system voltage of only 60V to ground. The best choice is
the so-called "master" GFCI units that are, in effect, feed-through GFCI receptacles without the
contact slots. They will work because they would see only their design voltage of 120V.
Remember, using an actual GFCI receptacle would violate the configuration rule in (4).
Item (2) on marking is self-explanatory. Item (3) relieves the temptation to plug the proverbial
floor lamp into the wrong receptacle, because an appropriate receptacle must be nearby.
Item (4) asks for a unique configuration, which has yet to be developed. An exception follows,
allowing a conventionally configured receptacle in "machine rooms, control rooms, equipment
rooms, equipment racks, and similar locations that are restricted to use by qualified personnel."
This will undoubtedly prove essential, particularly during the transition period.
Background: These systems have proven extremely effective at reducing audio hum and video
interference. The noise from the filtering circuits (see drawing) tends to cancel on this type of
balanced system. The transformers with the center-tapped 120V secondaries are increasingly
available as well. All that has been missing, until now, is some recognition in the NEC.
Sec. 547-8(b). The equipotential prone is now mandatory in agricultural buildings with livestock
confinement areas.
What happened: Instead of merely allowing embedded conductive elements in a concrete floor to
be used as an equipotential grid, now you must install such embedded elements, and you must
bond them to the grounding electrode system of the building. This is a major change. In addition,
you must protect the livestock against step potentials as they enter (or exit) the building through
the use of a "voltage gradient at entrances and exits." A new FPN refers the reader to the
American Society of Agricultural Engineers Standard EP473, Equipotential Planes in Animal
Confinement Areas, as one way to do this.
Background: For some time it has been generally understood that livestock, particularly cattle,
have a lower threshold for injury due to voltage differentials than people do. In some cases the
premises power system will be responsible for small voltages between local ground where an
animal is standing, and ground as reflected in the metal surfaces of electric equipment that are

connected to the equipment grounding system for the building. In addition, voltage gradients can
appear due to imbalances in the utility primary neutrals, especially where these use the same
conductors as the secondary neutrals. The idea is that an equipotential plane will ameliorate these
problems, in the same way as the required bonding grid at swimming pools helps shield
swimmers from voltage gradients.
The proposal was extremely controversial, particularly in the State of Wisconsin, which had such
a mandatory requirement for many years and just succeeded in repealing it. There have been
questions raised as to its long-term effectiveness, particularly in the highly moist and corrosive
conditions involved. Some have also questioned the practicability, particularly if precast concrete
is used. Finally, there are questions as to whether this has crossed over into electrical design,
since no person has ever been injured by these voltages. The panel answered that by noting that
livestock is property, and protecting property is within the scope of the NEC. Note that the rule
only applies where livestock is involved.
Sec. 551-71. There are major changes in the required receptacle provisions at RV parks.
What happened: First, 5% of the electrified sites must now have 50A 125/250V receptacles, with
the 30A 125V sites reduced proportionately. Second, dedicated tent sites with 15A or 20A
electric supply can now be excluded from the number of electrified sites to which the
percentages apply.
Background: This is the first time a specific number of sites will need to be set aside for the
larger RVs. In addition, the rule also recognizes that some RV parks reserve sites for tent
camping. Although electrified, these sites do not affect the vehicle percentages at an RV park.
Example: 150 sites, 25 for tent camping without power, 25 for tent camping with power, balance
for RVs.
* Exclude the 25 nonpower sites; they were never counted.
* Exclude the 25 tent sites with power; they are now exempt.
* Balance of electrified, countable sites is 100; 5 must be 125/ 250V 50A; 70 sites must have
125V 30A; all 100 sites must have 125V 20A.
Sec. 551-71. This section has been editorially revised b separate the GFCI requirements from
both paragraphs and insert them into new third paragraph.
The third paragraph simply says: "All 125-volt, single-phase, 15- and 20-ampere receptacles
shall have listed ground-fault circuit-interrupter protection for personnel." Be careful with this
new paragraph format. The old format tied the GFCI rule directly to the affected text. It was clear
that the GFCI rules applied to RV site receptacles. The new third paragraph has no such ties. The
new paragraph can easily be interpreted to protect every receptacle of the described current and
voltage rating throughout the RV park. This wasn't intended; the change was supposed to be
strictly an editorial matter.

Sec. 551-73(a). Tent sites [electrified) are going into the required demand calculations for the
first time, at 600VA.
To be eligible for treatment as a tent site, the supply must be no higher than 20A, and the site
must be dedicated for that purpose.
Article 552--ark Trailers Art. 552. A new article covers "Park Trailers."
What happened: A new article covers "park trailers," defined as "A unit that meets the following
criteria: (a) built on a single chassis mounted on wheels, and (b) having a gross trailer area not
exceeding 400 sq. ft. (37.2 sq. m.) in the set up mode."
Note that in the Art. 551 definitions, a "travel trailer" can be up to 320 sq. ft. This new article
covers a larger version of that, and the sections that follow generally reiterate the rules for RVs.
However, there are some significant differences. Part D material in Art. 551 on multiple power
sources, and most information about generator power supply, have been omitted. Also,
undoubtedly reflective of the increased size of these units, there is some material imported from
Art. 550 on mobile homes. In addition, the material in Art. 551 covering 15A and 20A power
supplies, cords, plugs, etc. has been omitted, since units this large would never come with such a
small power feed. Finally, since these units are towed and not driven, material in Art. 551 about
wiring in engine compartments and such items as the cigarette lighter receptacle rule [Sec. 55110(h)] weren't brought over as well.
Background: Approximately 10,000 of these units are now being produced annually, and they
must be being set up somewhere. The new article has no site provisions, so presumably these
park trailers come under the Art. 551 rules (in Part G). There are, however, no demand provisions
in Sec. 551-73 for hard-wired feeders of indefinite capacity. Sec. 550-22 has demand factors for
mobile homes, but those may be problematic to integrate with Sec. 551-73. This will be
particularly true if the particular sites for these trailers aren't dedicated in the RV park, and
nothing in the Code forces them to be.
Sec. 555-1. This article now also covers boathouses and similar occupancies.
What happened: This article now has responsibility for boat-houses, including those at a
dwelling. This brings receptacles at these locations within the rules of Sec. 555-3, which requires
GFCI protection. Although Sec. 210-8(a) dropped residential boathouses from its GFCI
provisions, there will be no gap in coverage due to their inclusion in this article of the Code.
EC&M tip: Note that the shore power and other requirements in Art. 555 now apply in these
boathouses to the extent applicable, not just the GFCI rules.

Analyzing transformer insulating fluid.

Nov 1, 1999 12:00 PM, Miller, George

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Find more articles on: Transformers
As part of a complete preventive maintenance program, periodic oil analysis will monitor the
condition of power transformers and detect problems before they reach serious proportions.
Power transformers are a vital link in the transmission and distribution of electrical power. In
fact, almost every business, whether industrial or commercial, relies on transformers for its
electric power supply. Since it's extremely important to keep them working, a preventive
maintenance plan is essential.
A study by Hartford Steam Boiler over a period of 20 years indicates that 13% of all transformer
failures were caused by inadequate maintenance. This number is significant, considering the
study found that the average age of a transformer at the time of failure was only slightly more
than 11 years; transformers are expected to last 25 to 30 years.
Since transformers have few, if any moving parts, it's easy to acquire an "out of sight, out of
mind" mentality. However, as the above study points out, this attitude can prove costly in the
long run. Instituting a planned maintenance program can greatly reduce the number of
unexpected power interruptions caused by transformer failure. This program should include
temperature, oil level, and gas pressure checks; operational checks on accessories such as fans,
pumps, and load tap changers; and visual checks for cracked or leaking bushings. More
importantly, these tests should be performed on a regularly scheduled basis because periodic
testing and inspection provide trend information and permit repairs and other remedial action to
be budgeted on a timely basis.
Why test insulating fluid?
One major element of a transformer maintenance program is periodic testing of insulating fluid.
It should be performed in conjunction with the other routine maintenance functions mentioned
above.
The insulating oil in a power transformer performs two major functions. First, it serves as
electrical insulation to withstand the high voltages present inside the transformer. Second, it
functions as a heat transfer medium to dissipate heat generated within the transformer windings.
Thus, the oil must maintain good electrical properties while resisting thermal degradation and
oxidation.
Most power transformers are filled with mineral oil refined to achieve the desired electrical and
chemical properties. Some transformers, particularly indoor units, are filled with a synthetic
fluid, such as silicon, R-temp, or Askarel (PCB fluid).
There are several benefits to conducting periodic analyses of a transformer's insulating fluid.
First, the tests will indicate the interior condition of the transformer. Any sludge that is present
within the transformer can be detected and effectively removed before it can proceed into the

windings and other interior surfaces of the transformer. Eliminating sludge prolongs transformer
life.
Another advantage of oil testing is the prevention of unscheduled outages. If problems are
detected early enough, corrective action can be scheduled when disruption of electrical service
will be minimal. A manufacturing facility for instance, can schedule servicing during shutdowns,
when other maintenance functions are planned. Commercial locations may consider holidays and
weekends for planned maintenance.
Finally, because transformer oil breaks down in a predictable fashion, periodic testing will prove
helpful in determining any trends. This allows comparisons between normal and abnormal rates
of deterioration. Although one set of test data will indicate the presence of contaminants, it will
not enable accurate analysis of any trends that are developing.
How is testing done?
To measure the quality of insulating oil and establish a benchmark for the degree of
deterioration, several tests are used. Samples of the fluid can be drawn while the transformer is in
normal operation through drain valves or sampling ports. The following list describes some of
the most common laboratory tests, and references the appropriate ASTM method.
Dielectric breakdown. (ASTM D877, D1816) Dielectric breakdown is the minimum voltage at
which electrical flashover occurs in an oil. It's a measure of the ability of an oil to withstand
electrical stress at power frequencies without failure. A low value for the dielectric breakdown
voltage generally indicates the presence of contaminants, such as water, dirt, or other conducting
particles in the oil.
Neutralization number. (ASTM D974) The neutralization number of an oil is a measure of the
amount of acidic or alkaline materials present. As an oil ages in service, the acidity and,
therefore, the neutralization number increases. A used oil having a high neutralization number
indicates the oil is either oxidized or contaminated with materials such as varnish, paint, or other
foreign matter. A negative neutralization number results from an alkaline contaminant in the oil.
Interfacial tension. (ASTM D971) The interfacial tension of an oil is the force, in dynes per
centimeter, required to rupture the oil film existing at an oil-water interface. When certain
contaminants such as soaps, paints, varnishes, and oxidation products are present in the oil, the
film strength of the oil is weakened; thus less force is required to rupture the oil film. For oils in
service, a decreasing value indicates the accumulation of contaminants, oxidation products, or
both. It's a precursor of the presence of objectionable oxidation products that may attack the
insulation and interfere with the cooling of the transformer windings.
Specific gravity. (ASTM D1298) The specific gravity (relative density) of an oil is the ratio of
the weights of equal volumes of oil and water. A high specific gravity indicates the oil's ability to
suspend water. In extremely cold climates, specific gravity can be used to determine whether ice,
resulting from freezing of water in oil-filled apparatus, will float on the oil. Such a condition
possibly may result in flashover of conductors extending above the oil level.

Water content. (ASTM D1315; D1533) This test measures the concentration of water contained
within the oil. A low water content is necessary to obtain and maintain acceptable electrical
strength and low dielectric losses in insulation systems.
Color. (ASTM D1500) This test compares the actual color of the oil to an established spectrum
of colors. Expressed numerically from 0 to 5, a high color number indicates contamination
caused by carbon or the deterioration of either insulation material or the oil.
Visual examination. (ASTM D1524) An oil sample is visually examined by passing a beam of
light through it to determine transparency and identify foreign matters. Poor transparency,
cloudiness, or the observation of particles indicate contamination, such as moisture, sludge, or
other foreign matter.
Power factor. (ASTM D924) Power factor indicates the dielectric loss of an oil. A high power
factor is an indication of the presence of contamination or deterioration products such as
moisture, carbon, or other conducting matter, metal soaps, and products of oxidation.
Flash point. (ASTM D92) The flash point is the minimum temperature at which heated oil gives
off sufficient vapor to form a flammable mixture with air. It is an indicator of the volatility of the
oil.
Pour point. (ASTM D97) The pour point is the lowest temperature at which the oil will flow. A
low pour point is important, particularly in cold climates, to ensure that the oil will circulate and
serve its purpose as an insulating and cooling medium.
Corrosive sulfur. (ASTM D1275) This test detects the presence of objectionable quantities of
elemental and thermally unstable sulfur-bearing compounds in an oil. When present, these
compounds can cause corrosion of certain transformer metals, such as copper and silver.
Viscosity. (ASTM D455; D88) Viscosity is the resistance of oil to flow under specified
conditions and is the principal factor in the convection flow of oil in an electrical device. It
influences heat transfer and, consequently, the temperature rise in apparatus.
Dissolved gas analysis. All liquid-filled transformers generate gases during normal operation.
When a transformer begins to function abnormally, the rate of gas production increases.
Analyzing these gases and their rate of production is another valuable laboratory tool for
evaluating the condition of an operating transformer.
The most accurate method of analyzing dissolved gas in a transformer is using gas
chromatography. The gases dissolved in the oil are extracted from a sample and analyzed by a
gas chromatograph. This method identifies the individual gases present and also the quantitative
amounts. Several key gases are attributed to certain fault conditions that generated them. These
are shown in the table below.
Condition

Overheating
Corona
Arcing
Overheated
Listing of fault conditions and the resulting generation of gases.
Interpreting the results from a gas chromatograph depends upon the total quantity of the
combustible gases, the quantity of each individual gas, and the rate of increase. However, the
interpretation of a dissolved gas test is not an exact science.
Since normal operation causes the formation of certain gases, simply determining the presence of
gases within the oil should not cause alarm. What is important is the rate and amount of gases
generated. As in other tests, gas analysis should be conducted on a regular basis to indicate trends
or changes in results.

Tamper-resistant receptacles: the rules have

changed.
Nov 1, 1995 12:00 PM, Currall, John
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What tamper-resistant products are UL-listed and what test methods are used?
Tamper-resistant receptacles are the only devices that are specifically tested by UL for safety and
reliability in respect to compliance with NEC Sec. 517-18(c), including the exception. Although
the exception, added in the 1996 code cycle, states that "a receptacle cover shall be permitted to
be used in place of a tamper-resistant receptacle provided such cover, by its construction, limits
improper access to the energized parts of the receptacle," a receptacle cover is not UL-listed for
safety/tamper resistance. Products such as plastic plug-in inserts and wall plates with contact
shutters also are available for tamper resistance; however, none of these products is UL-listed for
safety/tamper resistance. Plastic plug-in inserts are listed as insulating devices aimed at energy
conservation only; wall plates with contact shutters are UL-listed strictly as wall plates.
The NEC requires that tamper-resistant receptacles be installed in pediatric areas; however there
are many other settings where children may be at risk. These include day care centers, children's
play areas, elementary and nursery schools, doctor's offices and lobbies, retail establishments
featuring children's attire or toys, and your home.
Background information

The concept of tamper-resistant receptacles is not a recent development; these devices have been
a standard product offering of wiring device manufacturers for the better part of 10 years. The
devices are designed to protect individuals (primarily children) from accidental shock resulting
from the insertion of foreign objects.
Several code cycles ago, the need for tamper-resistant receptacles emerged as an NEC issue. The
NFPA, through specific code-making panels, was concerned about the well being of children in
pediatric units of hospitals and the inclination of a child to unknowingly endanger him- or herself
by inserting keys, pins, paper clips, or other items into unprotected receptacles. As a result, the
use of these receptacles has been a requirement of the NEC since 1981, under the title "tamper
proof," with a qualifying definition. In 1984, the NEC expanded the application of these devices
to psychiatric wards as well. It wasn't until the 1990 code cycle that the NFPA changed the
classification to "tamper resistant."
Once the Code requirement was adopted, it was difficult to determine feasible requirements
needed to prevent adult access to receptacles. Keeping children out of receptacles was one thing;
adults presented another problem. Not until the NEC dropped the psychiatric ward requirements
in the 1993 Code [See 517-18(c)] were UL and wiring device manufacturers able to identify
realistic requirements and develop the test procedures necessary to list tamper-resistant
receptacles.
How tamper resistance works
There are several methods to achieve tamper-resistance operation, the most common being the
use of a spring-loaded shutter mechanism. Inside the face of the receptacle is a spring-loaded
thermoplastic safety shutter. Under normal, unused conditions, the shutters are closed, and both
contact openings are covered.
Upon insertion of a grounded or ungrounded plug, the blades of the plug simultaneously
compress the shutters against the spring. The simultaneous force allows the shutters to slide and
open up access to the receptacle contacts. The plug becomes fully inserted and securely fits into
the receptacle. When the plug is removed, the shutters instantly close, covering the contact
openings.
When a foreign object, such as a paper clip or small bladed screwdriver, is inserted into only one
of the openings, the safety shutter will not allow access to the live contact.
For these receptacles, the safety mechanism covers only the line and load contacts, and not the
ground; this is to allow application versatility. Having a safety mechanism over the ground
would require a ground pin on the inserted plug and limit the type of equipment that could be
used with these devices. Because they accept a two-pronged plug, these receptacles can be used
with standard household and office appliances like light fixtures, clocks, and radios.
New UL testing

In April 1994, specific UL testing requirements and product markings became a requirement for
a tamper-resistant receptacle to receive a UL listing. The UL testing measures the performance,
against minimum standards, of the receptacle's internal mechanism that prevents the insertion of
inappropriate objects. Prior to this, there were no specific tests for tamper resistance; all that was
available was the UL 498 requirements for a standard receptacle.
The new testing procedure requires a probe test, impact test, mechanical test, and dielectric test,
details of which follow.
Probe test. This test tries to defeat the safety mechanism by inserting a single weighted (8 oz.), .
031-in. die probe into the blade opening in the face of the receptacle. The probe is then
manipulated in an effort to defeat the system and make contact with the receptacle's contacts.
Impact test. This physical abuse test uses a 1.18 -lb, 2-in. die steel ball, which is swung on a
pendulum, to make direct contact with the face of a mounted tamper-resistant device, with an
impact force 5 ft-lbs. After this test, the probe test is repeated.
Endurance test. This is a cycle test in which a plug is inserted and removed from the device 5000
times, after which the probe test is again repeated.
Dielectric test. This test is performed after the impact and endurance tests. It tests for internal
shorting, with twice the device's voltage rating plus 1000V applied for 60 sec.
After passing all of the above performance tests, all tamper-resistant receptacles must have either
the words "tamper resistant" or the letters "TR" (minimum 3/16 in. high) on the device as a clear
indication that this is a tamper-resistant receptacle.

The basics of transformers - Part 1

Nov 1, 1999 12:00 PM, DeDad, John A.
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Find more articles on: Transformers
A transformer is an energy coupling device that takes electrical energy at one voltage (from its
source) and transforms it to another voltage. The new voltage may be higher (stepped up) or
lower (stepped down), or it may remain the same as the input voltage. A good analogy is a
mechanical gear train, where the shaft of the input gear rotates at a different speed than that of
the output gear.
Construction
There are three major parts to a transformer: its coils, its core, and its enclosure or structural
parts.

Coils. The coils are really turns of insulated copper or aluminum wire (magnet wire) that are
wound around a core. There is at least one coil of wire or winding at a transformer's input
(primary) and another for its output (secondary). These windings are well insulated from each
other and the core to prevent shorts and grounds.
The ratio of turns in a transformer's primary winding to those in its secondary winding is known
as its turns ratio. Shown in Fig. 1 is a simple transformer circuit, where the primary has six turns,
and the secondary has three turns. Thus, its turns ratio is 6 divided 3, or 2:1.
[Figure 1. ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
A transformer's voltage ratio is the same as its turns ratio and is expressed by the following
proportion.
[V.sub.P]/[V.sub.S] = [N.sub.P]/[N.sub.S] where [V.sub.P] = primary volts [V.sub.S] = secondary
volts [N.sub.P] = number of turns at primary [N.sub.S] = number of turns at secondary
Thus, the voltage of the primary winding of the Fig. 1 transformer is twice that of its secondary
winding.
Core. A core is made up of many thin laminations of high-grade electrical sheet steel. These
laminations, which are insulated, are stacked one atop another until the desired stack height is
reached. It usually takes 30 to 40 laminations to make a 1-in. high stack.
There are two kinds of losses associated with the core: hysteresis losses and eddy current losses.
Hysteresis losses are directly proportional to the volume of the lamination while eddy current
losses are directly proportional to the thickness of the lamination. Thus, the importance of using
thin laminations of high-grade electrical steel.
For more detailed information, see "Choosing The Right Transformer, Parts 1 through 4"
(February, May, and November 1992 issues; January 1993 issue).
Taps
Many times, line voltages are either higher or lower than the rated voltage of a transformer's
primary. In instances such as these, the secondary voltage will be higher or lower respectively.
For example, a 480V-120V single winding transformer with an input line voltage of 456V will
have a secondary output voltage of 114V. This is because the transformer's voltage ratio is 4:1
(480V primary divided by 120V secondary). Thus, its secondary voltage is 456V divided by 4, or
114V. Conversely, this same transformer with an input voltage of 504V will have a secondary
voltage of 126V (504V divided by 4).
Using a tap changes the voltage ratio of a transformer so that its secondary voltage stays at
nominal. On large power transformers, taps on the primary are used to offset any higher or lower
input voltages. These tap connections are usually set at the factory for nominal line voltage. If
the voltage at the site is different, the taps are changed accordingly.

That said, what is a tap? Actually, it's a direct connection to a turn on a transformer winding at a
voltage other than the normal rated voltage. Its lead is brought out to a terminal on the surface of
the coil or on a terminal board of the transformer. Fig. 2 shows a transformer winding with a
typical tap placement. The numbers refer to the marking of the tap. In this diagram, "1" is the
highest voltage tap, "7" is the lowest voltage tap, and "3" is the normal, or nominal, voltage tap.
[Figure 2. ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
A whole number of turns is required between taps; otherwise, the tap lead will be on the wrong
side of the transformer. For example, a winding can't be tapped at 2 3/4 or 7 1/4 turns; it must be
tapped at 3 or 7 turns. Let's look at some examples.
A 480V transformer having 960 turns has 2 turns per volt. A 2 1/2% low tap on this transformer
will decrease the voltage by 12V (0.025 times 480V); thus, the input voltage is 468V. Since there
are 2 turns per volt, the tap would be 24 turns from the 480V normal tap.
In large transformers with few turns, taps can't be placed at exactly the right voltage. For
example, a very large transformer has 5V per turn; as such, a 2 1/2% tap on the 480V primary
winding (reduction of 12V) calls for 2.4 turns (12V divided 5V per turn). Because we can't tap at
less than a whole turn, the tap is placed at 2 turns for 10V, and the tap becomes a 2.09% tap
rather than a 2 1/2% tap.
The number of turns (and thus the turns per volt) can be varied; however, the exact voltage
required may still be unattainable. For this reason, tap voltages are marked on transformer
nameplates.
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NFPA board hears appeals

Nov 1, 1995 12:00 PM
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* Amend Sec. 300-18 and 331-3 to permit the use of prewired ENT. This appeal was made by
Carlon.
* Delete Sec. 518-4 Ex. 3, which allows ENT and rigid nonmetallic conduit in some places of
assembly, including restaurants, conference and meeting rooms of hotels or motels, dining
facilities, and church chapels. This permission is restricted to the traditional locations for ENT in
high-rise construction (concealed in walls with a 15-min finish rating or above suspended
ceilings with a similar rating). There were two separate appeals (from Allied Tube and Conduit
and from Alflex Cable) that were combined because they both requested the same outcome.

* Delete Art. 505 and related provisions from Art. 500 and Art. 501, which cover the zone
classification concept for hazardous (classified) locations. This appeal was made by William
Wusinich of the IBEW.
* Amend Sec. 250-45, 305-6, 501-11, and 517-11 to require, in effect, a complete redesign of
grounding connections within cord- and plug-connected equipment by using a second, redundant
equipment grounding conductor within the cord. This appeal was made by Mr. Martucci, the
proposal submitter.
* Amend Sec. 600-7 to restore the original panel action granting permission for flexible metal
conduit to be used as an equipment grounding return path in total lengths up to 100 ft for highvoltage wiring in neon signs. In addition, the appeal seeks an exception to the grounding
requirement for some small metal sign parts such as tubing supports on skeleton tubing.
Note that Sec. 600-32(j) limits the length of a metal raceway enclosing "high-voltage cable" to
20 ft. There is no intent to change this requirement, because it refers to cable that runs "in a metal
raceway from a transformer/power supply to other parts of the sign." That is, the first run of
flexible metal conduit to the sign (which has the highest voltage to ground) is held to 20 ft, but
subsequent runs from point to point within a sign could add up to 100 ft in the total grounding
return path, if the appeal succeeds.
* Amend Sec. 600-32(a) to restore a requirement accepted by CMP 18 (and removed by the
Standards Council) that would require listed sleeving to enclose conductors running to a sign
from an electronic power supply, if metal conduit were used as the wiring method. There has
been an intense technical debate over whether this language would increase the capacitance per
unit distance, thereby increasing the capacitive leakage current and distorting the electric field,
and possibly increasing corona discharge.
The panel's view was that this analysis was only valid where the conductor was somehow
suspended in the middle of the raceway. In the real world, where the conductor lies against the
wall of the raceway, the panel felt that corona would be decreased by its sleeving requirement,
which effectively increases insulation thickness. Both controversies in Art. 600 were part of a
single appeal made by Randall Wright, the National Electric Sign Association representative on
CMP 18.
Decisions made
As this page goes to press, three of those appeals (on two subject areas) have beer determined:
* The appeal on Sec. 300-18 and Sec. 331-3, to permit pre-wired ENT, has been rejected. The
appeal was based on both an alleged miscount of the KnicKrehm ballot on the original proposal,
as well as on the technical merits of allowing a pre-wired product. After carefully analyzing the
actual ballot, which had not been filled out correctly, the subcommittee concluded that there was
sufficient basis from the structure of his other comments for NFPA staff to conclude that he
actually intended negative vote. In addition, his vote had been reported as negative, and he had
declined to change it during the recirculation period.

The Standards Council had rejected the Carlon position on different grounds. The Council noted
that there was overlapping jurisdiction between CMP 3 and CMP 8 for this issue, and CMP 8 had
rejected it. The Council felt that CMP 8 had primary jurisdiction, and therefore no detailed
analysis of the CMP 3 ballot was required. The subcommittee rejected this view as being "on this
record, unclear." It directed the Council to work with the Correlating Committee to clarify which
code making panel has principal jurisdiction over this issue.
The subcommittee decision did not mention the fact that a supporting public comment failed to
receive a favorable two-thirds majority (it was one vote short) during the comment period. By
longstanding policy, when a supporting comment fails to support a proposal by a two-thirds vote,
the Correlating Committee will declare the original proposal rejected because it no longer enjoys
the required majority of support. Apparently resolving the position of KnicKrehm's ballot was
sufficient. The subcommittee noted the technical arguments had been fully addressed during the
normal code process, and the required degree of consensus had not been achieved.
* The two appeals to delete Sec. 518-4 Ex. 3 were rejected. This exception had been rejected by
CMP 15 at every stage of the process, but received a favorable vote on the floor of the Annual
Meeting. The Council had reversed the panel action, observing that these wiring methods have
been allowed in "many other occupancies with an appreciable fire risk." The subcommittee
agreed with the Council that the panel had failed to provide suitable technical substantiation to
reject the new exception.