Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Microbiology
Essentials of
Microbiology
Surinder Kumar
MD DNB MNAMS
Director Professor
Department of Microbiology
Maulana Azad Medical College
New Delhi, India
Overseas Offices
J.P. Medical Ltd
83, Victoria Street, London
SW1H 0HW (UK)
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Essentials of Microbiology
First Edition: 2016
ISBN978-93-5152-380-2
Printed at
Dedicated to
My father
Late Shri Lachhman Das
My mother
Late Smt Bal Kaur
My wife
Dr (Prof) Savita Kumari
and my sons
Dr Sourabh Kumar and Sanchit Kumar
whose love and affection make everything I do possible.
Preface
Microbiology is an extremely diverse discipline and can be a bewildering field to the novice. The
traditional books, seem to be exhaustive of microbiologic facts, are too voluminous and detailed to be
read by a typical medical student, who is trying to keep up with simultaneously several classes of other
subjects. One of the ways to fulfill the goals of the book is to concentrate on understanding concepts
important fundamental ideas or themes that form a framework of the subject. Essentials of Microbiology
is the result of the authors 28 years of experience in teaching medical students. The book is readable and
complete enough to meet the students needs. The overall objective of this book is to provide students
the basics of medical microbiology as well as a complete coverage of the subject. It contains all of the
information that is pertinent to the medical students who are studying microbiology keeping in mind
their examination.
Although the text has been designed to teach undergraduate and postgraguate medical students, it
would also serve as a review tool for the individuals who are taking medical examinations and persons
working in health-related professions, physicians, and infectious disease scientists.
Microbiology has expanded beyond recognition with various medical specialty, and it is not possible
for any one book to cover all aspects of medical microbiology in depth. This book is divided into
the following seven sections, based on the major disciplines included within microbiology: General
Bacteriology, Immunology, Systemic Bacteriology, Virology, Medical Mycology, Miscellaneous, and
Diagnostic Medical Microbiology. The chapters themselves are comprehensive yet free of unnecessary
detail and provide the reader with a framework for understanding. Mycology and parasitology have
continued to flourish and have blossomed into fields of study of their own rights. Therefore, parasitology
has not been included in this book which has a sturdy independence.
I would be thankful for any comments or suggestions from students, teachers, and all the readers of
this book for further improvements in its future editions.
Surinder Kumar
Acknowledgments
This book took years in writing but a lifetime in preparation. I would like to thank those whose example,
teaching, and prodding helped me develop a thirst for knowledge as well as methods for quenching
that thirst. I am greatly indebted to a number of my mentors, friends and colleagues who encouraged
me and gave valuable suggestions for improving the text. I am always indebted to my late brother Sant
Swaran Dev whose advice, guidance and true life philosophy gave me strength and courage to continue
my work in all odds. I would like to thank my family for patiently enduring the writing of this book,
which seemed at times to be an endless process. I am especially grateful to my wife Dr Savita Kumari,
Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Post Graduate Institute and Medical Education and Research
(PGIMER), Chandigarh, for her support and encouragement and to my two sons, Dr Sourabh Kumar
and Mr Sanchit Kumar (medical student) who gave me their valuable moments without any complaint
for completing this book, so I could retain my sanity.
My special thanks is to Dr Sanjeev R Saigal, my PhD student and now my Research Associate Indian
Council of Medical Research (ICMR) for his constant help for this book. Sincere appreciation also goes
to all staff of M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd., New Delhi, for their guidance and support
in this project.
Contents
Section 1: General Bacteriology
1. Historical Development of Microbiology
2. Microscopy
Microscopy: Instruments 8
Light Microscopy 8
Electron Microscopy 9
Scanning-probe Microscopy 10
3. Morphology of Bacteria
11
4. Physiology of Bacteria
21
25
6. Culture Media
37
7. Culture Methods
43
8. Identification of Bacteria
48
9. Bacterial Taxonomy
56
58
11. Infection
75
Section 2: Immunology
12. Immunity
13. Antigens
81
Definition81
Classification81
Mechanisms of Innate Immunity 82
Local Immunity 86
Herd Immunity 86
87
Types of Antigens 87
Antigenic Determinant or Epitome 87
Determinants of Antigenicity 87
Superantigens 89
14. AntibodiesImmunoglobulins
90
96
Antibody Structure 90
Immunoglobulin Classes 92
101
117
Contents
18. Immune Response
125
137
|xiii
142
21. Autoimmunity
151
154
Definition154
Types of Transplants 154
Allograft Reaction 154
Histocompatibility Testing 155
Fetus as an Allograft 156
Graft-versus-host Reaction 156
Immunology of Malignancy 156
Tumor Antigens 156
Immune Response in Malignancy 157
Immunological Surveillance 157
Immunotherapy of Cancer 157
23. Immunohematology
159
163
172
183
28. Corynebacterium
188
197
29. Bacillus
205
30. Clostridium
211
221
227
240
247
35. Actinomycetes
252
256
267
Proteus 267
Morganella269
Providencia 269
Erwinia269
38. Shigella
270
Contents
39. Enterobacteriaceae III: Salmonella
274
Salmonella274
Diagnosis of Carriers 283
Prophylaxis283
Drug Resistance 284
Salmonella Gastroenteritis 284
Salmonella Septicemia 285
Multiresistant Salmonellae 285
|xv
287
Vibrio287
Vibrio cholerae 287
Resistance288
Halophilic Vibrios 294
Aeromonas295
Plesiomonas295
297
301
Campylobacter297
Helicobacter298
43. Legionella
307
309
45. Haemophilus
317
46. Bordetella
323
47. Brucella
48. Spirochetes
327
333
Classification327
Treponema334
Nonvenereal Treponematoses 341
Nonpathogenic Treponemes 341
Borrelia342
Leptospira344
348
Classification348
Morphology349
Cultural Characteristics 349
Pathogenicity350
Mycoplasma pneumoniae 350
Laboratory Diagnosis 351
Mycoplasmas and L Forms of Bacteria 352
Ureaplasma urealyticum 353
Listeria monocytogenes 355
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae 356
Alcaligenes faecalis 357
Chromobacterium violaceum 357
355
362
371
Classification371
Section 4: Virology
53. General Properties of Viruses
378
392
397
56. Bacteriophages
402
57. Poxviruses
406
58. Herpesviruses
409
Morphology406
Physical and Chemical Properties 407
Other Poxvirus Diseases 408
Structure409
Classification409
Herpes Virus Simiae: B Virus 411
Varicella-Zoster Virus 411
Contents
59. Adenoviruses
|xvii
418
Morphology418
Resistance 418
Pathogenesis418
Laboratory Diagnosis 419
Treatment, Prevention and Control 420
60. Papovaviruses
421
61. Parvoviruses
424
62. Picornaviruses
426
Papillomaviruses421
Polyomaviruses422
Parvovirus424
Dependovirus 424
Erythrovirus424
63. Orthomyxovirus
434
64. Paramyxoviruses
440
65. Arboviruses
446
Classification446
Properties 446
Laboratory Diagnosis 447
Pathogenesis 447
Families of Arboviruses 447
Ungrouped Arboviruses 455
Arbovirus Known to Be Prevalent in India 455
66. Rhabdoviruses
457
465
476
488
492
Rubivirus492
Rubella (German Measles) 492
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers 493
Arenaviruses493
Filoviruses 494
Coronaviruses494
Reoviridae496
Norwalk Virus 497
499
503
508
515
Blastomycosis515
Paracoccidioidomycosis515
Coccidioidomycosis516
Histoplasmosis516
519
76. Mycotoxicosis
528
Mycetism528
Mycotoxicosis528
Psychotropic Agents 529
Section 6: Miscellaneous
77. Normal Microbial Flora of the Human Body
530
533
Contents
559
555
|xix
565
82. Immunoprophylaxis
571
575
Vaccines 571
Immunization572
580
584
586
589
xx | Essentials of Microbiology
88. Staining Methods
Index
592
596
Spots596
Staining for Practical Examination 598
Reagents600
Gram-positive and Gram-negative Bacteria 601
Identification of Bacterial Culture 601
Staphylococcus605
Bacillus, Proteus sp. 606
Lactose Fermenter (LF) 607
Stool/Feces Examination 609
615
1
Chapter
Kochs postulates
Contributions of Paul Ehrlich.
INTRODUCTION
DISCOVERY OF MICROORGANISMS
As microbes are invisible to the unaided eye, direct
observation of microorganisms had to await the
development of the microscope.
Chap-01.indd 1
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SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT OF
MICROBIoLOGY
Chap-01.indd 2
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|3
Chap-01.indd 3
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4.
5.
DISCOVERY OF VIRUSES
As a science, virology evolved later than
bacteriology. Although the physical nature of
viruses was not fully revealed until the invention
of the electron microscope, the infections they
cause have been known and feared since the dawn
of history.
1. Infectious Agents Smaller than Bacteria
The infectious agents of numerous diseases
were being isolated and many infectious
diseases had been proved to be caused by
bacteria. But there remained a large number
of diseases for which no bacterial cause could
be established until it was realized that the
responsible agents were smaller than bacteria.
2. Various Infections
i.
Rabies in dogs: Pasteur had suspected
that rabies in dogs could be caused by a
microbe too small to be seen under the
microscope.
ii. Tobacco mosaic disease: Iwanowski
(1892), Russian scientist and Martinus
Beijrinck (1898) in Holland attributed the
cause of tobaccomosaic disease to the
infectious agents in bacteria-free filtrates to
be living but fluidcontagium vivum fluidum
and introduced the term virus (Latin for
poison) for such filterable infectious agents.
iii. Foot-and-mouth disease of cattle: Friedrich
Loeffler and Paul Frosch at the same time in
1898 in Germany found that foot-and-mouth
disease of cattle was also caused by a similar
filter-passing virus.
iv. Yellow fever: The discovery of first human
disease proved to have a viral etiology was
yellow fever. The US Army Yellow Fever
Commission under Walter Reed in Cuba
(1902) showed that this human disease
(yellow fever) was not only a filterable virus
but also transmitted through the bite of
infected mosquitoes.
3. Electron microscope: Viruses could not be
visualized under the light microscope or grown
in culture media. So investigation of viruses
and the disease caused by them were rendered
Chap-01.indd 4
6.
7.
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|5
Nobel laureates
Contribution
1901
1902
Ronald Ross
1905
Robert Koch
1907
CLA Laveron
Chap-01.indd 5
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Nobel laureates
Contribution
1908
1913
Charles Richet
Anaphylaxis
1919
Jules Bordet
1928
Charles Nicolle
Typhus exanthematicus
1930
Karl Landsteiner
1939
Gerhardt Domagk
1945
Discovered penicillin
1951
Max Theiler
1952
Selman A Waksman
1954
John F Enders, Thomas H Weller and Frederick C Cultured poliovirus in cell cultures
Robbins
1960
1962
James D Watson, Frances HC Crick and Maurice AF Double helix structure of deoxyribonucleic acid
Wilkins
(DNA)
1966
Peyton Ross
1968
Genetic code
1969
1972
1975
1977
Rosalyn Yalow
Developed inmmunoassay
1980
HLA antigens
1984
1987
S Tonegawa
1989
1990
1993
Kary B Mullis
1996
1997
Stanley B Prusiner
Prion discovery
2001
2005
2007
Mario R Capecchi, Oliver Smithies and Sir Martin J Evans Creation of knockout mice for stem cell research
2008
2011
Chap-01.indd 6
Bruce A, Beutler and Jules A Hoffmann Ralph M Discoveries concerning the activation of innate
Steinman
immunity
Discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in active
immunity
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Key Points
Important question
Write short notes on:
a. Contributions of Antony van Leeuwenhoek
b. Contributions of Louis Pasteur
c. Contributions of Robert Koch
d. Kochs postulates
e. Contributions of Edward Jenner
f. Contributions of Paul Ehrlich
g. Name four Nobel laureates in Microbiology
Chap-01.indd 7
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2
Chapter
Microscopy
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Discuss microscopic methods
Introduction
MICROSCOPY: INStRUMENTS
Microscopic Methods
A.
B.
Light Microscopy
1. Brightfield (light) microscopy
2. Darkfield microscopy
3. Phase-contrast microscopy
4. Fluorescent microscopy
5. Confocal
Electron Microscopy
Transmission
Scanning
C. Scanning Probe Microscopes
A. LIGHT MICROSCOPY
Light microscopy refers to the use of any kind
of microscope that uses visible light to observe
specimens. A modern compound light microscope
(LM) has a series of lenses and uses visible light as
its source of illumination.
Resolution
The limitation of brightfield microscopy is the reso
lution (also called resolving power) of the image
(i.e. the ability to distinguish that two objects are
separate and not one). The resolving power of a
microscope is determined by the wavelength of
light used to illuminate the subject and the angle
of light entering the objective lens (referred to as
the numerical aperture).
Immersion oil: Immersion oil is placed between the
glass slide and the oil immersion objective lens. The
immersion oil has the same refractive index as glass,
so the oil becomes part of the optics of the glass of
the microscope. The oil enhances the resolution by
preventing light rays from dispersing and changing
wavelength after passing through the specimens.
A specific objective lens, the oil immersion lens,
is designed for use with oil; this lens provides 100x
magnification on most light microscopes.
Chapter 2: Microscopy
|9
Fluorescence Microscopy
Use
This technique is particularly valuable for observing
organisms such as Trepo nema pallidum, a
spirochete which cannot be observed with direct
light.
3. Phase-contrast Microscopy
Principle: In a phase-contrast microscope, one set
of light rays comes directly from the light source.
The other set comes from light that is reflected
or diffracted from a particular structure in the
specimen. When the two sets of light raysdirect
rays and reflected or diffracted raysare brought
together, they form an image of the specimen on
the ocular lens, containing areas that are relatively
light (in phase), through shades of gray to black (out
of phase). Through the use of annular rings in the
condenser and the objective lens, the differences in
phase are amplified so that in-phase light appears
brighter than out-of-phase light. The special phase
condenser consists of annular diaphragms on a
rotating disk fitted to the bottom of the condenser.
Principal Use
The principal use of fluorescence microscopy is
a diagnostic technique called the fluorescent
antibody (FA) technique, or immunofluorescence
employed for detection of antigen (direct
fluorescent antibody technique) and antibodies
(indirect fluorescent antibody methods).
Epifluorescence Microscopy
A common variation of the standard fluorescence
microscope is the epifluorescence microscope,
which projects the ultraviolet light through the
objective lens and onto the specimen.
Confocal Microscopy
In confocal microscopy, lenses focus a laser beam
to illuminate a given point on one vertical plane of a
specimen. In effect, this microscope is a miniature
CAT scan for cells.
B. Electron Microscopy
Uses
1. To study unstained living cells.
2. Detailed examination of internal structures in
living microorganisms.
3. To study flagellar movements and motility of
bacteria and protozoans.
4. To study intestinal and other live protozoa such
as amoebae and Trichomonas.
5. To examine fungi grown in culture.
C. SCANNING-PROBE MICROSCOPY
Scanning probe microscopes map the bumps
and valleys of a surface on an atomic scale. Their
resolving power is much greater than the electron
microscope, and the samples do not need special
preparation as they do for electron microscopy.
Among the new scanned-probe microscopes are:
1. Scanning tunneling microscopy (STM): There
are used to provide incredibly detailed views of
molecules, such as DNA.
2. Atomic force microscopy (AFM): These
produce three-dimensional images of the
surface of a molecule.
Key Points
Important question
Write short notes on:
a. Darkfield microscopy
b. Fluorescent microscopy
c. Phase-contrast microscopy
d. Electron microscopy.
3
Chapter
Morphology of Bacteria
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
Differentiate between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Describe anatomy of bacterial cell
Describe cell envelope
Describe bacterial cell wall
INTRODUCTION
The bacteria are single-celled organisms that
reproduce by simple division, i.e. binary fission.
Whittakers system recognizes five kingdoms of
living thingsMonera (bacreia), Protista, Fungi,
Plantae, and Animalia. Five kingdoms have been
modified further by the development of three
domains, or Superkingdoms systemthe Bacteria,
the Archaea (meaning ancient) and the Eucarya.
SIZE OF BACTERIA
Bacteria are very small in size. The unit of
measurement in bacteriology is the micron or
micrometer (mm) 1 micron (m) or micrometer (mm)
= a millionth part of a meter or a thousandth part
of a millimeter.
1 millimicron (mm) or nanometer (nm) =
one thousandth of a micron or one-millionth of a
millimeter.
Chap-03.indd 11
Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell
1. Size
(approximate)
0.53 m
>5 m
Absent
Absent
One (circular)
Present
Present
More than one
(linear)
2. Nucleus
Nuclear
membrane
Nucleolus
Chromosome
Deoxyribonucleo
protein
Absent
Division
By binary fission
3. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasmic
streaming
Mitochondria
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Pinocytosis
Endoplasmic
reticulum
4. Chemical
composition
Sterol
Muramic acid
5. Examples
Present
By mitosis
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present
Absent
Present
Present
Absent
Eubacteria,
Archaea
All bacteria and
blue-green algae
Fungi, slime
moulds,
protozoa,
higher plants
and animals
including
humans
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STUDY OF BACTERIA
Stained Preparations
Live bacteria do not show much structural detail
under the light microscope due to lack of contrast.
Hence, it is customary to use staining techniques
to produce color contrast. Various staining
techniques are commonly used in bacteriology
(See Chapter 87).
Cocci Arrangement
i. Diplococci: Cocci may be arranged in pairs
(diplococci), when cocci divide and remain
together;
Shape of Bacteria
Depending on their shape, bacteria are classified
into several varieties (Fig. 3.1):
1. Cocci: Cocci (from kokkos meaning berry) are
spherical, or nearly spherical.
2. Bacilli: Bacilli (from baculus meaning rod)
are relatively straight, rod-shaped (cylindrical)
cells. In some of the bacilli, the length of the
cells may be equal to the width. Such bacillary
forms are known as coccobacilli and have to be
carefully differentiated from cocci.
3. Vibrios: Vibrios are curved or commashaped rods and derive the name from their
characteristic vibratory motility.
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Bacilli Arrangement
Bacilli split only across their short axes. Therefore,
the patterns formed by them are limited. The
shape of the rods end often varies between
species and may be flat, rounded, cigar-shaped
or bifurcated. Some bacilli too may be arranged
in chains (streptobacilli). Others are arranged
at various angles to each other, resembling the
letters V presenting a cuneiform or Chinese
letter arrangement and is characteristic of
Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
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Gram positive
Gram negative
1. Thickness
More
Less
2. Peptidoglycan
3. Teichoic acid
Present
Absent
4. Variety of
aminoacids
Few
Several
5. Aromatic
and sulfurcontaining
aminoacids
Absent or scant
Present
6. Lipids
Absent or scant
Present
7. Porin proteins
Absent
Present
8. Periplasmic
region
Absent
Present
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|15
ii. Microdissection
iii. Exposure to specific antibody
iv. Mechanical rupture of the cell
v. Differential staining procedures
vi. Electron microscopy.
Chap-03.indd 15
b. Cellular Appendages
I. Bacterial capsule or slime layer
Structure: Many bacteria synthesize large amount of
extracellular polymer in their natural environments.
When the polymer forms a condensed, well-defined
layer closely surrounding the cell, it is called the
capsule as in the Pneumococcus. If the polymer
is easily washed off and does not appear to be
associated with the cell in any definite fashion, it
is referred to as a slime layer as in leuconostoc.
A glycocalyx is a network of polysaccharide
extending from the surface of bacteria and other
cells. Capsules too thin to be seen under the light
microscope are called microcapsules.
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Demonstration of Capsule
i. Gram stain: Capsules and slime are usually
not visible in films stained by ordinary
methods except as clear haloes surrounding
the stained smear.
ii. Special capsule-staining techniques :
Usually employing copper salts as mordants.
iii. India ink staining (negative staining): The
capsule appears as a clear halo around the
bacterium, against a dark background in the
film (Fig. 3.7).
iv. Electron microscope.
v. Serological methods: Capsular material
is antigenic and may be demonstrated by
serological methods. When a suspension
of a capsulated bacterium is mixed with its
specific anticapsular serum and examined
under the microscope, the capsule becomes
very prominent and appears swollen due to
an increase in its refractivity. It is known as
the capsule-swelling reaction or Quellung
reaction (Quellung-Ger swelling). It was
described by Neufeld (1902), hence called
Neufeld reaction. It was widely employed
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|17
B. Cell Interior
1. Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm of the bacterial cell is a viscous
watery solution or soft gel, containing a variety
of organic or inorganic solutes, and numerous
ribosomes and polysomes. The cytoplasm of
bacteria differs from that of the higher eukaryotic
organisms in not containing an endoplasmic
reticulum or membrane-bearing microsomes,
mitochondria, lysosomes and in showing signs of
internal mobility. The cytoplasm stains uniformly
with basic dyes in young cultures.
2. Ribosomes
The ribosomes are the location for all bacterial
protein synthesis. Bacterial ribosomes are slightly
smaller (1020 nm) than eukaryotic ribosomes and
they have a sedimentation rate of 70S (S or Svedberg
unit), being composed of a 30S and 50S subunit.
Types of RNA: Ribosomes are composed of
different proteins associated with three types of
ribonucleic acid (RNA):
i. Messenger (m) RNA: These molecules are
translated during protein synthesis.
ii. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
iii. Transfer RNA (tRNA): Specifically transfers
the genetic information carried in the mRNA
into functional proteins.
3. Mesosomes (Chondroids)
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4. Intracytoplasmic Inclusions
These are not permanent or essential structures,
and may be absent under certain conditions of
growth. These bodies are usually sources of storage
of energy. They consist of volutin (polyphosphate),
lipid, glycogen, starch or sulfur.
5. Bacterial Nucleus
The genetic material of a bacterial cell is contained
in a single, long molecule of double-stranded
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which can be
extracted in the form of a closed circular thread
about 1 mm (1000 m) long. The bacterial
chromosome is haploid and replicates by simple
fission instead of by mitosis as in higher cells.
Plasmids
Bacteria may possess extranuclear genetic
elements in the cytoplasm consisting of DNA
termed plasmids or episomes (see Chapter 10).
These can exist and replicte independently of the
chromosome or may be integrated with it. In either
case, they normally are inherited or passed on the
6. Bacterial Spore
A number of gram-positive bacteria, such as those
of the genera Clostridium and Bacillus can form a
special resistant dormant structure called an endo
spore or, simply, spores. Sporulation in bacteria, is
not a method of reproduction but of preservation.
Sporulation: Spore formation, sporogenesis or
sporulation normally commences when growth
ceases due to lack of nutrients, depletion of the
nitrogen or carbon source (or both) being the most
significant factor.
Stages: It may be divided into several stages
(Fig. 3.10).
Spore septum: In the first observable stage
of sporulation, a newly replicated bacterial
chromosome and a small portion of cytoplasm
are isolated by an ingrowth of the plasma
membrane called a spore septum.
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Germination
Germination is the process of conversion of a spore
into vegetative cells under suitable conditions. It
occurs in three stages: activation, initiation and
outgrowth. Once activated, a spore will initiate
germination if the environmental conditions are
favorable.
Resistance
These structures are extraordinary resistant to
environmental stresses. Spores of all medically
important species are destroyed by autoclaving at
120C for 15 minutes. Endospore heat resistance
probably is due to several factors: calciumdipicolinate and acid-soluble protein stabilization
of DNA, protoplast dehydration, the spore coat,
DNA repair, the greater stability of the cell proteins
in bacteria adapted to growth at high temperatures
and others.
Demonstration
i. Gram-staining: Spores appear as an unstained
refractile body within the cell.
Chap-03.indd 19
Uses of Spores
1. Importance in food, industrial, and medical
microbiology
2. Sterilization control: For proper sterilization,
spores of certain species of bacteria are
e mp l oye d a s i n d i cat o r, e. g. B a cillus
stearothermophilus which is destroyed at a
temperature of 121C for 1020 minutes. Proper
sterilization is indicated by the absence of the
spores after autoclaving.
3. Research
15-03-2016 11:09:44
Key Points
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Describe briefly the anatomy of a bacterial cell.
2. Draw a labelled diagram of a bacterial cell. Write
briefly on the cell wall of bacteria.
Chap-03.indd 20
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4
Chapter
Physiology of Bacteria
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
Explain generation time of bacteria
Describe and draw bacterial growth curve
Bacterial Count
Bacteria in a culture medium or clinical specimen
can be counted by two methods:
1. Total count: This is total number of bacteria
present in a specimen irrespective of whether
they are living or dead.
2. Viable count: This measures only viable
(living) cells which are capable of growing and
producing a colony on a suitable medium.
D
efine the atmospheric requirement of microaero
philic bacteria and capnophilic bacteria
Explain redox potential.
Fig. 4.1: Bacterial growth curve. The viable count shows lag,
log, stationary and decline phases. In the total count, the
phase of decline is not evident
Bacterial Nutrition
The minimum nutritional requirements for growth
and multiplication of bacteria are water, a source
2. Trace Elements
Some elements, termed as trace elements or micro
nutrients, are required in very minute quantities
by all cells. They include cobalt, zinc, copper,
molybdenum and manganese.
3. Growth Factors
Some bacteria require certain organic compounds
in minute quantities known as growth factors
or bacterial vitamins. Growth factors are called
essential when growth does not occur in their
absence, or accessory when they enhance growth
without being absolutely necessary for it.
|23
BACTERIAL METABOLISM
Metabolism of the substance is defined as the series
of changes of substance (carbohydrate, protein
or fat) within the bacterial cell from absorption
to elimination. Metabolism may be aerobic or
anerobic and can be divided into two classes of
chemical reactions: those that release energy and
those that require energy.
Energy Production
There are three critical processes of bacterial
energy production; aerobic respiration, anerobic
respiration and fermentation. There are two
general aspects of energy production: the concept
of oxidation-reduction and the mechanisms of
ATP generation.
Generation of ATP
Much of the energy released during oxidationreduction reactions is trapped within the cell by
the formation of ATP.
The addition of P (phosphate group) to a
chemical compound is called phosphorylation.
Mechanisms of phosphorylation: There are
two general mechanisms for ATP production in
bacterial cells.
i.
Substrate-level phosphor ylation: In
substrate-level phosphorylation, highenergy phosphate bonds produced by the
central pathways are donated to adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) to form ATP. The specific
fermentative pathways used, and, hence,
end-products produced, vary with different
bacterial species. Fermentation is carried out
by both obligate and facultative anaerobes.
ii. Oxidative phosphorylation: In oxidative
phosphorylation, an electron transport
system is involved that conducts a series
of electron transfers from reduced carrier
molecules. The process is known as aerobic
respiration when oxidative phosphorylation
uses oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor.
Anaerobic respiration refers to processes
that use final electron acceptors other than
oxygen.
Important Questions
Answers (MCQs)
1. c; 2. a; 3. b; 4. b; 5. a
Key Points
Bacterial growth curve: The bacterial growth curve
can be divided into four major phases: lag phase,
exponential or log (logarithmic) phase, stationary
phase, and decline phase.
The requirements for microbial growth: Chemical and
physical.
Chemical requirements: All organisms require a
carbon source, nitrogen, and other chemicals
required for microbial growth.
5
Chapter
Sterilization and Disinfection
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
Define the following termssterilization, dis
infection and antisepsis
Describe various agents used in sterilization
Describe sterilization by moist heat
Describe the different heat methods and their
respective applications
Describe the followingpasteurization, tyndaliz
ation or intermittent sterilization or fractional
sterilization, inspissation or serum inspissator, hot
air oven
Explain the principle and functioning of autoclave
A. Physical agents
B. Chemical agents
A. Physical Agents
1. Sunlight
Sunlight has an appreciable bactericidal activity. Its
disinfectant action is primarily due to its content
of ultraviolet rays.
2. Drying
Drying in air has a deleterious effect on many
bacteria.
3. Heat
Heat is the most reliable and universally applicable
method of sterilization and, wherever possible,
should be methods of choice. Either dry or
moist heat may be applied. Materials that may
be damaged by heat can be sterilized at lower
temperature, for longer periods or by repeated
cycles.
Mechanism of Action
Dry heat : The lethal effect of dry heat, or
desssication in general, is usually due to protein
denaturation, oxidative damage, and toxic
effects of elevated levels of electrolytes.
Moist heat: It kills microorganisms by coagulation
and denaturation of their enzymes and structural
proteins.
Preparation of Load
1. No overloading
2. Articles: There should be thoroughly clean and
dry.
3. Glassware: These should be perfectly dry
before being placed in the oven.
4. Test tubes and flasks: These should be
wrapped in paper.
5. Rubber materials, except silicon rubber, will
not withstand the sterilizing temperature.
6. Cotton plugs: These may get charred at 180C.
7. Heat-sensitive materials: Dry heat sterilization
is slow and not suitable for heat-sensitive
materials like many plastic and rubber items.
Sterilizing Cycle
i. The sterilization hold time: It is set to 160C
for 2 hours or 170C for 1 hour, or 180C for
30 minutes.
ii. Cutting instruments such as those used
in ophthalmic surgery should ideally be
sterilized at 150C for two hours.
iii. Oils, glycerol and dusting powder: The
British Pharmacopoeia recommends a
holding time of one hour at 150C for oils,
glycerol and dusting powder.
Sterilization Controls
A. Biological control: An envelope containing a
filter paper strip impregnated with 106 spores
of Bacillus subtilis subsp niger is inserted into
suitable packs. No growth of Bacillus subtilis
subsp niger indicates proper sterilization.
B. Chemical indicator: A chemical indicator such
as Brownes tubes No. 3 containing red solution
is inserted in each load and a color change from
red to green is observed, which indicates proper
sterilization.
C. Thermocouples: These may also be used
periodically.
D. Microwave ovens: No reliable sterilization
process using microwaves is presently available.
|27
Autoclave
Autoclaving is the process of sterilization by
saturated steam under high pressure above 100C.
Steam sterilization is carried out in a pressure
chamber called an autoclave (a device somewhat
like a fancy pressure cooker).
Various components of autoclave: In its simplest
form, the laboratory autoclave consists of a vertical
or horizontal cylinder of gunmetal or stainless
steel, in a supporting sheet iron case. The lid or
door is fastened by screw clamps and made airtight
by a suitable washer. The autoclave has on its lid
or upper side a discharge tap for air and steam, a
pressure gauge and a safety valve that can be set to
blow off at any desired pressure. Heating is done by
gas or electricity (Fig. 5.3). The domestic pressure
cooker serves as a miniature autoclave and may
be used for sterilizing small articles in clinics and
similar establishments.
Principle of Autoclave
The principle of the autoclave or steam sterilizer is
that water boils when its vapor pressure equals that
of the surrounding atmosphere. When pressure
inside a closed vessel increases, the temperature at
which water boils also increases. Saturated steam
has penetrative power and is a better sterilizing
agent than dry heat.
Steam condenses to water and gives up its latent
heat to that surface when it comes into contact with a
cooler surface. The energy available from this latent
heat is considerable, e.g. 1600 mL steam at 100C
and at atmospheric pressure condenses into 1 mL of
water at 100C and releases 518 calories of heat. The
large reduction in volume sucks in more steam to the
area and the process continues till the temperature of
that surface is raised to that of the steam. The water
of condensation ensures moist conditions for killing
of the exposed microorganisms.
Procedure
1. Water: Sufficient water is put in the cylinder.
Above this is a perforated shelf on which
articles to be sterilized are placed, and the
autoclave is heated.
2. Lid: The lid is screwed tight with the discharge
tap open and the safety valve is adjusted to the
required pressure.
3. Air removal: The steam-air mixture is allowed
to escape freely till all the air has been displaced.
To know when all the air inside the autoclave
has escaped the discharge tap is connected with
one end of a rubber tube and the other end of
it is placed in water. When the air bubbles stop
coming, it indicates that all the air from inside
the autoclave has been removed.
4. The discharge tap is now closed.
5. Holding period: The steam pressure rises
inside and when it reaches the desired set level
(15 psi), the safety valve opens and the excess
steam escapes. From this point, the holding
period (15 minutes) is calculated.
6. Autoclave cooling: When the holding period
is over, the heater is turned off and the
autoclave allowed to cool till the pressure gauge
indicates that the pressure inside is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
7. Air entry in the autoclave: The discharge tap
is opened slowly and air is allowed to enter the
autoclave.
8. Removal of articles: The lid is now opened and
the sterilized articles removed.
Precautions
Sterilization Controls
A. Biological control (Bacterial spores):
An envelope containing a filter paper strip
impregnated with 10 6 spores of Bacillus
stearothermophilus is placed with the
load sterilization is over, the strip is removed
and inoculated into. No growth of B. stea
rothermophilus indicates proper sterilization.
Spores of this organism withstand 121C for up
to 12 minutes and this has made the organism
ideal for testing autoclaves.
B. Chemical control: A Brownes tube containing
red solution changes to green when exposed
to temperature of 121C for 15 minutes in
autoclave. It indicates proper sterilization.
C. Autoclave tapes
D. Thermocouples: These may also be used which
record the temperature by a potentiometer.
4. Filtration
Filtration is the principal method used in the
laboratory for the sterilization of heat labile
materials, e.g. sera, solutions of sugars or antibiotics
used for the preparation of culture media.
Uses
1. Heat-sensitive solutions: For sterilization of
pharmaceuticals, ophthalmic solutions, culture
media, oils, antibiotics and other heat-sensitive
solutions.
2. For separation of bacteriophages and
bacterial toxins from bacteria.
3. Isolation of organisms which are scanty in
fluids.
4. Concentration of bacteria from liquids, e.g.
in testing water samples for cholera vibrios or
typhoid bacilli.
5. For virus isolation.
Types of Filters
i. Earthware filters: These are manufactured in
several different grades of porosity and have
|29
5. Radiation
Two types of radiations are used:
I. Non-ionizing radiations : Infrared and
ultraviolet rays are of non-ionizing type.
The effectiveness of UV light as a lethal and
Applications
i. For sterilization in pharmacy and medicine.
ii. Sterilization of packaged disposable
articles such as plastic syringes, intravenous
lines, catheters and gloves that are unable to
withstand heat. Since there is no appreciable
increase in temperature in this method, it is
known as cold sterilization.
iii. Use for antibiotics, hormones, sutures, and
vaccines and to prevent food spoilage.
B. Chemical Agents
Germicidal chemicals can be used to disinfect and,
in some cases, sterilize.
Characteristics of a Disinfectant
An ideal antiseptic or disinfectant should:
Have a wide spectrum of activity and must be
effective against a wide variety of infectious
agents (Gram-positive and gram-negative
bacteria, acid-fast ; bacteria, bacterial
endospores, fungi, and viruses)
Be active at high dilutions and in the presence
of organic matter;
Be effective in acid as well as alkaline media;
Have speedy action;
Have high penetrating power;
Be stable;
Be compatible with other antiseptics and
disinfectants;
Not corrode metals;
Not cause local irritation or sensitization;
Not interfere with healing;
Not be toxic if absorbed into circulation;
Be cheap and easily available;
Be safe and easy to use.
Such an ideal chemical is yet to be found.
Categories of Disinfectants
Disinfection processes have been categorized as
high level, intermediate level and low level.
1. High-level disinfection: High-level disinfections
can generally approach sterilization in
effectiveness, whereas spore forms can survive
intermediate-level disinfection, and many
microbes can remain viable when exposed to
low-level disinfection.
High-level disinfectants are used for items
involved with invasive procedures that cannot
withstand sterilization procedures (e.g. certain
types of endoscopes, surgical instruments with
plastic or other components that cannot be
autoclaved).
Examples:
i. Treatment with moist heat.
ii. Use of liquids such as glutaraldehyde,
hydrogen peroxide, peracetic acid, chlorine
dioxide, and other chlorine compounds.
2. Intermediate-level disinfectants: Intermediatelevel disinfectants are used to clean surfaces
or instruments in which contamination with
bacterial spores and other highly resilient
organisms is unlikely. These include flexible
fiberoptic endoscopes, laryngoscopes, vaginal
specula, anesthesia breathing circuits, and other
items. These have been referred to as semi
critical instruments and devices.
Examples: Alcohols, iod ophor compounds,
phenolic compounds.
3. Low-level disinfectants: Low-level disinfectants
are used to treat noncritical instruments
and devices such as blood pressure cuffs,
electrocardiogram electrodes and stethoscopes.
They do not penetrate through mucosal surfaces
or into sterile tissues, although these items come
into contact with patients.
Examples: Quaternary ammonium compounds.
|31
active at acid pH and are active against grampositive organisms but are relatively ineffective
against gram-negative species.
c. Ampholytic (amphoteric) compounds:
Known as Tego compounds, these possess
detergent properties of anionic and antimi
crobial activity of cationic compounds. They
are active over a wide range of pH but organic
matter markedly reduces their activity.
Uses: They are effective against a wide range
of gram-positive and gram-negative organisms
and some viruses at a concentration of 1% in
water.
2. Phenols and phenolics
Phenol: Phenols are obtained by distillation of coal
tar between temperatures of 170C and 270C. It
is now rarely used as an antiseptic or disinfectant
because it irritates the skin and has a disagreeable
odor. Phenol is bactericidal at a concentration of
1%.
Phenolics: Derivatives of phenol are called
phenolics.
Phenol derivatives: Certain phenol derivatives
like cresol, chlorhexidine, chloroxylenol
and hexachlorophane are commonly used as
antiseptics.
i. Cresols: Cresols, obtained industrially by the
distillation of coal tar, are emulsified with green
soap and sold under the trade names of Lysol
and Creolin. White fluids such as Lysol are
effective but are irritant to the skin. They are
active against a wide range of organisms. They
are most commonly used for sterilization of
infected glasswares, cleaning floors, disinfection
of excreta. They are not readily inactivated by
the presence of organic matter.
ii. Chlorhexidine: Chlorhexidine is a member
of the biguanide group with a broad spectrum
of activity. They are more active against
gram-positive than gram-negative bacteria.
They are biocidal against most vegetative
bacteria and fungi; mycobacteria are relatively
resistant; endospores and protozoan cysts
are not affected. The only viruses affected are
certain enveloped (lipophilic) types.
Uses: Savlon (chlorhexidine and cetrimide)
is widely used in wounds, preoperative
disinfection of skin, as bladder irrigant, etc.
However, contact with the eyes can cause
damage.
iii. Chloroxylenol: It is an active ingredient of
dettol. It is less toxic and less irritant.
iv. H e x a c h l o r o p h a n e : G r a m - p o s i t i v e
staphylococci and streptococci, which
can cause skin infections in newborns, are
particularly susceptible to hexachlorophane.
So it is used notably for prophylaxis against
Uses
i. Skin disinfectant: Iodine in aqueous and
alcoholic solution has been used widely
as a skin disinfectant. Iodine often has
been applied as tincture of iodine, 2% or
more iodine in a water-ethanol solution of
potassium iodide.
ii. Iodophors: Mixtures of iodine with various
surface-active agents that act as carriers
for iodine are known as iodophors (iodo,
iodine; phor carrier). Povidine-iodine
(Betadine) for wounds and Wescodyne for
skin and laboratory disinfection are some
popular brands.
b. Chlorine: In addition to chlorine itself, there
are three types of chlorine compounds
hypochlorites and inorganic and organic
chloramines. The disinfectant action
of all chlorine compounds is due to
the liberation of free chlorine. When
elemental chlorine or hypochlorites are
added to water, the chlorine reacts with
water to form hypochlorous acid (HOCL),
which in neutral or acidic solution is a
strong oxidizing agent and an effective
disinfectant.
The activity of chlorine is markedly
influenced by the presence of organic
matter.
Uses: The usual disinfectant for water
supplies, swimming pools, dairy product
and food industries.
c. Hypochlorites: The hypochlorites have
a bactericidal, fungicidal, virucidal and
rapidly sporicidal action.
i.
Bleaching powder or hypochlorite
solution is most widely used for human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected
material. Hypochlorite solution decays
rapidly and should be prepared daily.
Chloramines are used as antiseptics for
dressing wounds.
ii. Hydrogen peroxide: It is used to
disinfect plastic implants, contact lenses
and surgical prostheses.
3. Dyes
Aniline dyes and acridine dyes are two groups of
dyes which are used extensively as skin and wound
antiseptic. Both are bacteriostatic in high dilution
but are of low bactericidal activity.
i. Aniline dyes: Of the aniline dyes, derivatives
of triphenylmethane, especially brilliant
|33
Vapor-phase disinfectants
1. Ethylene oxide: This is a colorless liquid
with a boiling point of l0.7C and is a highly
penetrating gas with a sweet ethereal smell. It
is highly inflammable and in concentrations
in air greater than 3%, highly explosive. It is
unsuitable for fumigating rooms because of its
explosive property.
It is highly lethal to all kinds of microbes
including spores and tubercle bacilli.
Uses
a. Sterilization of articles liable to be
damaged by heat: It is specially used for
sterilizing heart-lung machines, respirators,
sutures, dental equipment, books and
clothing.
b. Sterilization of a wide range of materials
such as glass, metal and paper surfaces,
clothing, plastics, soil, some foods and
tobacco.
Disadvantages of ethylene oxide
i. It is irritant, and personnel working with it
have to take strict precautions.
ii. Its use as a disinfectant presents a potential
toxicity to human beings, including
mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. Baci
llus globigi, a red-pigmented variant of
B. subtilis, has been used to test ethylene
oxide sterilizers.
2. Formaldehyde gas: It is used for fumigation of
complex heat-sensitive equipment, including
anaesthetic machine and baby incubators and
for periodic decontamination of laboratory safety
cabinets.
Fumigation of operation theaters and other
rooms: This is also widely employed for
fumigation of operation theaters and other
rooms (such as isolation rooms). After sealing
the windows and other outlets, formaldehyde
gas is generated by adding KMnO4 to formalin.
The reaction produces considerable heat, and
so heat-resistant vessels should be used. After
starting generation of formaldehyde vapour, the
doors should be sealed and left unopened for
48 hours.
Formaldehyde has an extremely unpleasant
odor and is irritant to mucus membranes.
3. B e ta p r o p i o l a c t o n e ( B P L ) : T h i s i s a
condensation product of ketane and formal
dehyde with a boiling point of 163C. It also
destroys microorganisms more readily than
ethylene oxide but does not penetrate materials
well and may be carcinogenic. For sterilization
of biological products, 0.2% BPL is used. It is
capable of killing all micro-organisms and is
very active against viruses.
Use: In the liquid form, it has been used to
sterilize vaccines and sera.
Methods
Red heat
Burning (incineration)
3. Glasswares-syringes, petri
dishes, test tubes, flasks,
universal containers, oily
fluids (paraffin)
4. Metal instruments
Waterbath, at 56C x 1
hour, vaccine bath at x
1 hour
6. i. Gloves, aprons,
dressings, catheters,
surgical instruments
except sharp
instruments
ii. Sharp instruments
Autoclaving
7. i. Suture materials
except catgut
ii. Catgut
Autoclaving
8. Milk
Pasteurization
Autoclaving
Tyndallization
Filtration
Ethylene oxide
18. Water
Chlorine as
hypochlorites (0.2%)
19. Skin
Formaldehyde gas
Testing of Disinfectants
Concentration
Betadine (Iodophore)
2%
Dettol (chloroxylenol)
4%
Ethyl alcohol
70%
Glutaraldehyde
2%
Lysol
2.5%
2%, 5%
Sodium hypochlorite
1%, 0.1%
5% cresol
lonizing radiation
Gamma radiation,
12 . Rubber, plastic and
polythene tubes including ethylene oxide gas
disposable syringes
13. Faeces and urine, vomitus, Bleaching powder,
sputum
cresols, formalin
burning, autoclaving
14. Disposable syringes, rubber lonizing radiation
or plastic disposable goods,
bone and tissue grafts,
adhesive dressings
15. Antitoxic sera, serum, urine Merthiolate (1 : 10,00)
Sterilization of Prions
Prions are infectious proteins without any
detectable nucleic acid. They have properties
distinct from other infectious agents and are
highly resistant to physical and chemical agents,
particularly in their resistance to conventional
inactivation methods. They are nonconventional
transmissible agents that cause transmissible
degenerative encephalopathies (TDE).
1. Dry heat: Prions are extremely resistant to dry
heat. A temperature of 360C for one hour has
been reported not to be completely effective.
2. Wet heat: They are more resistant to steam
sterilization than conventional transmissible
agents (bacteria and their spores, fungi and
viruses). Steam is found to be effective if a
temperature of 134138C is maintained for 18
minutes.
3. Chemicals: These agents are inactivated by
sodium hypochlorite (25% available chlorine)
treatment at room temperature for one hour.
They are also sensitive to phenol (90%),
household bleach, ether, acetone, urea (6
mol/L), sodium dodecyl sulfate (10%) and
iodine disinfection. Other chemicals like
aldehydes, potassium permanganate, hydrogen
peroxide, ethylene oxide, -propiolactone,
ethanol, proteases and ionizing radiations have
been found to be ineffective.
Key Points
|35
Important questions
1. Define sterilization and disinfection. Classify the
various agents used in sterilization. Add a note on
the principle and functioning of autoclave.
2. Define the terms sterilization, disinfection and
antisepsis. Name the various agents used for
sterilization and discuss the role of hot air oven in
sterilization.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Hot air oven
b. Inspissation or serum inspissator
c. Autoclave
d. Sterilization by radiation and its practical applications.
4. Write briefly about:
a. Sterilization by moist heat
b. Pasteurisation
c. Tyndallization or intermittent sterilization or
fractional sterilization.
d. Inspissation or serum inspissator
e. Filtration.
5. Name various types of disinfectants and discuss
the role of halogens in chemical disinfection.
6. Write short notes on:
a. Vapour-phase disinfectants or gaseous sterilization.
b. Surface-active disinfectants
c. Quaternary ammonium compounds
d. Oxidizing agents
e. Testing of disinfectants
f. Sterilization of prions
6
Chapter
Culture Media
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
Describe classification of media
Introduction
Culture medium: A nutrient material prepared
for the growth of microorganisms in a laboratory
is called a culture medium.
Classification of media
Media have been classified into many ways
(Table 6.1).
C. Special media
i. Enriched media
ii. Enrichment media
iii. Selective media
iv. Indicator or dif
ferential media
v. Transport media
vi. Sugar media
D. Reducing media
Based on phases of growth
media
1. Liquid (broth) media
2. Solid (agar) media
3. Semisolid media
3. Semisolid Media
Composition
Characteristics
1. Peptone water
Peptone10 g
Sodium chloride (NaCl)- 5 g
Water1 liter
(pH 7.47.5)
2. Nutrient broth
Peptone water
Meat extract
3. Glucose broth
Blood culture
Promotes luxuriant growth of many organisms
Glucose acts as a reducing agent
i. Tertrathinate
broth
Nutrient broth,
Sodium thiosulfate,
Calcium carbonate,
Iodine solution
Phenol red
Sodium selenite
Peptone
Lactose
iii. Alkaline
peptone water
Peptone10 g
Sodium chloride
(NaCl)10 g
Distilled water1 liter
i. Thioglycollate
broth
Yeast extract,
Casein hydrolysate,
Pancreatic digest
Glucose,
L-cysteine,
Agar,
Sodium chloride, sodium
thioglycollate,
Resazurin sodium solution
Water
ii. Robertsons
cooked meat
broth (RCM)
Nutrient broth,
Predigested cooked meat
of ox heart
4. Enichment media
5. Anerobic media
|39
Composition
Characteristics
A. Simple medium
Nutrient agar
Nutrient broth agar (23%) Complex medium used for routine laboratory work
B. Enriched media
i. Blood agar
Nutrient agar. Sheep blood In addition to being enriched medium, it is an indicator medium
(510%)
showing the hemolytic properties of bacteria
C. Indicator media
Peptone
Sodium taurocholate,
Agar
Neutral red
Lactose
i. Deoxycholate
citrate agar
(DCA)
Nutrient agar
Sodium deoxycholate,
Sodium citrate,
Lactose,
Neutral red
MacConkey agar
D. Selective media
C. Special Media
i. Enriched Media (Table 6.2)
These are prepared to meet the nutritional
requirements of more exacting bacteria by the
addition of substances such as blood, serum or egg
to a basal medium.
|41
v. Differential Media
A medium, which has substances incorporated in
it, enabling it to bring out differing characteristics
of bacteria and thus helping to distinguish between
them, is called a differential medium.
Example
MacConkey agar (Fig. 6.6): MacConkey agar is
both differential and selective. It contains peptone,
meat extract, NaCl, bile salt, lactose and neutral
red indicator.
Lactose fermenters (LF) form pink or red color
colonies and nonlactose fermenters (NLF) form
colorless or pale colonies.
i. Thioglycollate Broth
Thioglycollate broth contains reducing agents,
such as sodium thioglycollate, glucose, vitarnin C
(ascorbic acid), cysteine and agar (concentration
of 0.05%), with methylene blue. Thioglycollate
Key Points
Important questions
1. Distinguish between a selective medium and a
differential medium.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Enriched media
b. Enrichment media
c. Indicator media
d. Differential media
f. Transport media
g. Anaerobic media
h. Cooked meat broth (CMB) or RCM broth.
7
Chapter
Culture Methods
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
Discuss anaerobic culture methods
Introduction
In the clinical laboratory, the indications for
culture are mainly to:
1. Isolate bacteria in pure culture
2. Demonstrate their properties
3. Obtain sufficient growth for preparation of
antigens and for other tests.
4. Type isolates
5. Determine sensitivity to antibiotics
6. Estimate viable counts
7. Maintain stock cultures.
Uses
6. Liquid Culture
Liquid cultures in tubes, bottles or flasks may be
inoculated by touching with a charged loop or by
adding the inoculum with pipettes or syringes.
Uses
3. Stroke Culture
Disadvantages
4. Stab Culture
For the preparation of stab cultures, a suitable
medium, such as nutrient gelatin or glucose agar
is punctured with a long, straight, charged wire
into the center of the medium and withdrawing it
in the same line.
Uses
i. Mainly for the demonstration of gelatin
liquefaction.
ii. For demonstration of oxygen requirement of
the bacterium under study.
iii. For the maintenance of stock cultures.
iv. For studying the motility of bacteria in
semisolid agar.
5. Pour-plate Culture
A measured amount of the suspension is mixed
with molten agar medium in a Petri dish. Either
1.0 mL or 0.1 mL of dilutions of the bacterial
suspension is introduced into a Petri dish. The
nutrient medium, in which the agar is kept liquid
by holding it in a water bath at 4550C, is poured
over the sample, which is then mixed into the
medium by gentle agitation of the plate. When the
agar solidifies, the plate is incubated inverted at
37C for 48 hours. After incubation, colonies will
grow within the nutrient agar as well as on the
surface of the agar plate and can be enumerated
using colony counters.
Uses
i. To estimate the viable bacterial count in a
suspension.
ii. For quantitative urine cultures.
Aerobic culture
For cultivation of aerobes, incubation is done in an
incubator under normal atmospheric conditions.
Incubation of cultures at 37C is standard practice
in the culture of bacteria pathogenic to man.
Anaerobic Culture
Anaerobic bacteria require incubation with
out oxygen and differ in their requirement and
sensitivity to oxygen. Obligate anaerobes will not
grow from small inocula unless oxygen is absent
and the Eh of the medium is low.
Methods of Anaerobiosis
Anaerobiosis can be achieved by a number of
methods such as:
A. Production of vacuum
B. Displacement of oxygen by other gases
C. Absorption of oxygen by chemical or biological
methods.
D. Displacement and combustion of oxygen
E. By reducing agents
F. Other anaerobic culture systems.
A. Production of Vacuum
This was attempted by incubating cultures in a
vacuum desiccator, but proved to be unsatisfactory
because some oxygen is always left behind. This
method is not in use now.
Candle Jar
Candle jar is a popular, but ineffective method.
Here inoculated plates are placed inside a large
i. Chemical Methods
a. Pyrogallic acid
Buchner (1888) first introduced alkaline pyrogallol
for anaerobiosis which absorbs oxygen. In a large
tube containing solution of sodium hydroxide,
pyrogallic acid is added and the tube is then placed
inside an air-tight jar and provides anaerobiosis
b. Mixture of powdered chromium and sulfuric acid
A mixture of chromium and sulfuric acid can
also be used for producing anaerobiosis. The two
chemicals react in the presence of available oxygen
and produce chromous sulfate.
c. Gaspak
It is commercially available in the form of a
disposable packet of aluminum foil containing
pellets of sodium borohydride and cobalt chloride
and of citric acid and sodium bicarbonate.
After the inoculated plates are kept in the jar,
water is added to the disposable aluminum foil
packet and the packet is immediately put in the
jar and its lid is screwed tight. Reactions then take
place to supply hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Hydrogen combines with oxygen in the presence
of a catalyst present in the undersurface of the lid
of the jar to produce an anaerobic environment.
The Gaspak is simple and effective, eliminating the
need for drawing vacuum and adding hydrogen.
Procedure
Inoculated culture plates are placed inside the jar
with the medium uppermost and lid downwards
and the lid clamped tight. The outlet tube is con
nected to a vacuum pump and the air inside is eva
cuated. Approximately 6/7th of the air is evacuated
(pressure reduced to 100 mm Hg, i.e. 660 mm below
atmospheric pressure) and this is monitored on a
vacuum gauge. The outlet tap is then closed and
|45
Catalyst
Indicator
An indicator should be employed for verifying the
anaerobic condition in the jars. Reduced methylene
blue is generally used as indicator (mixture of
NaOH, methylene blue and glucose). It becomes
colorless anaerobically but regains blue color on
exposure to oxygen.
Disadvantage
Any anaerobic jar system has the major disadvantage
that the plates have to be removed from the jar to be
examined and this, of course, exposes the colonies
to oxygen, which is especially hazardous to the
anaerobes during their first 48 hours of growth.
E. By Reducing Agents
Oxygen in culture media can be reduced by various
agents and these reducing agents include glucose,
ascorbic acid, cysteine, sodium mercaptoacetate
or thioglycollate, or the particles of meat in cooked
meat broth.
i. Thioglycollate broth: (See Chapter 6: Culture
Media)
ii. Cooked meat broth (CMB): Cooked meat
broth (CMB) original medium known as
Robertsons cooked meat (RCM) medium)
has a special place in anaerobic bacteriology.
It contains nutrient broth and pieces of fatfree minced cooked meat of ox heart. Meat
particles are placed in 30 mL bottles to a depth
of about 2.5 cm and covered with about 15
mL broth. If test tubes are used, the surface
medium may be covered with a 1 cm layer of
sterile liquid paraffin, but this is not essential.
Principle
i. Unsaturated fatty acids present in meat utilize
oxygen for auto-oxidation, the reaction is
being catalyzed by hematin in the meat.
ii. Certain reducing substances, such as gluta
thione and cysteine present in meat also
utilize oxygen.
Method
Interpretation
It permits the growth of even strict anaerobes and
indicates their saccharolytic or proteolytic activities.
With growth of saccharolytic anaerobes (C. welchi),
color of meat pieces turns red while it becomes
black in case of proteolytic anaerobes (C. tetani).
Uses of CMB
i. CMB is suitable for growing anaerobes in air
ii. Also for the preservation of stock cultures of
aerobic organisms.
The inoculum is introduced deep in the
medium in contact with the meat.
Key Points
Important questions
1. Discuss in detail anaerobic culture methods.
2. Enumerate various methods of bacterial culture.
Describe in detail the anaerobic methods of
cultivation.
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8
Chapter
Identification of Bacteria
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Explain principle and discuss interpretation of
the following biochemical reactions: 1. Sugar
fermentation; 2. Indole production; 3. Methyl
red (MR) test; 4. Voges-Proskauer (VP) test for
acetoin production; 5. Citrate utilization; 6. Nitrate
1. PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERISTICS
A. Microscopic Morphology
The morphology of the bacterium depends on
a number of factors, such as the strain studied,
Chap-08.indd 48
B. Staining Reactions
A number of staining techniques for the identifi
cation of bacteria, are available. Of these, Gram
stain and Ziehl-Neelson stain are most important.
Gram stain: The Gram stain divides bacteria into
gram-positive and gram-negative.
Ziehl-Neelsen staining: With Ziehl-Neelsen stain
ing divides bacteria into acid fast and non-acid fast.
Numerous other stains are used for special
purposes, such as demonstration of flagella,
capsule, spores, and metachromatic granules. The
fluorescent antibody technique enables one to
identify them according to their surface antigens.
C. Metabolic Differences
The requirements of oxygen, the need for carbon
dioxide, the capacity to form pigments, and the
production of hemolysis help in classification.
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1. Sugar Fermentation
Chap-08.indd 49
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2. Indole Production
Principle: This test demonstrates the ability of
certain bacteria to decompose the amino acid
tryptophane to indole, which accumulates in the
medium. Tryptophan is decomposed by an enzyme
tryptophanase produced by certain bacteria.
Method: Indole production is detected by
inoculating the test bacterium into peptone water
(tryptophan rich) and incubating it at 37C for 4896
hours. Add 0.5 mL Kovacs reagent and shake gently.
Tryptophan Tryptophanase
Indole
10 g
150 mL
50 mL.
Chap-08.indd 50
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5. Citrate Utilization
Principle: This is a test for the ability of an
organism to utilize citrate as the sole carbon and
energy source for growth and an ammonium salt as
the sole source of nitrogen with resulting alkalinity.
Method: Kosers liquid citrate medium or solid
Simmons citrate agar may be used. Simmons
citrate medium contains agar, citrate and
bromothymol blue as an indicator. Original color
of the medium is green. A part of colony is picked
up with a straight wire and inoculated into either of
these media. Incubate at 37C for 96 hours.
Chap-08.indd 51
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Nitrite
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7. Urease Test
Principle
Method
Procedure
The test organism is inoculated on the entire slope
of Christensens medium which contains urea and
phenol red indicator in addition to other constituents
including agar. It is incubated at 37C and examined
after 4 hours and after overnight incubation.
Christensens urease medium contains:
Peptone water
Urea (20%)
Agar
Phenol red.
8. Catalase Production
Principle
This demonstrates the presence of catalase, an
enzyme that catalyses the release of oxygen from
hydrogen peroxide.
H2 O2
H2 O + O(Air bubbles)
Catalase
Chap-08.indd 52
Interpretation
Positive test: Immediate bubbling, easily observed
(O2 formed).
Note: A false-positive reaction may be obtained if
the culture medium contains catalase (e.g. blood
agar), or if an iron wire loop is used.
Negative test: No bubbling (no O2 formed).
9. Oxidase Test
Principle
To determine the presence of bacterial cytochrome
oxidase using the oxidation of the substrate, a
redox dye, tetramethyl-p-phenylene-diamine
dihydrochloride (oxidase reagent). The dye is
reduced to a deep purple color.
Method
1. Plate method: A freshly prepared 1% solution of
tetramethyl-p-phenylene-diamine dihydro
chloride is poured on to the plate so as to cover
15-03-2016 11:11:02
Interpretation
Interpretation
Procedure
Agar slants of the medium containing phenylalanine
is inoculated with a fairly heavy inoculum and
incubated at 37C for overnight. A few drops of
10% ferric chloride solution are added directly to
the surface of the agar. If the test is positive, a green
color will develop in the fluid and in the slope.
Interpretation
Positive: Green color.
Negative: No color change.
|53
Procedure
The organisms can be grown in culture tubes.
Between the cotton plug and the tube insert a
filter paper strip soaked in lead acetate solution
and dried. Browning of the paper indicates H2S
production. When cultured in media containing
lead acetate or ferric ammonium citrate or ferrous
acetate, they turn them black or brown. This
method is more sensitive than lead acetate strip
method.
Method
Inoculate buffered peptone water medium,
containing 1 in 13,000 concentration of potassium
cyanide, with test organism. Incubate at 37C for
2448 hours.
Interpretation
Positive: Turbidity due to growth.
Negative: Clear (no growth).
Chap-08.indd 53
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Media
TSI is a composite medium and contains 10 parts
lactose: 10 parts sucrose: 1 part glucose and
peptone. Phenol red and ferrous sulfate serve
as indicators of acidification and H2S formation,
respectively. The medium is distributed in tubes,
with a butt and slant.
Procedure
Medium is inoculated with bacterial culture by a
straight wire pierced deep in the butt (stab culture).
Incubate the tube at 35 C in ambient air for 1824
hours.
Glucose-fermenting organism: If the tube is
inoculated with a glucose-fermenting organism
that cannot utilize lactose, only a relatively small
quantity of acid can be obtained from the 0.1%
concentration of glucose in the medium. Initially
the entire medium becomes acidic (yellow) in
812 hours. However, within the next few hours,
the glucose supply is completely exhausted and
the bacteria begin oxidative degradation of the
amino acids within the slant portion of the tube
where oxygen is present. This results in the release
of amines that soon counteract the small quantities
of acid present in the slant. The entire slant reverts
to an alkaline pH (color returns to red) by 1824
hours. The deep (anaerobic portion) of the tube
remains acidic (yellow) because amino acid degra
dation is insufficient to counteract the acid formed.
Lactose-fermenting organism: If the tube is
inoculated with a lactose-fermenting organism,
then fermentation continues as the organism
is able to use lactose (present in 10 times the
concentration of glucose), even though the glucose
is completely used up after the first 812 hours.
Therefore, when, in addition to glucose, lactose
and/or sucrose are fermented, the large amount
of fermentation products formed on the slant will
more neutralize the alkaline amines and render
D. Serology
By using specific sera we can identify organisms
by agglutination or other suitable serological
reactions.
Color
Red/Yellow
Red/Yellow
H2S
Yellow/Yellow
Chap-08.indd 54
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G. Pathogenicity
Pathogenicity tests by inoculation of the test
organism into laboratory animals like the
guinea pig, rabbit, rat and mouse were common
procedures for identification of isolates in the past.
The animals may be inoculated by intradermal,
subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal,
intracerebral or intravenous, or by oral or nasal
spray. They are rarely used now because simpler
in vitro tests are available.
2. GENOMIC CHARACTERIZATION
Molecular methods, such as polymerase chain
reaction and other amplification procedures
coupled with nucleic acid probes carrying specific
DNA or RNA base sequences are now widely used
for identifying microbes.
Key Points
Methods used to identify bacteria
A. Phenotypic characteristics
a. Microscopic morphology; b. Staining reactions;
c. Metabolism differences; d. Serology; e. Antibiotic
tolerance (resistance) tests, dye tolerance, and other
inhibition tests; f. Bacteriophage and bacteriocin
typing; g. Pathogenicity
B. Genomic characterization: Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) and other amplification procedures.
IMPORTANT QUESTION
Write short notes on:
a. Indole production
b. Methyl red test
Chap-08.indd 55
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
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15-03-2016 11:11:02
9
Chapter
Bacterial Taxonomy
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Discuss bacterial classifications.
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science that studies organisms in
order to arrange them into groups; those organisms
with similar properties are grouped together and
separated from those that are different. Taxonomy
can be viewed as three separate but interrelated areas:
1. Identification: The process of characterizing
organisms.
2. Classification: The process of arranging organ
isms into similar or related groups, primarily to
provide easy identification and study.
3. Nomenclature: The system of assigning of
names to organisms.
1. Identification
To characterize and identify microorganisms,
a wide assortment of technologies, such as
microscopic examination, culture characteristics,
biochemical tests and nucleic acid analysis is used.
2. classification
Three-domain System
The classification scheme currently favored by most
microbiologists is the three-domain system. This
designates all organisms as belonging to one of the
three domainsBacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
Five-kingdom System
The most widely accepted system was the fivekingdom system, proposed by RH Whittaker in
1969 before the three-domain classification system
was introduced. The five kingdoms in this system
are the Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Protista (mostly
single-celled eukaryotes) and Prokaryotae.
Taxonomic Hierarchies
Taxonomic classification categories are arranged
in a hierarchical order, with the species being the
Example
The full taxonomical position of is the bacterium
Escherichia coli as follows:
Domain Bacteria
Phylum Proteobacteria
Class Gammaproteobacteria
Family Enterobacteriaceae
Genus Escherichia
Species Coli
Classification systems
Phenetic System
Organisms can be grouped together based on over
all similarity to form a phenetic system. Computers
may be used to analyze data for the production
of phenetic classifications. The process is called
numerical taxonomy.
2. Phylogenetic Classification
They can be grouped based on probable
evolutionary relationships to produce a phylo
genetic system. The hierarchical classification
represents a branching tree-like arrangement,
one characteristic being employed for division
at each branch or level. These are systems
based on evolutionary relationships rather than
general resemblance. While there is no official
classification of prokaryotes, microbiologists
generally rely on the reference text Bergey,s Manual
of Systematic Bacteriology as a guide.
4. Intraspecies Classification
It is often necessary to subclassify bacterial species
for diagnostic or epidemiological purposes on
the basis of biochemical properties (biotypes),
antigenic features (serotypes), bacteriophage
susceptibility (phage types) or production of
bacteriocins (colicin types). A species may be
divided first into groups and then into types.
The application of newer techniques from
immunology, biochemistry and genetics has led to
much greater discrimination in intraspecies typing.
The methods used are of two types: Phenotypic
and genotypic. Phenotypic methods include
electrophoretic typing of bacterial proteins and
immunoblotting. Genotypic methods include
plasmid profile analysis, restriction endonuclease
analysis of chromosomal DNA with Southern
blotting, PCR and nucleotide sequence analysis.
Some of these techniques are considered in
Chapter 10 (Bacterial Genetics).
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3. Nomenclature
Nomenclature, the naming of microorganisms
according to established rules and guidelines,
provides the accepted labels by which organisms
are universally recognized. Bacteria are given
names according to an official set of internationally
recognized rules, the International Code for the
Nomenclature of Bacteria.
Key Points
Bacterial taxonomy: It comprises three components:
1. Identification of an unknown isolate with a defined
and named unit; 2. Classification of organism; 3.
Nomenclature or naming of the microbial isolates
Bacterial classifications include Adansonian,
phylogenetic, and genetic classifications
Nomenclature of microorganisms Nomenclature
refers to the naming of microorganisms
Important Question
Write briefly about bacterial taxonomy.
10
Chapter
Bacterial Genetics
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Explain Lac operon
Discuss regulation or control of gene expression
Discuss structure and functions of the plasmids
Describe mutations
Discuss various methods of gene transfer
Differentiate among the mechanisms of trans
formation, transduction, lysogenic conversion
Introduction
Genetics: Genetics is the study of genes, their
structure and function, heredity and variation.
Genomics: The study and analysis of the nucleotide
sequence of DNA is called genomics.
Genome: The complete set of genetic information
for a cell is referred to as its genome.
Parts of Nucleotide
Each nucleotide has three parts:
i. A nitrogen-containing base
Purines and pyrimidines : The nitrogencontaining bases are cyclic compounds made up
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen atoms.
The bases are named adenine (A), thymine (T),
|59
Gene Expression
Gene expression involves two separate but
interrelated processes transcription and translation.
A. Transcription: Transcription is the process of
synthesizing RNA from a DNA template. The
DNA acts as a template for the transcription of
RNA by RNA polymerase for subsequent protein
production within the cell. RNA polymerase
attaches itself to the beginning of a gene on
DNA and synthesizes mRNA, using one of the
strands in DNA as a template. This process is
known as transcription. The bases in mRNA will
be complementary to one strand of DNA since
DNA acts as a template for synthesis of mRNA.
B. Translation: Translation is the process of
decoding the information carried on the mRNA
to synthesize the specified protein (Fig. 10.2).
Citron or Gene
A segment of DNA carrying a number of codons
specifying for a particular polypeptide is known as
Extrachromosomal genetic
elements
Plasmids
Most bacteria possess extrachromosomal genetic
element in addition to chromosomal DNA
elements known as plasmid. It consists of a circular
piece of double-stranded DNA, can replicate
autonomously (independent replicons) and can
maintain in the cytop lasm of a bacterium for
many generations. Plasmids DNA sometimes
may be integrated with chromosomal DNA. The
name episome was employed for such integrated
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A. Phenotypic Variation
The phenotype (Phaeno; display) is the physical
expression of various characters by bacterial cells
in a given environment. These properties are
determined not only by its genome (genotype),
but also by its environment. Phenotypic variations
are reversible.
B. Genotypic Variation
It is the hereditary constitution of the cell that is
transmitted to its progeny.
Genotypic variations are stable, heritable and
not influenced by the environment. They may
occur by mutation or by one of the mechanisms of
genetic transfer or exchange.
Mutation
It is a random, undirected, heritable variation
caused by an alteration in the nucleotide sequence
at some point of the DNA of the cell. It may be due
to addition, deletion or substitution of one or more
bases (Fig. 10.5).
The molecular mechanism of mutation is that
during DNA replication, some error creeps in while
the progeny strands are copied.
Mutagens
1. Physical agents: (i) UV rays; (ii) lonizing
radiation, e.g. X-rays; (iii) Visible light; (iv) Heat
2. Chemical agents: (i) Alkylating agents; (ii)
Acridine dyes ; (iii) 5-Bromouracil; (iv)
2-aminopurine; (v) Nitrous acid.
C. Point mutations: As the name suggests, point
mutations affect just one point (base pair)
in a gene. Such mutations may be a change
to or substitution of a different base pair.
Alternatively, a point mutation can result in
the deletion or addition of a base pair. It is, in
general, reversible and is of two classes:
1. Base pair substitution: This comprises those
mutants in which a single base pair (nucleotide)
has been substituted for another pair, and can
be subdivided into transition (one purine is
replaced by other purine or a pyrimidine is
replaced by other pyrimidine) and transversion
(substitution of a purine for a pyramidine and
vice versa in base pairing).
Normal sequence: The Fat Cat Ate The Rat.
Substitution: The Fat Can Ate The Rat.
Depending on the placement of the substituted
base, when the mRNA is translated this may cause
no change (silent mutation), lead to the insertion
of the wrong amino acid (missense mutation)
or generate a stop codon (nonsense mutation),
prematurely terminating the polypeptide.
Missense mutation: If the triplet code is altered
so as to specify an aminoacid different from that
normally located at a particular position in the
protein. This is called missense mutation.
Nonsense mutation: Deletion of a nucleotide within
a gene may cause premature polypeptide chain
termination by generating a nonsense codon (UAG,
UAA or UGA). This is known as nonsense mutation.
2. Base pair deletion or insetion
Frameshift mutations: If the number of bases
inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, there
will be shift in the reading frame, i.e. frameshift
mutations. This shifts the normal reading frame of
the coded message forming newest of triplet codon.
The coded message is read correctly up to the point
of addition or deletion, but the subsequent codons
will specify the incorrect amino acids (Fig. 10.4).
Survival advantage of mutation: When mutation
confers a survival advantage, it is of vital importance.
For example, if a streptomycin resistant mutant of
the tubercle bacillus develops in a patient under
treatment with the drug, it multiplies selectively
and ultimately replaces the original drug sensitive
population of bacteria.
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A. Transformation
Transformation is the transfer of genetic
information through the agency of free (naked)
DNA (Fig. 10.8). The initial experiment on
transformation was performed by Frederick Griffith
in England in 1928.
B. Transduction
The transfer of a portion of the DNA from one
bacterium to another by a bacteriophage is known
as transduction. Bacteriophages are viruses that
parasitise bacteria and consist of a nucleic acid
core and a protein coat. Most bacteriophages carry
their genetic information (the phage genome) as a
length of double-stranded DNA coiled up inside
a protein coat. When bacteriophages multiply
inside an infected bacterial cell, each phage head is
normally filled with a copy of the replicated phage
genome. During the assembly of bacteriophage
progeny inside infected bacteria, packaging
errors may occur occasionally. A phage particle
may have at its core a segment of the host DNA
besides its own nucleic acid. When this particle
infects another bacterium, DNA transfer is affected
and the recipient cell acquires new characteristic
coded by the donor DNA. Bacterial genes have
been transduced by the phage into the second cell
(Fig.10.10).
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Types of Transduction
Two major types of transduction are known to
occur in bacteria: Generalized transduction and
specialized transduction.
1. Generalized transduction: Since phages of
this type pick up any portion of the bacterial
chromosome at random are termed generalized
transducing phages.
2. Specialized or restricted transduction: A specific
bacteriophage transduces only a particular
genetic trait.
Role of Transduction
1. In episomes and plasmids.
2. Penicillin resistance in staphylococci: The
plasmids determining penicillin resistance in
staphylococci are transferred from cell to cell
by transduction.
3. Genetic mapping of bacteria.
4. Treatment of some inborn metabolic defects.
C. Lysogenic Conversion
Bacteriophages exhibit two types of life cycle:
Virulent or lytic cycle; ii. Temperate or nonlytic
cycle:
i. Virulent or lytic cycle: In the virulent or lytic
cycle, large numbers of progeny phages are
built up inside the host bacterium, which
ruptures to release them.
ii. Temperate or nonlytic cycle: In the temperate or
nonlytic cycle, the host bacterium is unharmed.
The phage DNA becomes integrated with
the bacterial chromosome as the prophage
and is replicated stably as part of the host
cell chromosome and is transferred to the
daughter cells. This process is called lysogeny
and bacteria harbouring prophages are called
lysogenic bacteria. In lysogenic bacteria, the
prophage behaves as an additional segment
of the bacterial chromosome, coding for new
characteristic. This process by which the
prophage DNA confers genetic information
to a bacterium is called lysogenic or phage
conversion. In transduction, the phage acts
Medical Importance
1. Toxigenicity in diphtheria bacilli: Of great
medical importance is the lysogenic conversion
in diphtheria bacilli, which acquire toxigenicity
(and therefore virulence) by lysogenization
with the phage beta.
2. Production of staphylococci, streptococci
and Clostridia toxins is also dependent
upon lysogenic conversion by specific
bacteriophages.
D. Conjugation
Conjugation is a process in which one cell, the
donor or male cell, makes contact with another,
the recipient or female cell, and DNA is transferred
directly from the donor into the recipient.
Lederberg and Tatum (1946) first described
bacterial conjugation in a strain of E. coli called
K12.
Types of Conjugation
Three types of conjugation are described below:
1. Plasmid Transfer
Populations of E. coli can be divided into two types
of cells. One, the donor cell, contains an F or fertility
plasmid and is designated F+. The other, the recipient
cell, does not contain this plasmid and is called
F. DNA is transferred only in one direction, from
F+ to F that is in a polar fashion. Consequently, F+
cells are often referred to as males and the F cells
2. Chromosomal Transfer
High-frequency recombination (Hfr)( Fig.
10.12): The bacterial chromosome is sometimes
transferred to F-cells by a few cells in the F
population. The F factor is, actually an episome
and has the ability to exist in some cells in the
integrated state or inserted into the host
chromosome in a very small proportion of F +
cells. Once inserted, the entire chromosome
behaves like an enormous F plasmid, and hence
chromosomal genes can be transferred in the
normal sex factor manner to a recipient cell
at a relatively high frequency. Cultures of cells
in which the F plasmid has inserted into the
chromosome are consequently termed highfrequency recombination (Hfr) strains because
such cells are able to transfer chromosomal genes
to recipient cells with high frequency.
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A. By Mutation (Chromosomal)
Mutational resistance is mainly of two types:
1. Stepwise mutation: The stepwise mutation,
as seen with penicillin, where high levels of
resistance are achieved only by a series of
small-step mutations.
2. Single large-step mutation or one-step mutation:
As seen with streptomycin, the drug target is
altered by mutation so that it is totally unable
to bind a drug.
Clinical importance in tuberculosis: Mutational
resistance is of clinical importance in tuberculosis.
If a patient is treated with streptomycin alone
initially, the bacilli die in large numbers but soon
resistant mutants appear and multiply unchecked.
If two or more antituberculous, drugs are used for
combined treatment, repopulation by resistant
mutants does not occur, as a mutant resistant to
one drug will be destroyed by the other drug.
Inadequate or inappropriate treatment over the
years has caused extensive resistance in tubercle
bacilli, leading to a pandemic of multidrug resistant
tuberculosis (MDR TB) across the world.
B. By Genetic Exchange
Transferable antibiotic resistance
1. Transformation: Its significance in nature is not
known.
2. Transduction: Acquisition of resistance by
transduction is common in staphylococci.
The penicillinase plasmids are transmitted by
transduction.
3. Conjugation: Plasmids conferring resistance
to one or more unrelated groups of antibiotics
(R plasmids) can be transferred rapidly by
conjugation.
Transferable drug resistance mediated by the
R factor is the most important method of drug
resistance. Table 10.1 compares mutational and
transferable drug resistance.
Transferable drug
resistance
1.Resistance to one
drug at a time
2. Low degree resistance
Structure of Transposons
The simplest transposable elements are insertion
sequences (IS), or IS elements. It is a short
sequence of DNA that contains a gene that
codes for enzyme. The more complex is called a
composite transposon.All transposons contain the
information for their own transposition.
A transposon is a segment of DNA with
one or more genes in the center, and the two
ends carrying inverted repeat sequences of
nucleotides-nucleotide sequences complementary
to each other but in the reverse order. Because of
this feature, each strand of the transposon can
form a single-stranded loop carr ying the gene,
and a double-stranded stem formed by hydrogen
bonding between the terminal inverted repeat
sequences (Fig. 10.15).
Significance of Transposons
1. Mechanism for amplifying genetic transfers
2. Spread from one organism-or species-to another
3. Antibiotic resistance
4. Gene manipulations.
Molecular Genetics
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is a method of inserting foreign
genes into a bacterium and obtaining chemically
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Genetic probes
DNA Probes
Blotting techniques
1. Southern blotting: Very specific DNA sequences
can be detected using hybridization techniques
with a technique known as the Southern blot.
This highly sensitive technique for identifying
DNA fragments by DNA: DNA hybridization is
called Southern blotting, after EM Southern
who devised it. This technique has very wide
applications in DNA analysis.
2. Northern blotting: An analogous procedure for
the analysis of RNA has been called Northern
blotting (as opposed to southern blotting).
Here the RNA mixture is separate d by gel
electrophoresis, blotted and identified using
labeled DNA or RNA probes.
3. Western blotting (Western blot assay): A similar
technique for the identificaion of proteins
(antigens) is called immunoblotting (or, in
conformity with other blotting technique,
western blotting). The Western blot detects
antibody instead of DNA.
i. The DNA (or RNA) of a particular etiologic
agent is treated with endonucleases, or the
protein components of an agent are treated
with proteinases to create fragments of
different size.
ii. The nucleic acid or protein fragments are
separated by agarose gel electrophoresis,
i.e. PAGE (sodium dodecyl sulfate-poly
acrylamide gel electrophoresis).
iii. The patterns are then blotted onto nitro
cellulose as in the Southern hybridization
assay.
iv. The filter paper containing specific nucleic
acids or proteins is then allowed to react
with antiserum from a patient or animal
suspected of containing antibodies against
the agent. If present, antibodies will bind
to the protein or nucleic acid against
which they were created, and they can
then be detected by visual methods for
the detection of antibodies (e.g. enzymelabeled probes, fluorescent markers).
Use: Diagnosis of human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) antibodyThe Western blot test has
received wide publicity as the confirmatory test for
the diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) antibody in sera.
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Applications of PCR
The development of PCR or gene amplification
method is a major methodological breakthrough
in molecular biology. Within a short span, this
method has found its way into nearly every type
of laboratory from forensic to ecology and from
diagnosis to pure research.
Gene Therapy
Gene therapy is inserting a missing gene or replac
ing a defective one in human cells. The benefit of
this therapy is to permanently cure the physiological
dysfunction by repairing the genetic defect.
Adenoviruses and retroviruses are used most
often to deliver genes.
Applications
1. To treat patients with adenosine deaminase
(ADA) deficiency, a cause of severe combined
immunodeficiency disease (SCID); Duchennes
muscular dystrophy, a muscle-destroying
disease; cystic fibrosis; and LDL-receptor
deficiency. Results are still being evaluated.
2. Hemophilia: The first gene therapy to treat
hemophilia in humans was done in 1999.
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HIV-1, HIV-2, HTLV-1, cytomegalovirus, human papillomavirus, herpes simplex viruses, hepatitis B virus, HCV,
HDV, HEV, rubella virus, Epstein-Barr virus, varicella-zoster virus, human herpes virus-6 and 7, parvovirus B19,
enteroviruses, coxsackieviruses/echoviruses, rhinoviruses, measles virus, rotavirus, I adenovirus, respiratory
syncytial virus.
B. Bacteria
C. Fungi
D. Protozoa
HIV-1, human immunodeficiency virus; HTLV-1, human T cell leukemia virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HDV, hepatitis D virus; HEV, hepatitis
E virus
Key Points
Important questions
1. Describe the structure and functions of the plasmids.
2. Define mutation. Discuss various types of mutations.
3. Name the various methods of gene transfer. Discuss
anyone of these in detail.
4. Write short notes on:
a. Extrachromosomal genetic elements
b. Plasmids
c. Lac operon
d. Transformation
e. Transduction
f. Lysogenic conversion
g. Conjugation
h. Fertility factor (F-factor)
i. High frequency recombination (Hfr)
j. R-plasmids
k. Resistance transfer factor (RTF)
5. Differentiate between mutational and plasmidmediated drug resistance in a tabulated form.
6. Write short notes on:
a. Transposable genetic elements
b. Genetic engineering
c. Restriction endonucleases
7. Write short notes on:
DNA probes and their applications.
Blotting techniques.
8. Discuss polymerase chain reaction. What are the
applications of this reaction in clinical practice?
11
Chapter
Infection
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Define the terms saprophytes, parasite, commensal,
pathogen
Describe classification of infections
Define and differentiate primary, secondary,
opportunistic and reinfections
Introduction
Infection and immunity involve interaction
between the animal body (host) and the infecting
microorganisms.
A. Saprophytes
Saprophytes (from Greek sapros-decayed; and
phyton-plant) are free-living microbes that live on
dead or decaying organic matter. They are found
in soil and water. They are of little relevance in
infectious disease.
2. Commensals
Commensals (organisms of normal flora) are the
microorganisms that live in complete harmony
with the host without causing any damage to it.
B. Parasites
1. Pathogens
Infection
Classification of infections
Infections may be classified in various ways:
1. Primary infection: Initial infection with a
parasite in a host is termed primary infection.
Sources of infection
A. Human beings
B. Animals
C. Insects
D. Soil and water
E. Food.
A. Human Beings
The most common source of infection for human
beings is human beings themselves. The parasite
may originate from a patient or carrier.
Humans serving as the microbial reservoir:
i. Acquisition of strep throat through touching
ii. Hepatitis by blood transfusions
iii. Gonorrhea, syphilis, and AIDS by sexual contact
iv. Tuberculosis by coughing; and the common
cold through sneezing.
B. Animals
Reservoir hosts: Many pathogens are capable
of causing infections in both human beings and
animals. Therefore, animals may act as a source of
infection of such organisms. These, animals serve to
maintain the parasite in nature and act as reservoir
and they are, therefore, called reservoir hosts.
Zoonosis: The diseases and infections, which
are transmissible to man from animals are called
zoonosis.
Examples of zoonotic diseases
Bacterial: Anthrax, brucellosis, Q fever, leptospirosis,
bovine tuberculosis, bubonic plague, Salmonella
food poisoning.
Viral: Rabies, yellow fever, cowpox, monkeypox.
Protozoal: Leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, trypano
somiasis, babesiosis.
Helminthic: Echinococcosis, taeniasis, trichinellosis.
Fungal: Microsporum canis, Trichophyton verru
cosum.
C. Insects
Arthropod-borne Diseases
Blood-sucking insects, such as mosquitos, ticks,
mites, flies, and lice may transmit pathogens to
human beings and diseases so caused are called
arthropod borne diseases.
Carrier
Vectors
ii. Water
Water may act as the source of infection
either due to contamination with pathogenic
microorganisms (Shigella, Salmonella, Vibrio
cholerae, poliomyelitis virus, hepatitis virus)
or due the presence of aquatic vector (cyclops
containing larvae of guinea worm infection).
E. Food
Contaminated food may act as source of infection of
organisms causing food poisoning, gastroenteritits,
diarrhea and dysentery.
1. Contact
Infection may be acquired by contact, which may
be direct or indirect.
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2. Inhalation
Droplet nuclei: Respiratory infections, such
as common cold, influenza, measles, mumps,
tuberculosis and whooping cough are acquired
by inhalation.
3. Ingestion
Intestinal infections are generally acquired by the
ingestion of food or drink contaminated by path
ogens. Infection transmitted by ingestion may be
waterborne (cholera), food borne (food poisoning)
or handborne (dysentery). Diseases transmitted
by water and food include chiefly infections of
the alimentary tract, e.g. acute diarrheas, typhoid
fever, cholera, polio, hepatitis A, food poisoning
and intestinal parasites.
4. Inoculation
The disease agent may be inoculated directly in
to the skin or mucosa, e.g. rabies virus depos
ited subcutaneously by dog bite, tetanus spores
implanted in deep wounds, and arboviruses
injected by insect vectors.
Infection by inoculation may be iatrogenic
when unsterile syringes and surgical equipment
are employed. Hepatitis B and the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
5. Insects
Vector-borne
Vector is defined as an arthropod or any living
carrier (e.g. snail) that transports an infectious
agent to a susceptible individual. In some diseases,
blood-sucking insects play an important role in the
spread of infection from one individual to another
(Refer to Chapter 85).
6. Congenital
Vertical Transmission
Some pathogens are able to cross the placental
barrier and reach the fetus in utero. This is known
as vertical transmission.
Examples: So-called TORCH agents (Toxoplasma
gondii, rubella virus, cytomegalovirus and
3. Invasiveness
Invasiveness signifies the ability of a pathogen to
spread in the host tissues after establishing infec
tion. Highly invasive pathogens characteristically
produce spreading or generalized lesions (e.g. strep
tococcal septicemia following wound infection),
while less invasive pathogens cause more localized
lesions (e.g. staphylococcal abscess).
4. Toxigenicity
Some bacteria cause disease by producing toxins,
of which there are two general types: The exotoxins
and the endotoxins (Table 11.1).
a. Exotoxins
Exotoxins are soluble, heat-labile proteins
inactivated at 6080C and diffuse readily into
the surrounding medium. These are highly potent
Endotoxins
1.Proteins
1.Lipopolysaccharide on
outer membrane. Lipid
A portion is toxic
2.Heat-labile. (inactivated
at 6080C)
2.Heat-stable
Determinants of virulence
5. No enzymatic action
6.Specific
pharmacological effect
for each exotoxin
9. Highly antigenic
9. Weakly antigenic
1. Transmissibility
The first step of the infectious process is the entry of
the microorganism into the host by one of several
ports: the respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract,
urogenital tract, or through skin that has been cut,
punctured, or burned.
2. Adhesion
Adhesins: The initial event in the pathogenesis is
the attachment of the bacteria to body surfaces.
This attachment is not a chance event but a specific
reaction between surface receptors on host cells
and adhesive structures (ligands) on the surface
of bacteria. These adhesive structures are called
adhesins.
Adhesions may occur as organized structures,
such as fimbriae or fibrillae and pilli, or as
colonization factors.
Adhesins as virulence factors: Adhesins are
usually made of protein and are antigenic in nature.
Specific immunization with adhesins has been
attempted as a method of prophylaxis in some
infections.
13.Frequently controlled
by extrachromosomal
genes (e.g. plasmids)
13.Synthesized directly by
chromosomal genes
14.Gram-negative
infections,
meningococcemia
d. Antigenic Variation
b. Endotoxins
6. Enzymes
b. Streptococcal M Protein
Other bacteria evade phagocytosis by producing
specialized surface proteins such as the M protein
on Streptococcus pyogenes.
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e. Serum Resistance
To survive in the blood, bacteria must be able to
resist lysis.
7. Plasmids
Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA segments
that carry genes for antibiotic resistance known as
R-factors. Multiple drug resistance (R) plasmids
increase the severity of clinical disease by their
resistance to antibiotic therapy.
8. Bacteriophages
All the strains of C. diphtheriae produce exotoxin
only when they are lysogenized with a bacteriophage
called betaphage. The elimination of this phage
abolishes the toxigenicity of the bacillus.
A. Localized
Localized infections may be superficial or deep
seated.
B. Generalized
1. Bacteremia: Circulation of bacteria in the blood
is known as bacteremia.
2. Septicemia: It is the condition where bacteria
circulate and multiply in the blood, form toxic
products and cause high, swinging type of fever.
3. Pyemia: It is a condition where pyogenic
bacteria produce septicemia with multiple
abscesses in internal organs, such as the spleen,
liver and kidney.
Epidemiological terminologies
1. Endemic: The disease which is constantly
present in a particular area, e.g. typhoid fever
is endemic in most parts of India.
2. Epidemic: The disease that spreads rapidly,
involving many persons in a particular area at
the same time, is called epidemic disease, e.g.
meningococcal meningitis.
3. Pandemic: It is an epidemic that spreads through
many areas of the world involving very large
number of persons within a short period, e.g.
cholera, influenza and enteroviral conjunctivitis.
Key Points
Important Questions
1. Describe in detail the sources of infections to
humans beings.
2. What are the various modes of spread of infection?
Describe each in brief giving suitable examples.
3.
Describe the factors determining microbial
pathogenicity and virulence.
4. Distinguish between exotoxins and endotoxins in
a tabulated form.
Section 2: Immunology
12
Chapter
Immunity
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe innate immunity, artificial active immunity,
natural passive immunity, herd immunity
Definition
Immunity [Latin immunis, free of burden] refers to
the resistance exhibited by the host towards injury
caused by microorganisms and their products.
Classification
Immunity against infectious diseases is of different
types:
i. Innate (or natural) immunity
a. Nonspecific
Species
Racial
Individual
b Specific
Species
Racial
Individual
ii. Acquired (or adaptive) immunity
a. Active
Natural
Artificial
b. Passive
Natural
Artificial
82 | Section 2: Immunology
Factors influencing the level of immunity
1. Age
i. Fetus in utero: The two extremes of life
carry higher susceptibility to infectious
diseases as compared with adults. The
higher susceptibility of the young appears
to associate with immaturity of immune
system.
ii. Newborn animals: Newborn animals are
more susceptible to experimental infection
than adult animals, e.g. coxsackievirus
causes fatal infection in suckling mice but
not in adult mice.
iii. In the elderly, besides a general waning
of the activities of the immune system,
physical abnormalities (e.g. prostatic
enlargement leading to stasis of urine)
or long-term exposure to environmental
factors (e.g. smoking) are common causes
of increased susceptibility to infection.
2. Hormonal Influences and Sex
i. Endocrine disorders: There is an increased
susceptibility to infection in endocrine
disorders, such as diabetes mellitus,
hypothyroidism and adrenal dysfunction
(increased corticoids secretion).
ii. Sex: In general, incidence and death rate
from infectious diseases are greater in males
than in females.
3. Nutrition: In general, both humoral and cell
mediated immune processes are reduced
in malnutrition. Experimental evidence in
animals has shown that inadequate diet may
be correlated with increased susceptibility of
a variety of bacterial diseases, associated with
decreased phagocytic activity and leukopenia.
4. Stress: A growing body of evidence has
demonstrated an inverse relation between
stress and immune function. The end result is
an increased susceptibility to infection.
b. Gastrointestinal Tract
i. Stomach: The low pH and proteolytic enzymes
of the stomach help keep the number of
micro-organisms low. The pH becomes
progressively alkaline from the duodenum to
the ileum.
ii. Small intestine: In the small intestine,
protection is provided by the presence of bile
salts.
iii. Ileum: The ileum contains a rich and varied
flora and in the large intestine, the bulk of the
contents is composed of bacteria. Abundant
resident microflora in the large bowel also
contributes significantly to protection.
d. Genitourinary Tract
i. Normal flow of urine: The normal flow of urine
flushes the urinary system, carrying microorganisms away from the body.
e. Conjunctiva
Lachrymal fluid: Conjunctiva is kept moist by the
continuous flushing action of tears (lachrymal
fluid). Tears contain large amounts of lysozyme,
lactoferrin, and sIgA and thus provide protection.
3. Microbial Antagonisms
The skin and mucous surfaces have resident
bacterial flora which prevent colonization by
pathogens. Invasion by extraneous microbes
may be due to alteration of normal resident flora,
causing serious diseases, such as staphylococcal
or clostridial enterocolitis or candidiasis following
oral antibiotics.
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5. Inflammation
If the surface chemical and physiologic def
ences of the body are breached by a pathogen,
inflammation can result, which is an
important, nonspecific defence mechanism.
Sequences of events in acute inflammation in
response to an injury will be: (i) vasodilation,
(ii) increased vascular permeability; (iii) emigration
of leucocytes; (iv) chemotaxis; (v) phagocytosis.
6. Fever
Following infection, a rise of temperature is a
natural defense mechanism. It not merely helps
to accelerate the physiological processes, but
may, in some cases, actually destroy the infecting
pathogens. Fever aids recovery from viral infections
by stimulating the production of interferon.
a. Active Immunity
84 | Section 2: Immunology
A. Active immunity
1. NaturalClinical
Subclinical Infection
2. Artificial
VaccinationLive
Killed
B. Passive immunity
1. NaturalThrough placenta
Through breast milk
2. ArtificialImmune serum
Immune cells
Fig. 12.1: Types of immunity
Immune Response
A. Primary Response
Active immunity sets in only after a latent period.
There is often a negative phase. Once developed,
the active immunity is long-lasting.
B. Secondary Response
If an individual, who has been actively immunized
against an antigen, experiences the same antigen
subsequently, the immune response occurs more
quickly and abundantly than during the first
encounter. This is known as secondary response.
Examples of Vaccines
I. Bacterial vaccines
a. Live (BCG vaccine for tuberculosis)
b. Killed (cholera vaccine)
c. Subunit (typhoid Vi antigen)
d. Bacterial products (tetanus toxoid)
2. Viral vaccines
a. Live
Oral polio vaccine-Sabin
17D vaccine for yellow fever
MMR vaccine for measles, mumps, rubella.
b. Killed
Injectable polio vaccine-Salk
Neural and non-neural vaccines for rabies
Hepatitis B vaccine
c. Subunit: Hepatitis B vaccine
Live Vaccines
In general, live vaccines are more potent immunizing
agents than killed vaccines The immunity lasts for
several years but booster doses may be necessary.
Live vaccines may be administered orally or
parenterally.
Killed Vaccines
Killed vaccines are usually safe and generally less
immunogenic than live vaccines, and protection
lasts only for a short period. They have, therefore,
to be administered repeatedly, generally at least
Passive immunity
4.Immunity effective only after lag period, i.e. time required for
generation of antibodies and immunocompetent cells
4. Immediate immunity
5. No memory
7. No negative phase
8.Applicable in an immunodeficient
b. Passive Immunity
The immunity that is transferred to a recipient in
a readymade form is known as passive immunity.
Here the recipients immune system plays no active
role. There is no lag or latent period in passive
immunity, protection being effective immediately
after passive immunization. There is no negative
phase. The immunity is transient. There is no
secondary type response in passive immunity.
Main Advantages of Passive Immunity
i. The prompt availability of large amount of
antibody.
ii. It is employed where instant immunity is
required as in case of diphtheria, tetanus,
botulism, rabies, hepatitis A and B following
exposure because of its immediate action.
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Combined Immunization
Combined immunization is a combination of
active and passive methods of immunization and
sometimes employed. For example, it is often
undertaken in some diseases, such as tetanus,
diphtheria, rabies.
Adoptive Immunity
Injection of immunologically competent
lymphocytes is known as adoptive immunity
and does not have general application. Instead of
whole lymphocytes, an extract of immunologically
competent lymphocytes, known as the transfer
factor, can be used.
86 | Section 2: Immunology
Local immunity
Local immunity is conferred by secretory
immunoglobulin A (secretory IgA) produced
locally by plasma cells present on mucosal surfaces
or in secretory glands.
Examples
1. Poliomyelitis immunization: In poliomyelitis,
active immunization provides systemic
immunity with the killed vaccine. Natural
infection or immunization with the live oral
vaccine provides local intestinal immunity.
2. Influenza, immunization: Natural infection
or the live influenza vaccine administered
intranasally provides local immunity.
Herd immunity
It is the level of resistance of a community or
a group of people to a particular disease and
is relevant in the control of epidemic diseases.
Epidemics are likely to occur on the introduction
of a suitable pathogen, when herd immunity is low.
Eradication of communicable diseases depends on
the development of a high level of herd immunity
rather than on the development of a high level of
immunity in individuals.
Key Points
Important questions
1. Define and classify immunity. Discuss mechanisms
of innate immunity.
2. Tabulate the differences between active immunity
and passive immunity.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Innate immunity
b. Artificial active immunity
c. Natural passive immunity
d. Artificial passive immunity
e. Herd immunity.
13
Chapter
Antigens
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe haptens, heterophile antigens and
superantigens.
Types of antigens
Based on the ability of antigens to carry out these two
functions, they may be classified into different types:
A. Complete Antigen
Determinants of antigenicity
1. Size
Molecular Weight
Types of Haptens
Haptens may be simple or complex:
1. S i m p l e h a p t e n s : S i m p l e ha p t e n s a re
nonprecipitating. They can inhibit precipitation
of specific antibodies by the corresponding
antigen or complex hapten.
2. Chemical Nature
In general, proteins are the best immunogens and
carbohydrates are weaker immunogens. Lipids and
nucleic acids are poor immunogenic.
88 | Section 2: Immunology
3. Foreignness
Only antigens which are foreign to the individual
(nonself ) induce an immune response because
host distinguishes self from nonself and normally
does not respond to self. In general, the greater the
difference between the antigen (Ag) and similar
molecules in the hosts body, the greater the
immune response that is generated.
8. Autospecificity
Sequestrated Antigens
5. Antigenic Specificity
Chemical Groupings
6. Species Specificities
Tissues of all individuals in a species possess
species-specific antigens. However, some degree
of cross-reactivity is seen between antigens from
related species.
7. Isospecificities
Isoantigens or alloantigens are antigens found
in some but not all members of a species. On the
basis of isoantigens, a species may be divided into
different groups.
Examples of Isoantigens
i. Human erythrocyte antigens: The best
example of isoantigens is human erythrocyte
antigens, on the basis of which all humans can
be divided into different blood groups: A, B,
AB and O. Each of these groups may be further
divided into Rh-positive or Rh-negative.
ii. Histocompatibility antigens: Histocompatibility
antigens are those cellular determinants
specific to each individual of a species.
Histocompatibility typing is essential in organ/
tissue transplantation from one individual to
another within a species. These antigens are
9. Organ Specificity
Some organs, such as brain, kidney and lens protein
of different species share the same antigens. These
antigens are known as organ-specific antigens,
characteristic of an organ or tissue and found in
different species. Injection of heterologous organspecific antigens may induce an immune response,
damaging the particular organs or tissue in the host.
Example
Neuroparalytic complications: The neuroparalytic
complications following antirabic vaccination
using sheep brain vaccines are a consequence of
brain-specific antigens shared by sheep and man.
The sheep brain antigens induce an immunological
response in the vaccines, damaging their nervous
tissue due to the cross-reaction between human
and sheep brain antigens.
Superantigens
Superantigens are bacterial proteins which can
interact with antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and
T cells in nonspecific manner. This activity does
not involve the endocytic processing required for
typical antigen presentation but instead occurs
by concurrent association with MHC class II
molecules of the APCs and the V domain of the
T cell receptor. This interaction activates a large
number of T cells (10%) than conventional anti
gens (about 1%), explaining the massive cytokine
expression and immunomodulation. The antigens
which provoke such a drastic immune response are
termed as superantigens.
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Key Points
Antigens are the substances that can stimulate an
immune response and, given the opportunity, react
specifically by binding with the effector molecules
(antibodies) and effector cells (lymphocytes)
Types of antigen are: A. Complete antigen; B.
Haptens (incomplete immunogen)
Determinants of antigenicity are: 1. Size; 2.
Chemical nature; 3. Foreignness; 4. Susceptibility to
tissueenzymes; 5. Antigenic specificity; 6. Species;
specificities; Isospecifities; 8. Autospecicity; 9. Organ
specificity; 10. Heterogenetic (heterophile) specificity.
Important questions
1. What is an antigen? Discuss briefly various deter
minants of antigenicity.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Haptens
b. Heterophile antigens
Examples
Answers (MCQs)
1. c; 2. a
14
Chapter
AntibodiesImmunoglobulins
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Define antibody and draw labeled diagram of
immunoglobulin
Properties of antibodies
1. Electrophoretic mobility: Serum proteins can be
separated into soluble albumins and insoluble
globulins. Globulins could be separated into
water-soluble pseudoglobulins and insoluble
euglobulins. Most antibodies were found to
be euglobulins. Serum glycoproteins can
be separated according to their charge by
movement through a gel in an electric field and
classified as albumin and globulin (alpha-l,
alpha-2, beta and gamma globulin).
2. Sedimentation and molecular weight: Most
antibodies are sedimented at 7S (MW 150,000
180,000) based on sedimentation studies. Some
heavier antibodies19S globulins (MW about
900,000) were designated as M or macroglobulins.
3. Physicochemical and antigenic structure: On the
basis of physicochemical and antigenic structure,
Igs can be divided into five distinct classes or iso
types, namely IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD and IgE.
Pepsin Digestion
When treated with pepsin, a 5S fragment is
obtained, which is composed essentially of two Fab
fragments held together in position. It is bivalent
and precipitates with the antigen. This fragment is
called F(ab)2. The Fc portion is digested by pepsin
into smaller fragments (Fig. 14.1).
ANTIBODY STRUCTURE
Porter, Edelman, Nisonoff and their colleagues
poineered studies involving the cleavage of the
|91
Fig. 14.2: The four-peptide chain structure of the IgG molecule composed of two identical heavy (H) and two identical light
(L) chains linked by interchain disulfide bonds. Loops formed by intrachain disulfide bonds are domains (shown stippled).
Each chain has one domain in the variable region (VH and VL). Each light chain has one domain in the constant region (CL)
while each heavy chain has three domains in the constant region (CH1, CH2 and CH3). Between CH1 and CH2 is the hinge region
1. Classes of L-chains
The L-chains are similar in all classes of immuno
globulins. The L-chain has a molecular weight of
approximately 25,000 and the H chain of 50,000.
There are two classes of L-chains, designated
kappa () and lambda (l). Both are normally
expressed in every individual. However, each B-cell
expresses (and each antibody contains) only one
type of L-chaineither or l but not both. Kappa
() and lambda (l) are named after Korngold and
Lapari who originally described them. Kappa ()
and lambda (l) chains occur in a ratio of about 2 :
1 in human sera.
2. Classes of H-chains
The H-chains are structurally and antigenically
distinct for each class and are designated by the Greek
letter corresponding to the immunoglobulin class as
shown in Table 14.1.
H-chain
IgG
gamma (g)
IgA
alpha ()
IgM
mu ()
IgD
delta ()
IgE
epsilon ()
92 | Section 2: Immunology
the domain next to the variable domain. It is the
portion of H-chains present in Fab fragment.
H-chains carry a carbohydrate moiety, which is
distinct for each class of immunoglobulins.
4. Fc Fragment
The Fc fragment is composed of the carboxyterminal
portion of the H-chains. It can be crystallized, and
is, therefore, called Fc (fragment-crystallizable).
Functions of Fc
Binds complement leading to complement fix
ation.
Binds to cell receptors (FcRs)
Determines passage of IgG across the placental
barrier
Determines skin fixation and catabolic rate.
5. Immunoglobulin Domain
Each immunoglobulin peptide chain has internal
disulfide links in addition to interchain disulfide
bonds which bridge the H- and L-chains. These
interchain disulfide bonds form loops in the peptide
chain, and each of the loops is compactly folded
to form a globular domain, each domain having
a separate function. The variable region domains,
VL and VH, are responsible for the formation of a
specific antigen-binding site. The CH2 region in IgG
binds C1q in the classical complement sequence,
and the CH3 domain mediates adherence to the
monocyte surface. The areas of the H-chain in the
C-region between the first and second C-region
domains (CH1 and CH2) is the hinge region. It is
more flexible and is more exposed to enzymes and
chemicals. Papain acts here to produce one Fc and
two Fab fragments (Figs 14.3).
IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSES
Human serum contains five classes of immuno
globulinsIgG, IgA, IgM, IgD and IgE in the
desending order of the concentration. Table14.2
shows their differentiating features.
2. Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
1. It is the second most abundant class, cons
tituting about 1013 per cent of serum immuno
globulins.
2. The normal serum level is 0.64.2 mg per mL.
3. It has a half life of 68 days.
4. IgA is the primary immunoglobulin found in
external secretions, such as mucus, tears, saliva,
gastric fluid, colostrum and sweat. It exists in
different forms in these various solutions.
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lgG
IgA*
lgM
lgD
IgE
1.Sedimentation coefficient(s) 7
19
2.Molecular weight in
kilodaltons
150,000
160,000
900,000,
180,000
190,000
3. Carbohydrate (%)
12
13
12
13
56
12
1.2
0.03
0.00004
23
28
15
34
24
3.3
0.4
0.0023
42
80
75
50
A.Physical properties
B.Physiologic properties
C.Biologic properties
1.Complement fixation
Classical
++
+++
Alternative
3. Present in milk
4.Selective selection by
submucus glands
5.Anaphylactic
hypersensitivity
++++
6. Heat stability
D.Major characteristics
Most
abundant Ig;
Longest half
life: Crosses
placenta
opsonizes
antigen
Protects
mucosal
surfaces
Very efficienct
against
bacteremia
Mainly
lymphocyte
receptor;
major surface
components of
B cells
Initiates
inflammation;
raised in helminth
infection; causes
allergy symptoms
Functions of IgA
i. Local immunity: Secretory IgA (SIgA) is
believed to play an important role in local
immunity against respiratory and intestinal
pathogens.
ii. Prevention of organisms entry into body tissues.
iii. Newborn protection: IgA present in breast milk
provides the newborn with protection against
infection.
iv. Agglutination.
v. Alternative pathways activation.
vi. Phagocytosis and intracellular killing.
94 | Section 2: Immunology
3. Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
4. Immunoglobulin D (IgD)
5. Immunoglobulin E (IgE)
1. It resembles IgG structurally and also known
as reagin antibody.
2. IgE is an 8S molecule (MW 19,000) and halflife of two days.
3. It is present in extremely low amounts in serum.
4. It exhibits unique properties such as heat
lability (inactivated at 56C in one hour).
5. It is susceptible to mercaptoethanol.
6. It does not pass the placental barrier.
7. IgE does not activate complement nor
agglutinate antigens.
8. Allergic reactions: IgE may be elevated in allergic
(atopic) individuals, and is responsible for
many of the symptoms of allergies, bronchial
asthma, and even systemic anaphylaxis.
Allergy mediated by IgE is termed as type I
hypersensitivity response.
9. Immunity against helminthic parasites:
Children living in insanitary conditions, with
a high load of intestinal parasites, have high
serum levels of IgE.
10. Extravascular: It is mostly found extra
vascularly in the lining of the respiratory and
intestinal tracts.
11. Protection against pathogens: The physiological
role of IgE appears to be protection against
pathogens by mast cell degranulation and
release of inflammatory mediators.
Abnormal Immunoglobulins
A. Multiple Myeloma
The abnormal plasma cells are myeloma cells
which also collect in the solid part of the bone.
The disease is called multiple myeloma. Myeloma
is a plasma cell dyscrasia in which there is
unchecked proliferation of one clone of plasma
cells, resulting in the excessive production of the
particular immunoglobulin synthesized by the
clone. Such immunoglobulins are, therefore, called
monoclonal.
Waldenstroms macroglobulinemia: Multiple
myeloma may affect plasma cells synthesizing
IgG, IgA, IgD or IgE. Myeloma involving IgMproducing cells (lympho-plasmacytoid cells) is
known as Waldenstroms macroglobulinemia. In this
condition, there occurs excessive production of the
respective myeloma proteins (M proteins) and of
their light chains (Bence-Jones proteins).
Bence-Jones proteins: In most patients, the
myeloma cells also secrete excessive amounts
of light chains. These excess light chains were
first discovered in the urine of myeloma patients
and were named Bence-Jones proteins, for their
discoverer Bence Jones (1847). Bence Jones proteins
can be identified in urine by its characteristic
property of coagulation when heated to 50C but
redissolving at 70C. These proteins are the light
chains of immunoglobulins and so may occur as
the kappa or lambda forms. But in any one patient,
the chain is either kappa or lambda only, and never
both, being uniform in all other respects also.
C. Cryoglobulinemia
It is a condition in which there is the formation
of a gel or a precipitate on cooling the serum,
which redissolves on warming. It may not always
be associated with disease but is often found in
myelomas, macroglobulinemias and autoimmune
conditions such as systemic lupus erythematosus.
Most cryoglobulins consist of either IgG, IgM or
mixture of the two.
Key Points
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Important questions
1. What is an antibody? Draw a labeled diagram of IgG.
2. Name various classes of immunoglobulins and
describe structure and functions of IgG, IgA and
IgM.
3. Write shot notes on:
a. Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
b. Immunoglobulin M (IgM)
c. Immunoglobulin A (IgA)
15
Chapter
Complement System
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe the sequence of events when the
classical pathway and the alternative pathway of
the complement system is activated
Complement system
The complement system belongs to the group
of biological effector mechanisms (called
triggered enzyme cascades), which also includes
coagulation, fibrinolytic and kinin systems.
Pfeiffer phenomenon: It was discovered by
Pfeiffer (1894) that cholera vibrios were lysed
when injected intraperitoneally into specifically
immunized guinea pigs (bactereolysis in vivo or
Pfeiffer phenomenon).
Complement Activation
There are nine components of complement
called C1 to C9. The fraction C1 occurs in serum
as a calcium ion-dependent complex, which on
chelation with EDT A yields three protein subunits
called C1q, r and s. Thus, C is made up of a total
of 11 different proteins. C fractions are named C1
to C9 in the sequence of the cascading reaction,
except that C4 comes after C1, before C2. The
components of the classical pathway are numbered
from C1 to C9, although they do not function in
numerical order (C4 comes after C1, before C2).
Activation of the complement system can be
initiated either by antigenantibody complexes or
by a variety of nonimmunologic molecules.
Complement components react in a specific
sequence as a cascade either through the classical or
alternative pathway.
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98 | Section 2: Immunology
4. Formation of the membrane attack complex
(MAC): The terminal stage of the classic pathway
involves creation of membrane attack complex
(MAC), which is also called the lytic unit.
Initiation of membrane attack complex (MAC)
assembly begins with cleavage of C5 by C5 convertase
into C5a and C5b fragments (C5C5a+C5b). The C5a
is the most potent anaphylatoxin in the body and
C5b continues with the cascade. C6 and C7 then
join together. A heatstable trimolecular complex
C567 is formed part of which binds to the cell
membrane and prepares it for lysis by C8 and C9
which join the reaction subsequently. This complex
(C5b67) inserts itself into the plasma membrane
of the target cell. Most of C567 escape and serve to
amplify the reaction by adsorbing onto unsensitized
bystander cells and rendering them susceptible to
lysis by C8 and C9.
The unbound C567 has chemotactic activity,
though the effect is transient due to its rapid
inactivation. C8 and C9 then bind, forming the
membrane attack complex (C5b6789) that creates a
pore in the plasma membrane of the target cell. The
mechanism of complement-mediated cytolysis is
the production of holes, approximately 100 A in
diameter on the cell membrane. This disrupts the
osmotic integrity of the membrane, leading to the
release of the cell contents.
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Biosynthesis of complement
Various complement components are synthesized
in different parts of the body, e.g. intestinal
epithelium (C1), macrophages (C2, C4), spleen
(C5, C8) and liver (C3, C6, C9). The site of synthesis
of C7 is not known. The control mechanism
that controls the synthesis of the complement
component is not known.
Complement deficiencies
Complement deficiencies have been associated
with recurrent bacterial and fungal infections
as well as with collagen-vascular inflammatory
diseases. Human genetic deficiencies of
complement components and associated diseases
are listed in Table 15.1.
Important questions
1. Define complement. What is the sequence of events
when the classical pathway of the complement
system is activated?
2. Write short notes on:
a. Alternative pathway of complement.
b. Biological effects of complement.
16
Chapter
AntigenAntibody Reactions
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Differentiate between precipitation and agglutination
Describe prozone phenomenon
Discuss mechanism and applications of precipit
ation reactions giving suitable examples
Describe types of precipitation reactions
Describe principle and applications of Immuno
elec trophoresis, radial immunodiffusion,
counteri mmunoelectrophoresis (CIE)), rocket
electrophoresis
INTRODUCTION
ANTIGENANTIBODY INTERACTIONS
Uses
1. In vivo or in the body
i. Protection: The in vivo interaction that
occurs in vertebrate animals are antibody
absolutely essential in protecting the
animal.
ii. Basis of antibody-mediated immunity:
In the body, they form the basis of
antibody-mediated immunity in infectious
diseases, or of tissue injury in some types
of hypersensitivity and autoimmune
diseases.
2. In vitro or in the laboratory
i. These assays can be used to detect the
presence of either antibody or antigen
ii. Vital roles in diagnozing diseases
iii. Monitoring the level of the humoral immune
response
iii. Identifying molecules of biological or
medical interest.
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IgG
IgA
1.Precipitation
Weak
Strong
Variable
2.Agglutination
Strong
Weak
Moderate
3.Complement
fixation
Weak
Strong
Negative
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
ANTIGENANTIBODY REACTIONS
1. Highly specific: Antigenantibody reaction is
highly specific.
2. Lock and key arrangement: Both antigens
and antibodies participate in the formation of
agglutinates or precipitates. The molecules are
held together in lock and key arrangement.
3. No denaturation: There is no denaturation of
antigen or antibody during the reaction.
4. Surface antigens: During combination, only
surface antigens participate.
5. Entire molecules react and not fragments.
6. Combination is firm and reversible: The firm
ness of the union is influenced by the affinity
and avidity of the reaction.
Affinity denotes the intensity of attraction
between the antigen and antibody molecules.
Avidity is the strength of the bond after the
formation of the antigenantibody complexes.
7. Combination in varying proportions: Antigens
and antibodies can combine in varying
proportions. Antibodies are generally bivalent.
Antigens may have valencies upto hundreds.
Titer
Antibody titer of a serum is the highest dilution of the
serum which shows an observable reaction with the
antigen in the particular test. It is usually expressed
as the reciprocals of the dilution of the serum.
Chap-16.indd 102
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is defined as the ability of a test to
identify correctly all those who have the disease,
i.e. true positives.
Specificity
Specificity has been defined as the ability of a test
to identify correctly those who do not have the
disease, i.e. true negatives.
SEROLOGICAL REACTIONS
The study of antigenantibody reactions in vitro
is called serology [serum and ology]. Antigen
antibody reactions in vitro are known as serological
reactions.
A. Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation: When a soluble antigen combines
with its antibody in the presence of electrolytes
(NaCl) at a suitable temperature and pH, the
antigenantibody complex forms an insoluble
precipitate and is called precipitation. Antibodies
that thus aggregate soluble antigens are called
precipitins. Precipitation is relatively less sensitive
for the detection of antibodies.
Flocculation: When instead of sedimenting, the
precipitate remains suspended as floccules, the
reaction is known as flocculation. Precipitation can
take place in liquid media or in gels, such as agar,
agarose or polyacrylamide.
Zone phenomenon: A quantitative precipitation
reaction can be performed by placing a constant
amount of antibody in a series of tubes and adding
increasing amounts of antigen to the tubes. This
plot of the amount of antibody precipitated versus
increasing antigen concentration (at constant total
antibody) reveals three zones (Fig.16.1). This is
called zone phenomenon.
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Three Zones
1. Zone of antibody excess or prozone (ascending
part):
The prozone is of importance in clinical
serology,as sera rich in antibody or may
sometimes give a false-negative precipitation
or agglutination result, unless several dilutions
are tested.
2. Equivalence zone (peak): Occurs when the ratio
of antibody to antigen is optimal.
3. Zone of antigen excess or postzone (descending
part): In the tubes containing more antigen, the
amount of precipitate increases up to a point,
after which it decreases as a result of smaller
complexes being formed in the zone of antigen
excess.
Mechanism of Precipitation
The lattice hypothesis was proposed by Marrack
(1934) to explain the mechanism of precipitation.
According to this concept, multivalent antigens
combine with bivalent antibodies in varying
proportions, depending on the antigenantibody
ratio in the reacting mixture, which is supported
by considerable experimental evidence and is
now widely accepted. Precipitation results when
a large lattice is formed consisting of alternating
antigen and antibody molecules. This is possible
only in the zone of equivalence. Formation of an
antigenantibody lattice depends on the valency
of both the antibody and antigen. The antibody
must be bivalent; a precipitate will not form with
monovalent antibody fragments. The antigen must
be either bivalent or polyvalent. In the zones of
antigen or antibody excess, the lattice does not
enlarge, as the valencies of the antibody and the
antigen, respectively, are fully satisfied .In either
case, extensive lattices cannot be formed and
Chap-16.indd 103
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Example
Elek test for toxigenicity in diphtheria bacilli:
A special variety of double diffusion in two
dimensions is the Elek test for toxigenicity in
diphtheria bacilli.
5. Immunoelectrophoresis
Immunoelectrophoresis is a procedure that
combines electrophoresis and double diffusion
for the separation of antigenantibody reactions
in gels.
Uses
i. To quantitate serum immunoglobulins,
complement proteins, other substances.
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i. Counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIE) or
Countercurrent eletrophoresis (CIEP)
Uses
i. To separate many antigens as well as to
indicate the potential purity of an antigen
ii. To separate the major blood proteins in serum
for certain diagnostic tests.
iii. For testing for normal and abnormal proteins
in serum and urine.
6. Electroimmunodiffusion
Immunodiffusion is a slow process. The
development of precipitin lines can be speeded
up by electrically driving the antigen and antibody
in a gel. Various methods have been described
combining electrophoresis with diffusion. Of these,
frequently used methods in the clinical laboratory
are:
1. One-dimensional double electroimmuno
diffusion (counterimmunoelectrophoresis)
2. One-dimensional single electroimmuno
diffusion (rocket electrophoresis)
Chap-16.indd 105
Clinical Applications
i. For detection of various antigens: such as
hepatitis B surface antigen (HBS antigen) and
alpha-fetoprotein in serum and meningococcal
and cryptococcal antigens in CSF.
ii. To detect the presence of anti-DNA antibody in
the serum of patients with several autoimmune
disorders.
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Main Application
i. Quantitative estimation of antigens: For
quantitative estimation of antigens and does
permit measurement of antigen levels.
Laurells Two-dimensional
Electrophoresis
A variant of rocket electrophoresis is Laurells twodimensional electrophoresis. In this technique,
the antigen mixture is first electrophoretically
separated in a direction perpendicular to that of
the final rocket stage. By this method, one can
quantitate each of several antigens in a mixture
(Fig 16.9).
B. Agglutination Reactions
When a particulate antigen is mixed with its
antibody in the presence of electrolytes at a
suitable temperature and pH, the particles are
clumped or agglutinated. When antigen is present
on the surface of a cell or particle, the addition of
APPLICATIONS OF AGGLUTINATION
REACTION
1. Slide Agglutination
A drop of sterile saline is placed on one of the
divisions of the slide or plate and is emulsified in
it bacterial culture. The diagnostic serum is taken
and is then mixed into the latter. The mixing is
completed by tilting the slide to and fro. Distinct
clumping within 60 seconds is a positive result.
On another area of the slide or plate, in parallel
with the test, a control test is performed, adding
only saline, instead of serum, to the bacterial
suspension. If clumping takes place, the bacterial
suspension is autoagglutinable and the reaction
with the serum must be disregarded.
Uses
Fig. 16.8: Rocket electrophoresis
2. Tube Agglutination
Fig. 16.9: Laurells variant of rocket electrophoresis (twodimensional electrophoresis)
1.First runAntigens are separated by electrophoretic
mobility.
2.The second run is done at right angles to the first which
drives the antigens into the antiserum containing gel
to form precipitation peaks. The area of the peak is
proportional to the concentration of the antigen
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Uses
For demonstrating any type of incomplete or
nonagglutinating antibody, as e.g. in brucellosis.
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Principle
Uses
i. Coagglutination can be used for detecting the
presence of antigens in serum, urine and CSF.
ii. Several commercial suppliers have prepared
coagglutination reagents for identification
of antigens of various streptococcal groups,
including Lancefield groups A, B, C, D, F, G, and N;
Streptococcus pneumoniae; Neisseria meningitidis;
N. gonorrhoeae; and Haemophilus influenzae types
A to F grown in culture.
Chap-16.indd 108
Procedure
A. Test system: It consists of (i) Antigen- suspected
of causing the patients disease; (ii) Patients
serum (antibody); (iii) Complement.
B. Indicator system: It consists of sheep red cells
(antigen) coated with anti-sheep-red cell
antibody and ComplementAn exogenous
source of complement (usually guinea pig
serum). Afterward, sensitized indicator cells,
usually sheep red blood cells previously coated
with complement-fixing antibodies, are added
to the mixture. Complement lyses antibodycoated red cells.
InterpretationPositive CF TestAbsence
of Lysis
The specific antibodies are present in the test serum
and complement is consumed by the immune
complexes. Insufficient amount of complement
will be available to lyse the indicator cells.
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Anticomplementary Effect
Uses
Chap-16.indd 109
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D. Neutralization Tests
These are of two types:
1. Viral neutralization tests
2. Toxin neutralization tests.
1. Viral Neutralization
Neutralization of viruses by their antibodies
can be demonstrated in various systems. This
antibody-mediated viral inactivation is called viral
neutralization.
Indicator systems: Laboratory animals or tissue
culture cells are used as indicator systems in
these tests. The test serum is diluted serially,
incubated with a known amount of virus and
the mixture is then added to indicator cultures:
animals, embryonated hens egg and tissue culture.
2. Toxin Neutralization
Bacterial exotoxins are good antigens and
their activity may be completely neutralized by
appropriate concentrations of specific antibody.
Antibody to bacterial exotoxin is usually referred
to as antitoxin which is important clinically, in
protection against and recovery from diseases such
as diphtheria and tetanus. Toxin neutralization can
be tested in vivo or in vitro.
A. Toxin neutralization in vivo
i. Toxigenicity test: The neutralizing capa
city of an antitoxin can be assayed by
neutralization test in which mixture of toxin
and antitoxin is injected into a susceptible
animal and the least amount of antitoxin
that prevents death or disease in the animal
is estimated.
ii. Schick test: With the diphtheria toxin, which
in small doses causes cutaneous reaction,
neutralization test can be carried out on the
human skin. The Schick test is based on the
ability of circulating antitoxin to neutralize
the diphtheria toxin given intradermally.
Neutralization (no reaction) indicates
immunity and redness and erythema
indicates susceptibility to diphtheria.
B. Toxin neutralization in vitro: If a toxin has a
demonstrable in vitro effect, this effect can be
neutralized by specific antitoxin.
E. Opsonization
Opsonization is the process in which microorganisms or other particles are coated by antibody
and/or complement, and thus prepared for
recognition and ingestion by phagocytic cells.
Immune opsonization: Phagocytes, such as
macrophages, monocytes and neutrophils possess
surface receptors (CRI) for C3b and Fc receptors for
antibody. If immune complexes have activated the
complement system, then Fc and CRI receptors,
present on the phagocyte, bind Fc region of
antibody and C3b bound on immune complexes
respectively, thus facilitating their phagocytosis.
This facilitated phagocytosis by antibody and
complement is known as immune opsonization.
Nonimmune opsonization: On the contrary,
nonimmune opsonization requires only C3b
(opsonin) for opsonization. C3b binds to CR1
receptors present on the phagocytes thus
facilitating their phagocytosis (Fig 16.13).
F. Immunofluorescence
Immunofluorescence is a process in which dyes
called fluorochromes are exposed to UV, violet or
blue light to make them fluoresce or emit visible light.
Fluorescent molecules absorb light of one wavelength
(excitation) and emit light of another wavelength
(emission). Albert Coons and his colleagues (1942)
showed that fluorescent dyes can be conjugated to
antibodies and that such labelled antibodies can
be used and identify antigens in tissues. Antibody
molecules bound to antigens in cells or tissue sections
can similarly be visualized. The emitted light can be
viewed with a fluorescence microscope, which is
equipped with a UV light source.
Fluorescent dyes: Rhodamine B and fluorescein
isothiocyanate (FITC) are the most commonly
Examples
i. Antistreptolysin O (ASO) test: Antistreptolysin
O (ASO)-antitoxin, present in the serum of
the patient suffering from Strep. pyogenes
infection, neutralizes the haemolytic activity
of the streptococcal O hemolysin (toxin).
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Sandwich Technique
The dyes can be conjugated to the Fc region of an
antibody molecule without affecting the specificity
of the antibody. For detection of antibodies by
immunofluorescence, the sandwich technique
can be employed. The antibody is first allowed to
react with unlabeled antigen, which is then treated
with fluorescent labeled antibody. A sandwich, is
thus formed, the antigen being in the middle and
labeled and unlabeled antibodies on either side.
Types of Immunofluorescence
There are two main kinds of fluorescent antibody
assays: direct and indirect.
Uses
i. It is used to identify antigens, such as those
found on the surface of group A streptococci.
ii. To diagnose enteropathogenic Escherichia
coli, Neisseria meningitidis, Salmonella Typhi,
Shigella sonnei, Listeria monocytogenes,
Haemophilus influenzae type b.
iii. To diagnose rabies virus.
Disadvantage
Separate fluorescent conjugates hence to be
prepared against each entigen to be tested.
2. Indirect Immunofluorescence
(Fig. 16.14B)
In indirect staining, the primary antibody is
unlabeled and is detected with an additional
Chap-16.indd 111
Uses
Diagnosis of syphilis: It is used to identify the
presence of Treponema pallidum antibodies in
the diagnosis of syphilis (fluorescent treponemal
antibody absorption (FTA-ABS).
Advantages
i. The primary antibody does not need to be
conjugated with a fluorochrome.
ii. Increase the sensitivity of staining.
G. Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
One of the most sensitive techniques for detecting
antigen or antibody is radioimmunoassay
(RIA). The technique was first developed by two
endocrinologists, SA Berson and Rosalyn Yalow, in
1960. The technique soon proved its own value for
measuring hormones, serum proteins, drugs, and
vitamins at concentrations of 0.001 micrograms per
milliliter or less. The significance of the technique
was acknowledged by the award of a Nobel Prize
to Yalow in 1977, some years after Bersons death.
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Procedure
1. Measured quantities of labeled antigen
(radiolabeled) antigen (of the same kind being
tested) and antibody (specific to the antigen
being tested) are mixed and incubated, one
mixture with and one without added test
sample.
The labeled antigen is mixed with antibody
at a concentration that saturates the antigenbinding sites of the antibody molecule.
2. Then increasing amounts of the test sample
(unlabeled antigen) of unknown concentration
are added. The antibody does not distinguish
labeled from unlabeled antigen, and so the two
kinds of antigens compete for available binding
sites on the antibody.
3. With increasing concentrations of test antigen
(unlabeled antigen), more labeled antigen will
be displaced from the binding sites.
4. The antigenantibody complex is washed to
remove unbound radiolabeled antigen from the
mixture. The antigen is separated into free and
bound fractions after the reaction and their
radioactive counts measured.
5. The radioactivity associated with the antibody
is then detected by means of radioisotope
analyzers and autoradiography. A little amount
of bound radioactivity indicates that there is
large amount of antigen; and a large amount of
bound radioactivity indicates that there is little
antigen in the sample.
6. The standard dose response or reference
curve has to be prepared first for any reacting
system. This is plotted on graph by taking the
ratio of bound radiolabeled antigen to free
radiolabeled antigen against varying known
amounts of unlabeled antigen and the antigen
concentration of the test sample can be read
from this curve. This curve will allow the
measurement of antigen present by merely
counting the radioactivity present in the test
antigen-antibody precipitated complexes.
Uses
i.
To measure the concentration of certain
hormones: such as insulin, testosterone,
growth hormone, and glucagon because of
Chap-16.indd 112
Principle
ELISA is based on two principles:
1. Solid phase immunoassays are more widely
used. It refers to the binding of either antigen or
antibody to a variety of solid materials, such as
polyvinyl or polycarbonate wells or membranes
(discs) of polyacrylamide, paper or plastic or
metal beads or some other solid matrix.
2. Antigens and antibodies can be covalently
attached to an active enzyme (such as alkaline
phosphatase or horseradish peroxidase and
-galactosidase), with the resulting complexes
still fully functional, both immunologically
and enzymatically. Enzyme activity is used to
measure the quantity of antigen or antibody
present in the test sample. After all the
unreacted material is washed away, the
substrate for the enzyme is added (usually
one that will yield a colored product, such
as p-nitrophenol phosphate for alkaline
phosphatase), and the conversion of the
substrate from colorless to color is a measure of
antigen-antibody interaction. The test is usually
done using microtiter plates (96 w
ell) suitable
for automation.
Indirect ELISA
Sandwich ELISA
Competitive ELISA
Indirect ELISA: The indirect immunosorbent
assay detects antibodies rather than antigens.
Serum or other sample containing primary
antiboby is added to antigen-coated microtiter
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Chap-16.indd 113
USES OF ELISA
ELISA has been used to detect antigens and
antibodies of various microorgnisms.
Examples
1. Parasites
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3. Viruses
To detect antibody specific for hepatitis virus;
Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
Cytomegalovirus
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Rubella virus.
Application
i. Confirmatory testing for human immuno
deficiency virus.
ii. Antibodies against microbes with numerous
cross-reacting antibodies.
J. Immunochromatographic Tests
I. Immunoelectroblot Techniques
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Key Points
Chap-16.indd 115
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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Name the various antigenantibody reactions.
Describe the prin
ciple and applications of
precipitation reactions, giving suitable examples.
2. Define agglutination reaction. Discuss the prin
ciple and applications of agglutination reactions,
giving suitable examples.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Zone phenomenon (or) prozone.
b.
Immunodiffusion (or) gel diffusion
c. Immunoelectrophoresis
d. Counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIE) or countercurrenteletrophoresis (CIEP)
e. Rocket electrophoresis
f. Coagglutination
g. Neutralization tests
h. Opsonization
i. Immunofluorescence tests
j. Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
k. ELISA-its principle and application.
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17
Chapter
Structures and Functions of the Immune System
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Differentiate between T and B cells in a tabulated
form
Introduction
The lymphoreticular system is responsible
for immunity. Lymphoreticular cells consist of
lymphoid and reticuloendothelial components.
The lymphoid cells (lymphocytes and plasma cells)
are primarily concerned with the specific immune
response. The phagocytic cells (polymorphonuclear
leukocytes and macrophages), forming part of
the reticuloendothelial system, are primarily
concerned with the scavenger functions of
eliminating effete cells and foreign particles, thus
contributing to nonspecific immunity by removing
microorganisms from blood and tissues.
1. Humoral or Antibody-mediated
Immunity (HMI or AMI)
Humoral immunity is mediated by antibodies
produced by plasma cells.
B. Secondary (Peripheral)
Organs and Tissues
The secondary organs and tiss ues serve as
areas where lymphocytes may encounter and
bind antigen, whereupon they proliferate and
differentiate into fully mature, antigen-specific
effector cells.
Examples: Lymph nodes, spleen, various mucosal
associated lymphoid tissues (MALT)such as
gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT), skin
associated lymphoid tissues (SALT)
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T cell
B cell
A.Origin
Bone marrow
Bone marrow
B.Maturation
Thymus
Bursal equivalent:
bone marrow,
Payers patches
1. Peripheral blood
6585%
1525%
2. Lymph node
6075%
3035%
C.Location
3.Spleen
2545%
5560%
4. Thoracic duct
8090%
1020%
5.Thymus
96%
Negligible
D.Thymus specific
antigens
E. CD3 receptor
F.Surface
immunoglobulins
G.Receptor for Fc
piece of IgG
H.SRBC rosette (E
rosette)
J.Numerous
microvilli, on
surface
K.Blast transform
ation with:
a.anti-CD 3
b.anti-Ig
c.PHA
d.
Concanavalin A
e.Endotoxins
+
+
T-lymphocytes
Types of T-cells
Based on their surface markers, MHC restriction,
target cells and function, the following T-cells sub
types are recognised:
T-cells may be broadly classified into:
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b. Antibody-dependent Cell-mediated
Cytotoxicity (ADCC)
A subpopulation of LGLs possesses surface
receptors for the Fc part of Ig. They are capable
of lysing or killing target cells sensitised with
IgG antibodies. This is an example of a process
known as antibody-dependent cell-mediated
cytotoxicity (ADCC). This antibody dependent
cellular cytotoxicity is distinct from the action of
cytotoxic T-cells, which is independent of antibody.
ADCC-cells were formerly called killer (K)-cells but
are now classified with NK-cells.
Phagocytic Cells
Phagocytic cells are the mononuclear macrophages
(of blood and tissues) and the polymorphonuclear
microphages.
Mononuclear cells: The mononuclear phagocytic
system consists of monocytes circulating in the
blood and macrophages in the tissues Both types
are highly phagocytic and make up the monocytemacrophage system.
Macrophages: Monocytes leave the circulation and
reach various tissues to become transformed into
macrophages, with morphological and functional
features characteristic of the tissues. Macrophages
spread throughout the animal body and take up
residence in specific tissues where they are given
special names, e.g. alveolar macrophages in the
Functions of Macrophages
1. Phagoc ytosis: The primary function of
macrophages is phagocytosis.
2. Antigen presentation to T-cells to initiate
immune immune responses.
3. Secretion of cytokines to activate and promote
innate immune response.
Macrophages secrete interleukin-1, interleukin-6,
tumor necrosis factor, and interleukin-12
in response to bacterial interaction, which
stimulate immune and inflammatory responses,
including fever. One of the most potent activators
of macrophages is interferon gamma (IFN-g)
secreted by activated TH cells.
Polymorphonuclear Microphages
Microphages are the polymorphonuclear
leucocytes of the blood.Because of the irregularshaped nuclei, granulocytes are also called
polymorphonuclear leukocytes or PMNs. Three
types of granulocytes exist: basophils, eosinophils,
and neutrophils.
a. Neutrophils: They are actively phagocytic
and form the predominant cell type in acute
inflammation. The phagocytic property of
neutrophils is nonspecific, except for its
augmentation by opsonins.
b. Eosinophils: They possess phagocytic activity
but only to a limited degree. They are found
in large numbers in allergic inflammation,
parasitic infections and around antigenantibody complexes.
c. Basophils: Basophil leukocytes are found in the
blood and tissues (mast cells). Their cytoplasm
has large numbers of prominent basophilic
granules containing heparin, histamine,
serotonin and other hydrolytic enzymes.
Degranulation of mast cells, with release of
pharmacologically active agents, constitutes the
effector mechanism in anaphylactic and atopic
allergy.
Dendritic cells: While macrophages are the
major antigen presenting cells, dendritic cell also
performs this function. Dendritic cells are bone
marrow derived cells of a lineage different from
the macrophages and T- or B-lymphocytes. They
possess MHC class II antigens.
They are more potent antigen-presenting cells
than macrophages and B-cells, both of which need
to be activated before they can function as antigenpresenting cells (APCs). Dendritic cells are specially
involved in the presentation of antigens to T-cells
during the primary immune response.
HLA Complex
The major antigens determining histocompatibility
in human beings are alloantigens, characteristically
found on the surface of leukocytes. Human MHC
antigens are therefore synonymous with human
leucocyte antigens (HLA), and the MHC complex
of genes with the HLA complex.
The HLA complex of genes is located on the
short arm of chromosome 6 (Fig. 17.1). It consists
of three separate clusters of genes:
1. HLA Class I comprising A, B and C loci: HLA
class I comprising A, Band C loci. Class 1
proteins are encoded by the HLA-A, HLA-B and
HLA-C genes in humans. HLA Class I antigens
(A, B and C) are found on the surface of virtually
all nucleated cells and, in some species (i.e.
mice, but not humans), on red blood cells as
well.
They are the principal antigens involved in
graft rejection and cell mediated cytolysis. Class
I molecules may function as components of
hormone receptors.
2. Class II or the D region consisting of DR, DQ
and DP loci: Class II proteins are encoded
by the HLA-D region. There are three main
sets: the DP, DQ and DR-encoded molecules.
HLA Class II antigens are more restricted in
distribution, being found only on cells of the
immune systemmacrophages, dendritic cells,
activated T-cells, and particularly on B-cells.
3. Class III or the complement region: Class III or
the complement region containing genes for
complement components C2 and C4 of the
HLA Molecules
HL A antigens are two-chain glycoprotein
molecules anchored on the surface membrane
of cells. Class I and class II MHC are membranebound glycoproteins that are closely related in both
structure and function.
HLA Typing
Antisera for HLA typing were obtained principally
from multiparous women as they tend to
have antibodies to the HLA antigens of their
husbands, due to sensitisation during pregnancy.
Monoclonal antibodies to HLA antigens have
been developed.
Typing is done serologically by microcytotoxicity,
which tests for complement mediated lysis of
peripheral blood lymphocytes with a standard set
of typing sera. However, serological typing is not
possible for HLA-DR antigens, which are detected
by the mixed leucocyte reaction (MLR) and primed
lymphocyte typing (PLT), respectively. Genetic
methods are being used increasingly for HLA-typing
in advanced centres. These employ restriction
fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and gene
sequence specific oligonucleotide probe typing
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MHC RESTRICTION
Both CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells can recognize antigen
only when it is presented by a self-MHC molecule,
an attribute called self-MHC restriction. Both class
I and class II antigens operate in this phenomenon.
Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes from immunised mice
are able to kill and lyse virus infected target
cells only when the T-cells and target cells are of
the same MHC type. Helper T-cells can accept
antigen presented by macrophages only when
the macrophages bear the same class II MHC
molecules on the surface. For T-cells participating
in delayed type hypersensitivity the antigen has to
be presented along with class II MHC
Key Points
Important questions
1. Differentiate between T- and B-cells in a tabulated
form.
2. Give an account of lymphocytes.
18
Chapter
Immune Response
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Differentiate between primary and secondary
humoral immune responses
Definition
The immune response is the specific reactivity
induced in a host by an antigenic stimulus. For
the generation of immune response, antigen must
interact with and activate a number of different cells.
In addition, these cells must interact with each other.
Humoral immunity
Synthesis of Antibody
On exposure to antigen, antibody production
follows a characteristic pattern (Fig. 18.1). The
production of antibodies consists of the following
steps:
1. Lag Phase
A lag phase, the immediate stage following anti
genic stimulus during which no antibody is
detectable in circulation.
2. Log Phase
A log phase in which there is steady rise in the titer
of antibodies.
Production of antibodies
The majority of antigens will stimulate B-cells
only if they have the assistance of T-lymphocyte
helper (TH) cells. Antigens can be divided into
two categories based on their apparent need
for for T H cells for the induction of antibody
synthesis (i) those that require Th cells, referred
To as T-dependent antigens (TD-antigens) such
as proteins and erythrocytes; and (ii) those that
do not require TH cells, called T-independent
antigens (TI-antigens), such as polysaccharides
and other structurally simple molecules with
repeating epitopes. Immune response to an antigen
is brought about by three types of cellsantigen
processing cells (APC-principally macrophages
and dendritic cells), T-cells and B-cells. The
sequence of events is as follows.
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Monoclonal Antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies : When a clone of
lymphocytes or plasma cells undergoes selective
proliferation, as in multiple myeloma, antibodies
with a single antigenic specificity accumulate.
Such antibodies produced by a single clone and
directed against a single antigenic determinant
are called monoclonal antibodies e.g. plasma cell
tumour (myeloma). In myeloma, antibodies are
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2. Nutritional Status
Malnutrition affects host susceptibility to certain
microorganisms, especially bacteria, e.g. protein
calorie malnutrition suppresses both humoral and
cellular immune responses.
3. Route of Administration
There is better humoral immune response
following parenteral administration of antigen than
oral or nasal routes.
4. Age
i. Embryonic life: The embryo is immunologically
immature. The capacity to produce antibodies
starts only with the development and
differentiation of lymphoid organs. When
the potential immunocompetent cell comes
into contact with its specific antigen during
embryonic life, the response is elimination of
the cell or induction of tolerance.
ii. Infant: The infant has to depend on itself for
antibody production from 36 months of age.
However, full competence is acquired only by
about 57 years for IgG and 1015 years for
IgA.
5. Multiple Vaccines
Antigenic competition: The effects may vary
when two or more antigens are administered
simultaneously, Antibodies may be produced
against the different antigens, or antibody response
to one or the other of the antigens may be
enhanced, or the response to one or more of them
may be diminished (antigenic competition).
Examples
i. When toxoids are given along with bacterial
vaccines (for example, triple vaccine
containing diphtheria and tetanus toxoids
along with Bordetella pertussis vaccine), the
response to the toxoid is potentiated.
ii. When diphtheria and tetanus toxoids are given
together, with one in excess, the response to
the other is inhibited.
iii. When triple antigen is given to a person
who had earlier received a primary dose of
diphtheria toxoid, the response to the tetanus
and pertussis antigens will be diminished.
6. Adjuvant
Adjuvant is any substance that enhances the
immunogenicity of an antigen.
Types of adjuvants
a. Depot: Repository adjuvants such as aluminium
hydroxide or phosphate, and Freunds
incomplete adjuvant (water in archis oil).
7. Immunosuppressive Agents
These inhibit the immune response. They are
useful in certain situations like transplantation,
when it becomes necessary to prevent graft
rejection.
Examples: X-irradiation, radiomimetic drugs,
corticosteroids, antimetabolites and other cytotoxic
chemicals, and antilymphocytic serum
i. X-irradiation: Antibody response is suppressed
by sublethal whole body irradiation.
ii. Radiomimetic drugs: They belong in general
to the class of alkylating agents (for example,
cyclophosphamide, nitrogen mustard). In
human beings, cyclop hosphamide given
for three days after the antigen completely
suppresses the antibody response. It is much
less effective when given before the antigen.
iii. Corticosteroids: Corticosteroids cause depletion
of lymphocytes from the blood and lymphoid
organs. Therapeutic doses have little effect on
the antibody formation in human beings. They
inhibit the induction and manifestations of
delayed hypersensitivity in human beings.
iv. Antimetabolites: They include folic acid
antagonists (methotrexate), alkylating agents
(cyclophosphamide) and analogues of
purine (6-mercaptopurine, azathioprine),
cytosine (cytosine arabinoside) and uracil
(5-fluorouracil).
Antimetabolites are substances that interfere
with the synthesis of DNA, RNA or both and
thus inhibit cell division and differentiation
necessary for humoral and cellular immune
responses. Many antimetabolites find clinical
application in the prevention of graft rejection.
v. Cyclosporine: The drug most widely used
now for immunosuppression is cyclosporine,
a cyclic polypeptide. It is not cytotoxic for
8. Effect of Antibody
Passive administration of the homologous antibody
will suppress specifically the humoral immune
response to an antigen. The action appears to be
by a feedback mechanism.
9. Superantigens
Superantigens are certain protein molecules that
activate very large numbers of T-cells irrespective of
their antigenic specificities such as staphylococcal
enterotoxins.
10. Mitogens
Mitogens are certain substances that induce
division of lymphocytes and other cells.
Scope of CMI
CMI participates in the following immunological
functions:
1. Delayed hypersensitivity (type IV hyper
sensitivity).
2. Immunity in infectious diseases caused by
obligate and facultative intracellular parasites.
3. Transplantation immunity and graft-versushost reaction.
4. Immunological surveillance and immunity
against cancer.
Induction of CMI
Antigen-specific cell-mediated immunity is
mediated by T-lymphocytes. A second, smaller
population of cells includes natural killer (NK) and
killer (K) cells. Cell-mediated immune response
can also be divided into primary and secondary
cell-mediated immune responses.
Secondary Cell-mediated
Immune Response
If the same host is subsequently exposed to the
same antigen, then the secondary cell-mediated
immune response is usually more pronounced and
occurs more rapidly.
CYTOKINES
Cytokines (Greek cyto, cell and kinesis, movement)
are biologically active substances produced by
cells that influence other cells. Biologically active
substances released by activated T-lymphocytes
were called lymphokines. When released from
mononuclear phagocytes, these proteins are called
monokines.
The term interleukin was introduced for those
products of leucocytes which exert a regulatory
influence on other cells; and if their effect is
to stimulate the growth and differentiation of
immature leukocytes in the bone marrow, they are
called colony-stimulating factors (CSFs).
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A. Interleukins
Interleukin-1
It is a stable polypeptide retaining its activity up
to 56C and between pH 3 and pH 11. IL-l occurs
in two molecular forms, IL-l alpha and beta.
IL-l is principally secreted by macrophages and
monocytes but can be produced by most other
nucleated cells also. Its production is stimulated
by antigens, toxins, injury and inflammatory
processes and inhibited by cyc1osporin A,
corticosteroids and prostaglandins.
Main sources
Major functions
IL-2
T-cells
IL-3
T-cells
Multi-CSF
IL-4
TH-cells
IL-5
TH-cells
IL-6
TH-cells
IL-7
IL-8
Macrophages, others
IL-9
T-cell
IL-I0
IL-11
IL-12
T-cells
Activate NK-cells
IL-13
T-cells
A. Interleukins
B.Colony-stimulating Factors
GM-CSF
G-CSF
Fibroblasts, endothelium
M-CSF roblasts,
endothelium
Fibroblasts, endothelium
Macrophages, monocytes
TNF-
T-cells
D. Interferons
IFN-
Leukocytes
IFN-
Fibroblasts
Antiviral activity
IFN-
T-cells
TGFb
T- and B-cells
LIF
T-cells
E. Others
Interleukin-5
IL-5 causes proliferation of activated B-cells. It also
induces maturation of eosinophils. Formerly, it was
known as the B-cell growth factor-II.
Interleukin-6
IL-6 is produced by stimulated T- and B-cells,
macrophages and fibroblasts. It induces
immunoglobulin synthesis by activated B cells
and formation of IL2 receptors on T cells.
D. Interferons (lFNs)
Interferons (IFNs) are a group of related low
molecular weight, regulatory cytokines produced
by certain eucaryotic cells in response to a viral
infection.
There are three classes of IFNs, alpha produced
by leukocytes, beta produced by fibroblasts
and gamma by T cells activated by antigens,
mitogens or exposure to IL-2. IFN-g causes many
immunological effects, such as macrophage
activation, augmentation of neutrophil and
monocyte functions, and antitumour activity.
E. Other Cytokines
Transforming growth factor beta (TGF b): Besides
acting as a growth factor for fibroblasts and
promoting wound healing, it also acts as a down
regulator of some immunological and hemato
logical processes.
Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF): The leukemia
inhibitory factor (LIF), produced by T cells, helps
stem cell proliferation and eosinophil chemotaxis.
Cytokine production is regulated by exogenous
stimuli such as antigens and mitogens, as well as
by endogenous factors, such as neuroendocrine
hormonal peptides (corticosteroids, endorphins)
and products of lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase
pathways. They also regulate each other by positive
and negative feedbacks.
A number of cytokines (for example, IL-l, 2,
3, colony stimulating factors, interferons) have
already found therapeutic application.
Detection of CMI
Development of CMI can be detected by following
methods:
1. Skin test for DH: The original method for
detecting CMI was the skin test for delayed
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Transfer Factor
Lawrence (1954) reported transfer of CMI in man
by injection of extract from the leucocytes from
immunized individual. This extract is known as the
transfer factor (TF). The transferred immunity is
specific in that CMI can be transferred only to those
antigens to which the donor is sensitive.
Properties of transfer factor: TF is a dialyzable,
low molecular weight substance (MW 2000 to
4000), resistant to trypsin, DNAase, RNAase and
freeze thawing. It is stable for several years at 20C
and in the lyophilized form at 4C. It is inactivated at
56C in 30 minutes. It is not antigenic. Chemically,
it appears to be a polypeptide-polynucleotide.
TF is highly potent. The transferred CMI
is systemic and not local at the injected site
alone. Delayed hypersensitivity and various in
vitro correlates of CMI can be demonstrated in
the recipient following TF injection. Humoral
immunity is not transmitted by TF; TF transfers
CMI to all the antigens to which the donor is
sensitive, en bloc. It is possible to transfer CMI from
the recipient to another in a serial fashion.
Mode of action of TF: The mode of action of TF is
not known. It appears to stimulate the release of
lymphokines from sensitized T-lymphocytes.
Immunological tolerance
Immunologic tolerance is defined as the absence
of a specific immune response resulting from a
previous exposure to the inducing antigen. The
most notable example is immunologic tolerance
to self. Any antigen that comes into contact with
the immunological system during embryonic life
would be recognized as a self-antigen and would
not induce any immune response.
Burnet and Fenner (1949) suggested that
the unresponsiveness of individuals to selfantigens was due to the contact of the immature
immunological system with self-antigens during
embryonic life. Any antigen that comes into contact
with the immunological system during embryonic
life would be recognized as a self-antigen and would
not induce any immune response. Medawar and
his colleagues (1953) proved this experimentally
using two strains of syngenetic mice. When a
skin graft from one inbred strain of mice (CBA)
is applied on a mouse of another strain (A), it
is rejected. If CBA cells are injected into fetal or
newborn strain A mice, however, the latter when
they grow up will freely accept skin grafts from
CBA mice. The content of the self antigen appears
to have been enlarged by contact with a foreign
antigen during embryonic life. This phenomenon
is called specific immunological tolerance.
1. Age
The younger the recipient, the easier it is to induce
tolerance, and, of course, it is easiest in utero.
2. Dose of Antigen
The induction of tolerance is dose-dependent.
With certain antigens, tolerance can be induced by
two types of doses, one high and the other low, with
intermediate doses producing immunity instead of
tolerance. These are known as high zone and low
zone tolerance respectively. A special type of high
zone tolerance is Feltons immunological paralysis.
4. Nature of Tolerogen
Soluble antigens and haptens are more tolerogenic
than particulate antigens.
5. Various Treatments
When human gammaglobulin is heat aggregated,
it is highly immunogenic in mice but is tolerogenic
when deaggregated.
6. Genetic Background
Rabbits and mice can be rendered tolerant more
rapidly than guinea pigs and chickens.
Mechanism of Tolerance
Tolerance can arise through three possible
mechanisms:
1. Clonal deletion
2. Clonal anergy
3. Suppression.
1. Clonal Deletion
In embryonic life clones of B- and T-cells
possessing receptors that recognize self-antigens
are selectively deleted or eliminated and, therefore,
no longer available to respond upon subsequent
exposure to that antigen. This is known as clonal
deletion.
2. Clonal Anergy
Clones of B- and T-cells expressing receptors that
recognize self-antigen might remain but they
cannot be activated. This is known as clonal anergy.
3. Suppression
Clones of B- and T-cells expressing receptors that
recognize self-antigens are preserved. Antigen
recognition might be capable of causing activation,
however, expression of immune response might be
inhibited or blocked through active suppression.
A. Instructive Theories
1. Direct template theories: According to these,
the antigen or the antigenic determinant enters
the antibody-forming cell and serves as a
template against which antibody molecules are
synthesized so that they have combining sites
complementary to the antigenic determinants.
These are therefore known as direct template
theories.
2. Indirect template theory: This theory was
proposed by Burnet and Fenner (1949).
According to this theory, the entry of the
antigenic determinant into the antibody
producing cell induced in it a heritable change.
A genocopy of the antigenic determinant
was thus incorporated in its genome and
transmitted to the progeny cells (indirect
template).
B. Selective Theories
1. Side chain theory: According to side chain
theory, immunocompetent cells (ICCs) have
surface receptors capable of reacting with
antigens which have complementary side
chains. When foreign antigens are introduced
into the body, they combine with those cell
receptors which have a complementary
fit. This inactivates the receptors. There
is an overproduction of the same type of
receptors which circulate as antibodies as a
compensatory mechanism.
2. Natural selection theory: This theory was
proposed by Jerne (1955) which postulates that
about a million globulin (antibody) molecules
were formed in embryonic life, which covered
the full range of antigenic specificities. These
globulins were the natural antibodies. When
an antigen was introduced, it combined
selectively with the globulin that had the
nearest complementary fit. The globulin,
with the combined antigen, homed in on the
antibody-forming cells and stimulated them
to synthesize the same kind of antibody.
3. Clonal selection theory: This theory was
proposed by Burnet (1957). This theory states
that during immunological development, cells
capable of reacting with different antigens
were formed by a process of somatic mutation.
Clones of cells that had immunological
reactivity with self-antigens were eliminated
during embryonic life. Such clones are
called forbidden clones. Their persistence or
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Key Points
Important questions
1. Discuss the primary and secondary humoral
immune responses.
2. Discuss briefly about:
Monoclonal antibodiesproduction and
applications.
Adjuvants
Cytokines
Theories of antibody production
3. Write short notes on:
a. Transfer factor
b. Burnets clonal selection theory
c. Immunological tolerance
19
Chapter
Immunodeficiency Diseases
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Classify and enumerate immunodeficiency diseases
Introduction
Immunodeficiency diseases are conditions where
the defence mechanisms of the body are impaired,
leading to repeated microbial infections of varying
severity and sometimes enhanced susceptibility to
malignancies.
Immunodeficiency disease results from the
absence or failure of normal function, of one or
more elements of the immune system. Specific
immunodeficiency diseases involve abnormalities
of T- or B-cells of the adaptive immune system.
Nonspecific immunodeficiency diseases involve
abnormalities of elements, such as complement or
phagocytes, which act nonspecifically in immunity.
Classification of
Immunodeficiency Diseases
Immunodeficiencies may be classified as primary
or secondary.
Primary Immunodeficiencies
The established types of primary immunodeficiency
syndromes are listed in Table 19.1. The lymphoid
cell disorders may affect T-cells, B-cells, or both Band T-cells. Deficiencies involving components of
nonspecific mediators of innate immunity, such as
phagocytes or complement, are impaired.
b. Transient Hypogammaglobulinemia of
Infancy
This is due to an abnormal delay in the initiation of
IgG synthesis in some patients. By three months of
age, normal infants begin to synthesize their own
IgG. When there is a delay, immunodeficiency
occurs. Recurrent otitis media and respiratory
infections are the common diseases found in these
conditions. It may be found in infants of both sexes.
deficiency syndromes
A.
I.
f. Transcobalamin II Deficiency
In this disorder, patients show metabolic effects
of vitamin B12 deficiency including megaloblastic
anemia and intestinal villus atrophy and is
inherited as autosomal recessive. The associated
immunological defects are depleted plasma cells,
diminished immunoglobulin levels and impaired
phagocytosis.
Treatment with vitamin B12 has been reported
to restore hematopoietic, gastrointestinal and
B-cell functions but not phagocytic activity.
b. Ataxia Telangiectasia
Ataxia telangiectasia is a disease syndrome that
includes deficiency of IgA and sometimes of
IgE. It is inherited as an autosomal-recessive
trait. The most prominent clinical features are
progressive cerebellar ataxia, oculocutaneous
telangiectasias, chronic sinopulmonary disease,
a high incidence of malignancy, and a variable
humoral and cellular immunodeficiency. Death
occurs due to sinopulmonary infection early in
life, or malignancy in the second or third decade.
The defective cell-mediated immunity results
in an impairment of delayed hypersensitivity and
graft rejection. Transfer factor therapy and fetal
thymus transplants have been tried with some
benefit.
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B. Disorders of complement
a. Complement Component Deficiencies
Genetic deficiencies have been detected for almost
all the complement components in human beings.
The defects are transmitted as autosomal recessive
traits. Hemolytic and other functional activities
are completely restored by supplying the deficient
factor. Deficiency of C1 and C4 is associated
with systemic lupus erythematosus. Recurrent
pyogenic infections were found associated with C3
deficiency and neisserial infections with deficiency
of C6, C7 and C8. So far, there is no known disease
with deficiency of C9.
C. Disorders of Phagocyte
Phagocytosis may be impaired by either intrinsic or
extrinsic defects. Intrinsic disorders may be due to
defects within the phagocytic cell, such as enzyme
deficiencies. Extrinsic disorders may be due to a
deficiency of opsonic antibody, complement or
other factors promoting phagocytosis. Phagocytic
dysfunction leads to increased susceptibility
to infection, ranging from mild recurrent skin
infections to overwhelming systemic infection.
a. Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD): Chronic
granulomatous disease (CGD) is a group of
disorders, most of which are X-linked recessive,
with some that are autosomal recessive.
Individuals with CGD possess polymorpho
nuclear leucocytes that phagocytize invading
bacteria normally but are unable to kill many
of the ingested microorganisms.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
Secondary immunodeficiencies
Secondary or acquired deficiencies of immuno
logical mechan isms can occur secondarily to
Key Points
Immunodeficiency disorders can occur in T-cells,
B-cells, complement and phagocytes
These can be classified as primary or secondary
immunodeficiencies
A primary immunodeficiency may affect either
adaptive or innate immune functions
Secondary immunodeficiencies occur secondary to
numerous diseases or conditions.
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Important questions
1. What are immunodeficiency diseases? Classify
and enumerate immunodeficiency diseases.
2. Write short notes on:
a. DiGeorges syndrome
b. B-cell defect
c. T-cell defect
d. Disorders of complement
20
Chapter
Hypersensitivity Reactions
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Compare major types of hypersensitivity reactions.
Differentiate between immediate and delayed
hypersensitivity.
Classification of hypersensitivity
reactions
Immediate hypersensitivity
Delayed hypersensitivity
2.Induction
3. Immune response
4. Transfer of hypersensitivity
5.Desensitization
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Anaphylaxis
i. Cutaneous Anaphylaxis
Small amounts of potential allergens are introduced
at specific skin sites either by intradermal injection
or by superficial scratching. If a person is allergic
to the allergen, there is a wheal and flare (local
anaphylaxis) within 30 minutes.
Use: Cutaneous anaphylaxis is useful in testing
for hypersensitivity and in identifying the allergen
responsible in atopic diseases.
Mechanism of Anaphylaxis
The immunologic basis for hypersensitivity is
cytotropic IgE antibody. After an initial contact
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Anaphylactoid Reaction
Intravenous injection of peptone, trypsin and
certain other substances provokes a clinical reaction
resembling anaphylactic shock. This is termed
anaphylactoid reaction. The clinical resemblance
is due to the same chemical mediators participating
in both reactions.
Anaphylactoid shock has no immunological
basis and is a nonspecific mechanism involving
the activation of complement and the release of
anaphylatoxins which is the only difference.
Mechanism of Atopy
The mechanism of development of atopy is essen
tially the same as that of systemic anaphylaxis. The
symptoms of atopy are caused by the release of
pharmacologically active substances following the
combination of the antigen and the cell fixed IgE.
Atopic sensitivity is due to an overproduction
of IgE antibodies. This is often associated with
a deficiency of IgA. When IgA is deficient, the
antigens cause massive stimulation of IgE forming
cells, leading to overproduction of IgE.
Examples
1. Transfusion reactions: A transfusion reaction
can occur if a patient receives erythrocytes
differing antigenically from his or her own
during blood transfusion.
2. Hemolytic disease of the newborn: If the child
is Rh+, Rh mother can become sensitized to
this antigen during birth causing the mothers
body to produce anti-Rh antibodies of the IgG
type. If the fetus in a subsequent pregnancy
is Rh+, her anti-Rh antibodies will cross the
placenta and destroy fetal RBCs. The fetal
body responds to this immune attack by
producing large numbers of immature RBCs
call erythroblasts.
3. Drug-induced cytotoxic reactions: Some
persons develop antibodies against their blood
elements, resulting in autoimmune hemolytic
anemia, agranulocytosis or thrombocytopenia.
Blood platelets (thrombocytes) that are
destroyed by drug-induced cytotoxic reactions
in the disease called thrombocytopenic
purpura (quinine is a familiar example).
Drugs may bind similarly to white or red blood
cells (RBCs), causing local hemorrhaging and
yielding symptoms described as blueberry
muffin skin mottling. Immune-caused
destruction of granulocytic white cells is called
agranulocytosis, and it affects the bodys
phagocytic defenses. When RBCs are destroyed
in the same manner, the condition is termed
hemolytic anemia.
4. Anemia due to infectious diseases: A variety
of infectious diseases due to Salmonella
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Fig. 20.3: Immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity. (1) Immune complexes on the basement membrane of the wall of
a blood vessel, where they: (2) activate complement and attract inflammatory cells such as neutrophils to the site; (3) The
neutrophilis discharge enzymes as they react with the immune complexes, resulting in damage to tissue cells
Type IV Hypersensitivitydelayed
hypersensitivity
Type IV hypersensitivity reactions (delayed
hypersensitivity) constitute one aspect of cellmediated immune response and are caused mainly
by T-cells. It is named delayed hypersensitivity
because it appears in 2448 hours after the
presensitized host encounters the antigen, while
immediate hypersensitivity reactions develop in
1/2 to 12 hours.
3. Granulomatous Hypersensitivity
Granulomatous hypersensitivity reactions develop
over a period of 2128 days; the granulomas are
formed by the aggregation and proliferation of
macrophages, and may persist for weeks. In terms
of its clinical consequences, this is by far the most
serious type of Type 1V hypersensitivity response.
Examples are leprosy, tuberculosis, leish
maniasis, candidiasis and herpes simplex lesions.
Type V: Hypersensitivity
(Stimulatory Type) JonesMote
Reaction (or) Cutaneous Basophil
Hypersensitivity
This is an antibody-mediated hypersensitivity and
is a modification of type II hypersensitivity reaction.
Antibodies interact with antigens on cell surface
which leads to cell proliferation and differentiation
instead of inhibition or killing. Antigen-antibody
reaction enhances the activity of affected cell.
Example: Graves disease: Thyroid hormones are
produced in excess quantity in Graves disease.
Long-acting thyroid stimulating (LATS) antibody
is an autoantibody to thyroid membrane antigen.
It is presumed that LATS combines with a TSH
receptor on thyroid cell surface and brings about
the the same effect as TSH resulting in excessive
secretion of thyroid hormone.
Mechanism
The first dose is called preparatory dose. The
second dose is called provocat ive dose. The
preparatory injection causes accumulation of
leukocytes which condition the site by release
of lysosomal enzymes. These enzymes damage
capillary walls. Following provocative dose, there
occurs intravascular clotting, the thrombi leading
to necrosis of vessel walls and hemorrhage. This is
called local form of Shwartzman reaction.
When both injections are given intravenously,
the animal dies 1224 hours after the second dose.
The animal develops disseminated intravascular
coagulation (DIC). Autopsy reveals bilateral
cortical necrosis of kidneys and patchy necrosis of
the liver, spleen and other organs. Sanarelli (1924)
described an essentially similar phenomenon in
experimental cholera. The reaction is, therefore,
called the SanarelliShwartzman reaction or the
generalized Shwartzman reaction.
Clinical Conditions
1. WaterhouseFriderichsen syndrome: Pururic
rashes of meningococcal septicemia and the
acute hemorrhagic adrenal necrosis found
in overwhelming infections (Waterhouse
Friderichsen syndrome) mechanisms similar
to the Shwartzman reaction may operate.
2. Septic shock syndrome.
Key Points
Schwartzman reaction
This is not an immune reaction but rather a
perturbation in factors affecting intravascular
coagulation. It is, however, traditionally described
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Important questions
1. What is hypersensitivity? How do you classify
various types of hypersensitivity reactions? Des
cribe type I hypersensitivity reactions.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Anaphylaxis
b. Atopy
c. Type III hypersensitivity or immune complex
diseases
d. Arthus reaction
e. Serum sickness
f. Type IV hypersensitivity or delayed hypersensitivity.
21
Chapter
Autoimmunity
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe the mechanisms of autoimmunity
INTRODUCTION
One of the classically accepted features of the
immune system is the capacity to distinguish self
from non-self.
Definition
Autoimmunity is a condition in which structural
or functional damage is produced by the
action of immunologically competent cells or
antibodies against the normal components of the
body. Autoimmunity is due to copious production
of autoantibodies and autoreactive T-cells.
Autoimmunity literally means protection against
self but it actually implies injury to self and,
therefore, it has been criticized as a contradiction
in terms.
MECHANISMS OF AUTOIMMUNITY
A variety of mechanisms have been proposed for
induction of autoimmunity.
1. Forbidden Clones
Antibody-forming lymphocytes capable of reacting
with different antigens are formed according to
clonal selection theory. During embryonic life,
clones of cells that have immunological reactivity
with self-antigens are eliminated. Such clones
are called forbidden clones. Their persistence or
development in later life by somatic mutation can
lead to autoimmunity.
Chap-21.indd 151
3. Molecular Mimicry
A number of viruses and bacteria have been shown
to possess antigenic determinants that are identical
or similar to normal host-cell components. The
fortuitous similarity between some foreign and
self-antigens is the basis of the cross-reacting
antigens theory of autoimmunity. Molecular
mimicry by cross-reactive microbial antigens can
stimulate autoreactive B- and T-cells.
Organ-specific antigens are present in several
species. Injections of heterologous organ-specific
antigens may induce an immune response
damaging the particular organ or tissue in the
host. One of the best examples of this type of
autoimmune reaction is postrabies encephalitis.
Infection: Streptococcal M proteins and the
heart muscle share antigenic characteristics.
The immune response induced by repeated
streptococcal infection can, therefore, damage
the heart. Nephritogenic strains of streptococci
possess antigens found in the renal glomeruli.
Infection with such strains may lead to the
glomerulonephritis due to antigenic sharing.
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6. Sequestered Antigens
Certain self-antigens are present in closed systems
and are not accessible to the immune apparatus.
These are known as sequestered antigens.
Examples
i. Lens antigen of the eye: The lens protein is
enclosed in its capsule and does not circulate
in the blood. Hence, immunological tolerance
against this antigen is not established during
fetal life. The release of lens protein after eye
damage has been shown to lead on occasion
to the formation of autoantibodies. When
the antigen leaks out, following penetrating
injury, it may induce an immune response
causing damage to the lens of the other eye.
ii. Sperm antigens: Sperms arise late in develop
ment and sequestered from the circulation. As
spermatozoa develop only with puberty, the
antigen cannot induce tolerance during fetal
life. However, after a vasectomy, some sperm
antigens are released into the circulation
and can induce auto-antibody formation in
some men. This is also believed to be the
pathogenesis of orchitis following mumps.
The virus damages the basement membrane
of seminiferous tubules leading to the leakage
of sperms and initiation of an immune
response resulting in orchitis.
Chap-21.indd 152
8. Genetic Factors
Their actual role in autoimmunity, if any, has not
been established.
CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOIMMUNE
DISEASES
Based on the site of involvement and nature of
lesions, autoimmune diseases may be classified
as (Table 21.1):
A. Localized (or organ-specific)
B. Systemic (or nonorgan-specific)
A. Localized (Organ-specific)
Autoimmune Diseases (Table 21.1)
The immune response is directed to a target
antigen unique to a single organ or gland in an
organ-specific autoimmune disease, so that the
manifestations are largely limited to that organ.
15-03-2016 11:12:48
|153
Self-antigen
Immune response
Autoantibodies
Graves disease
Autoantibodies
Goodpastures syndrome
Autoantibodies
Autoantibodies
Addisons disease
Adrenal cells
Autoantibodies
Idiopathic thrombocyopenia
purpura
Autoantibodies
Insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus
T DTH autoantibodies
Myasthenia gravis
Acetylcholine receptors
Autoantibody (blocking)
Myocardial infarction
Heart
Autoantibodies
Pernicious anemia
Autoantibodies
Poststreptococcal
glomerulonephritis
Kidney
Antigen-antibody complexes
Myasthenia gravis
Acetylcholine receptors
Spontaneus infertility
Sperm
Autoantibodies
Multiple sclerosis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Scleroderma
Autoantibodies
Sjogrens syndrome
Autoantibodies
Ankylosing sponkylitis
Vertebrae
Immune complexes
Key Points
Autoimmunity is a condition in which structural
or functional damage is produced by the action
of immunologically competent cells or antibodies
against the normal components of the body
A variety of mechanisms have been proposed for
induction of autoimmunity, such as 1. Forbidden
clones; 2. Neoantigens or altered antigens; 3.
Molecular mimicry; 4. Polyclonal B-cell activation;
5. Activity of helper and suppressor T-cells;
6. Sequestered antigens 7. Defects in the idiotypeantiidiotype network
Autoimmune diseases can be divided into organ
specific or widespread and systemic diseases
Autoimmune diseases are usually treated with drugs
that suppress the immune and/or inflammatory
responses.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
2. All of the following diseases are examples of organspecific autoimmune diseases except:
a. Goodpastures syndrome
b. Graves disease
c. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
d. Systemic lupus erythematosus
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. a; 2. d.
Chap-21.indd 153
15-03-2016 11:12:48
22
Chapter
Immunology of
Transplantation and Malignancy
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Discuss the following:
Types of transplants
Definition
Transplantation refers to the act of transferring
cells, tissues or organs from one site to another.
The tissue or organ transplanted is known as the
transplant or graft. The individual from whom the
transplant is obtained is known as the donor and
the individual to whom it is applied, the recipient
or host.
Allograft reaction
1. First set response: When a skin graft from
an animal (such as a rabbit) is applied on
a genetically unrelated animal of the same
species, the graft appears to be accepted
initially. The graft is vascularized and seems
Histocompatibility antigens
Graft versus host (GVH) reaction
Tumor antigens
Immunological surveillance.
Name
Synonyms
Self
Autograft
Autogenous or
autogenic graft
D i f fe re nt i n d i v i d u a l, Isograft
genetically identical with
recipient. Identical twin
or member of same inbred
strain
Isologous or
syngeneic graft
or syngraft
Genetically unrelated
member of same species
Allograft
Allogeneic
graft. Formerly
called
homograft
Different species
Xenograft
Xenogeneic
Formerly called
heterograft
Histocompatibility Antigens
Tissues that are antigenically similar are said to
be histocompatible; such tissues do not induce
an immunologic response that leads to tissue
rejection. The various antigens that determine
histocompatibility are encoded by more than 40
different loci, but the loci responsible for the most
vigorous allograft-rejection reactions are located
within the major histocompatibility complex
(MHC). In mice the organization of the MHC is
called H2 complex, while in humans it is known as
human leucocyte antigen (HLA) complex.
Immune response against transplants depends
on the presence in the grafted tissue of antigens that
are absent in the recipient and hence recognized as
foreign. If the recipient possesses all the antigens
present in the graft, there will be no immune
response, and consequently no graft rejection.
Histocompatibility Testing
For matching of donor and recipient for transplant
ation, following procedures are undertaken:
1. ABO grouping: ABO incompatibility is a major
barrier to transplantation, and matching of
donor and recipient for these antigens is of
utmost importance.
2. Tissue typing (detection of MHC antigens):
In serological tissue typing, the laboratory
uses standardized antisera or monoclonal
antibodies that are specific for particular HLAs.
Class I antigens are identified by means of
antisera. Antisera for HLA typing were originally
obtained from multiparous women (i.e. women
who have had multiple pregnancies), placental
fluid and from individuals who have received
multiple transfusions, from individuals who
have received and rejected grafts, and from
volunteers who have been immunized with
cells from another individual with a different
HLA haplotype. These are being replaced by
monoclonal antibodies. Following methods are
used:
i. Microcytotoxicity test: In this test, white
blood cells from the potential donors
|155
Tissue Matching
A one-way mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR)
can be used to determine identity of class II HLA
antigens between a potential donor and recipient.
Graft-versus-host reaction
Graft rejection is due to the reaction of the host to
the grafted tissue (host-versus-graft response). The
contrary situation, in which the grafted tissue may
react to and reject the host, is known as the graftversus-host (GVH) reaction.
The GVH reaction occurs when the following
conditions are present:
1. The graft (bone marrow, lymphoid tissue,
splenic tissue, etc.) contains immunocompetent
T-cells.
2. The recipient possesses transplantation anti
gens that are absent in the graft.
3. The recipient must not reject the graft. The
hosts immunological responsiveness must
be either destroyed or so impaired (following
Immunology of malignancy
When a cell undergoes malignant transformation,
it acquires new surface antigens. It may lose
some normal antigens and this makes a tumor
antigenically different from the normal tissues of
the host. A tumor can, therefore, be considered an
allograft and be expected to induce an immune
response.
Tumor Antigens
Tumor antigens are antigens that are present in
malignant cells but absent in the corresponding
normal cell of the host. Two types of tumor antigens
have been identified on tumor cells:
1. Tumor-specific transplantation antigens
(TSTAs): Tumor-specific antigens are unique
to tumor cells and do not occur on normal
cells in the body. Different tumors possess
different TSTA, even though induced by the
same carcinogen. In contrast, TSTA of virus
induced tumors is virus specific in that all
tumors produced by one virus will possess
the same antigen, even if the tumor occur in
different animal strains or species.
2. Tumor-associated transplantation antigens
(TATAs): These are present on tumor cells
and also on some normal cells. Since they are
also present on some normal cells, therefore,
they do not evoke an immune response and
are of little significance in tumor rejection.
The more common tumor-associated antigens
are oncofetal antigens and increased levels of
normal oncogene products.TATAs fall into three
categories:
i. Tumor associated carbohydrate antigens
(TACAs), such as mucin-associated antigen
detected in pancreatic and breast cancers.
ii. Oncofetal tumor antigens: Oncofetal
tumor antigens, as the name implies,
are found not only on cancerous cells but
Immunological surveillance
The immune surveillance theory was first
conceptualized in the early 1900s (1906) by Paul
Ehrlich. He suggested that cancer cells frequently
arise in the body but are recognized as foreign
and eliminated by the immune system. Some 50
years later, Lewis Thomas revived it in 1950s and
was developed by Burnet. It postulates that the
primary function of cell mediated immunity is
to seek and destroy malignant cells that arise by
somatic mutation. Such malignant mutations are
believed to occur frequently and would develop
into tumors but for the constant vigilance of the
immune system. Inefficiency of the surveillance
mechanism, either as a result of ageing or in
congenital or acquired immunodeficiencies, leads
to an increased incidence of cancer.
The development of tumors represents a lapse
in surveillance.
|157
Immunotherapy of cancer
Different approaches have been attempted in
the immunotherapy of cancer-active or passive,
specific or nonspecific.
A. Active
Nonspecific
Specific
B. Passive
Nonspecific
Specific
Combined
A. Active Immunotherapy
1. Nonspecific active immunotherapy: Biological
response modifiers (BRMs) are used to enhance
immune responses to tumors and fall into four
major groups(i) Bacterial products; (ii) Synthetic
molecules; (iii) Cytokines; (iv) Hormones.
i. Bacterial products: Broadly speaking,
bacterial products such as BCG and nonliving
Corynebacterium parvum have adjuvant
effects on macrophages. Intralesional BCG
can cause regression of melanoma and
nonspecific local immunization with BCG is
effective against bladder tumors.
B. Passive Immunotherapy
i. Nonspecific (lymphokine-activated killer
(LAK) cells)
ii. Specific (antibodies alone or coupled to
drugs, pro drugs, toxins or radioisotope,
bi-specific antibodies, T-cells)
iii. Combined (LAK cells and bispecific antibody).
Key Points
Transplantation can be defined as the transfer of
cells, tissues, or organs from one site in an individual
to another, or between two individuals
There are four different basic types of transplants:
autograft, isograft, allograft and xenograft
The immune response to tissue antigens encoded
within the major histocompatibility complex is the
strongest force in rejection
The match between a recipient and potential graft
donors is assessed by typing MHC class I and class
II tissue antigens
Important questions
1. What is a transplant or graft? Define various types
of grafts.Describe allograft reaction.
2. What are histocompatibility antigens? Describe
various procedures for histocompatibility testing.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Mechanism of allograft rejection
b. Graft versus host (GVH) reaction
c. Tumor antigens
d. Immunological surveillance
23
Chapter
Immunohematology
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describ Rh blood groups
Discuss complications of blood transfusion
History
H Antigen
Antigens on
Antibodies
red blood cells in serum
Occurrence
(%) in India
Anti-B
22
Anti-A
33
AB
A and B
None
None
Anti-A and
Anti-B
40
Complications of blood
transfusion
The complications of blood transfusion may be divi
ded into immunological and nonimmunological.
A. Immunological complications: Immunological
complications may be caused by red cell,
leukocyte or platelet incompatibility or allergic
reaction to plasma components. Red cell
incompatibility leads to acute intravascular
hemolysis or the red cells may be coated
by antibodies and engulfed by phagocytes,
removed from the circulation and subjected to
extravascular lysis. Hemolysis may also be due
to transfusion of group O whole blood or plasma
to group A or group B or group AB recipients.
B. Nonimmunological complications: Nonimmunological complications of blood trans
fusion include transmission of infectious
agents and circulatory overload. Infectious
agents which may be transmitted during
blood transfusion may be viruses, bacteria and
protozoa (Table 23.2). Massive transfusion may
lead to circulatory overload.
|161
Detection of Rh-antibodies
Most Rh-antibodies are of the IgG class, and they
do not agglutinate Rh-positive cells in saline being
incomplete antibodies. IgG anti-D antibodies
may be detected by the following techniques:
1. Using a colloid medium such as 20% bovine
serum albumin.
2. Using red cells treated with enzymes such as
trypsin, pepsin, ficin or bromelin, and
3. By the indirect Coombs test: This is the most
sensitive method.
Prevention of Rh-isoimmunization
HDNB is usually prevented today by passive immu
nization of the Rh mother at the time of delivery
(within 2448 hours) of any Rh+ infant with antiRh-antibodies, which are available commercially
(Rhogam). To be effective, this should be employed
from the first delivery onwards.
Key Points
Important questions
1. Name various blood group systems and discuss
Rh blood group system. Add a note on hazards of
incompatible blood transfusion.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Complications of blood transfusion.
b. Hemolytic disease of the newborn (or) erythro
blastosis fetalis.
24
Chapter
Staphylococcus
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe species of Staphylococcus
Describe morphology and culture characteristics
of Staphylococcus aureus
List characteristics of Staph. aureus strains
Explain coagulase test
List and describe toxins and enzymes of Staphylo
coccus aureus
Introduction
Staphylococcus aureus
Morphology
Species
Chap-24.indd 163
15-03-2016 11:33:06 AM
Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobes and facultative anaerobes. Opti
mum temperature for growth is 37C ( range being
1244C). Optimum pH is 7.5. They can grow
readily on ordinary media.
1. Nutrient agar: After aerobic incubation for 24
hours at 37C, colonies are 13 mm in diameter
and have a smooth glistening surface, an
entire edge, a soft butyrous consistency and an
opaque, pigmented appearance. Most strains
produce golden-yellow (aureus) pigment. These
white-colonied strains of S. aureus are fully
virulent. Pigmentation is characteristic of this
species when grown aerobically.
Pigmentation is enhanced on fatty media, such
as tween agar, by prolonged incubation, and by
leaving plates at room temperature. The pigment
is believed to be lipoprotein allied to carotene.
2. Blood agar: The colonies have the same
appearances as on nutrient agar, but may
be surrounded by a zone of -hemolysis
(Fig. 24.2). Hemolysis is more likely to be
present if sheep, human or rabbit blood is used.
3. MacConkey agar: Colonies are smaller and are
pink due to lactose fermentation.
4. Milk agar: On this medium, after overnight
incubation, the colonies of S. aureus are larger
than those on nutrient agar and pigmentation
is well-developed and easily recognized against
the opaque white background.
5. Phenolphthalein phosphate agar: This is an
indicator medium and assists in the iden
tification of S. aureus in mixed cultures.
Appearance of the colonies of S. aureus on this
medium is similar to those on nutrient agar.
Colonies of S. aureus become bright pink when
culture plate is inverted over the ammonia for
a minute or so.
6. Selective salt media: Selective medium may
be useful for the isolation and enumeration of
staphylococci from materials, such as feces,
Chap-24.indd 164
Biochemical Reactions
1. Sugar fermentation: S. aureus ferments a range
of sugars producing acid but no gas. Sugar
fermentation is of no diagnostic value except
for mannitol, which is usually fermented
anaerobically by Staph. aureus but not by other
species.
2. Catalase: Catalase positive (unlike streptococci).
3. Lipolytic: When grown on media containing
egg-yolk, produce a dense opacity because
most strains are lipolytic.
4. Phosphatase test: This is a useful screening
procedure for differentiating Staph. aureus
from Staph. epidermidis in mixed cultures, as
the former gives prompt phosphatase reaction,
while the latter is usually negative or only
weakly positive. All strains of S. aureus produce
phosphatase which liberates phenolphthalein
from sodium phenolphthalein diphosphate
The culture plate, with the culture, is inverted
over the ammonia for a minute or so. Colonies
of S. aureus become bright pink because
phenolphthalein is pink in alkaline pH. Most
other staphylococci form colonies that remain
uncolored.
5. Deoxyribonulease (DNAase) test: It produces a
deoxyribonulease (DNAase), and a heat-stable
nuclease (thermonuclease, TNAase).
6. Other biochemical tests: Indole negative, MR
positive, VP positive, urease positive, hydrolyzes
gelatin and reduces nitrates to nitrites.
Table 24.1 shows the characteristics of
Staphylococcus aureus.
15-03-2016 11:33:07 AM
Resistance
S. aureus and the other Micrococcaceae are among
the hardiest of the nonsporing bacteria. Dried on
threads, they retain their viability for 36 months.
They have been isolated from dried pus after 23
months. It withstands moist heat at 60C for 30
min but is killed after 60 min. Most strains grow
in the presence of 10% NaCl. These features are of
significance in food preservation.
It is readily killed by phenolic and hypochlorite
disinfectants, and by antiseptic preparations such
as hexachlorophane, chlorhexidine and povidoneiodine. They are very sensitive to aniline dyes;
thus they are inhibited on blood agar medium
containing 1 in 500,000 crystal violet, which
permits the growth of streptococci. Staphylococci
are uniformly resistant to lysozyme but some
micrococci are sensitive to it. Staphylococci are
generally sensitive to lysostaphina mixture of
enzymes produced by a particular strain of Staph.
epidermidis.
Antigenic Structure of
Staphylococcus aureus
The antigenic structure of S. aureus (Fig. 24.2) is
complex. It is as follows.
A. Cell-associated Polymers
1. Capsule: Capsular polysaccharide surrounding
the cell wall inhibits opsonization.
2. Peptidoglycan: The cell wall polysaccharide
peptidoglycan confers rigidity and structural
integrity to the bacterial cell. It activates
complement and induces release of inflamm
atory cytokines.
3. Teichoic acids: Teichoic acid, an antigenic
component of the cell wall, facilitates adhesion
of the cocci to the host cell surface and
protects them from complement-mediated
opsonization.
Chap-24.indd 165
|165
A. Toxins
1. Cytolytic Toxins
At least five cytolytic or membrane-damaging toxins
(alpha, beta, delta, gamma, and Panton-Valentine
[P-V] leukocidin are produced by S. aureus.
i. Alpha (a) hemolysin: Alpha (a) lysin is the
most important among them. It is a protein
and is inactivated at 60C; however, its activity
is regained paradoxically, if it is further heated
to between 80 and 100C. This is due to the
fact that the toxin combines with a heat-labile
inhibitor at 60C but at higher temperature
(80100C) the inhibitor is inactivated thus
toxin regains its activity. Above 100C toxin
itself gets inactivated.
The toxin lyses rabbit and sheep erythro
cytes. It is leucocidal, dermonecrotic and
lethal.
ii. Beta (b) hemolysin: Beta (b) toxin, also called
sphingomyelinase C, is a heat-labile protein
produced by most strains of S. aureus. b lysin
is strongly active on sheep and weakly active
on rabbit and human red blood cells. It does
not lyse horse red blood cells. It exhibits a
hot-cold phenomenon, the hemolysis being
initiated at 37C, but becoming evident only
after chilling.
It is not dermonecrotic and kills experi
mental animals only when injected in large
doses.
iii. Gamma () hemolysin: lysin acts on sheep,
rabbit and human red blood cells but not on
those of horse.
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Chap-24.indd 166
B. Extracellular Enzymes
Staph. aureus produces a number of enzymes such
as coagulase catalase, hyaluronidase, fibrinolysin,
lipases, nucleases and penicillinase.
Coagulase: S. aureus produces an extracellular
enzyme called coagulase which brings about
clotting of human or rabbit plasma. It acts along
with a coagulase reacting factor (CRF) present
in plasma, binding to prothrombin and converting
fibrinogen to fibrin. Coagulase does not clot plasma
of guinea pigs because they lack CRF. Coagulase
test is the standard criterion for the identification
of Staph. aureus isolates.
Eight antigenic types (A-H) have been des
cribed. Most human strains form coagulase type A.
Coagulase Fibrin (Clotting)
Fibrinogen
CRF
Coagulase test: Coagulase test is done by two
methodsslide and tube coagulase test. The slide
or tube coagulase test is performed to distinguish
Staph. aureus from coagulase-negative species.
a. Slide coagulase test: The slide test detecting
bound coagulase is much simpler. It can be
detected by emulsifying a few colonies of the
bacteria in a drop of normal saline on a clean
glass slide and mixing it with a drop of rabbit
plasma. Prompt clumping of the organisms
indicates the presence of clumping factor
(bound coagulase). Positive and negative
controls also are set up.
Almost all the clumping factor producing
strains of S. aureus produce coagulase.
b. Tube coagulase test: The tube coagulase test
detects free coagulase. 0.1 ml of an overnight
broth culture or broth suspension from an agar
plate culture made up to the same density is
mixed with 0.5 mL of a 1 in 10 dilution of human
or rabbit plasma. The mixture is incubated in
a water bath at 37C for three to six hours. If
positive, the plasma clots and does not flow when
the tube is inverted. If clot does not appear it is left
overnight at room temperature and re-examined.
On continued incubation, the clot may be
lysed by fibrinolysin produced by some strains.
Controls with plasma alone, known coagulasepositive and coagulase-negative cultures must
be set up with each batch of tests.
False-positive reaction: Citrated plasma should not
be used because contaminating gram-negative
bacilli (e.g. Pseudomonas) may utilize the citrate
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Epidemiology
Staphylococci are ubiquitous. Staphylococcus is a
normal component of mans indigenous microflora
and is carried asymptomatically in a number of
body sites. About 1030% healthy persons carry
staphylococci in the nose and about 10% in the
perineum and also on the hair. Vaginal carriage is
about 510%, which rises greatly during menses, a
factor relevant in the pathogenesis of TSS related
to menstruation. Cross-infection is an important
method of spread of staphylococcal disease,
particularly in hospit als. Staphylococci are a
common cause of postoperative wound infection
and other hospital infections. Most of these are
due to certain strains of staphylococci the so-called
hospital strains that are present in the hospital
environment. They belong to a limited number
of phage types and are commonly resistant to
penicillin and other antibiotics routinely used in
hospitals. Epidemics of hospital cross infections
are caused by some of them, the epidemic strains.
Phage type 80/81 was the first to be recognized
for most of staphylococcal infections in hospitals
throughout the world.
Staphylococcal Diseases
Staphylococcal infections are among the most
common of bacterial infections and range from
the trivial to the fatal. Staphylococcal infections
are characteristically localized pyogenic lesions,
in contrast to the spreading nature of streptococcal
infections. S. aureus causes disease through the
direct invasion and destruction of tissue or through
the production of toxin.
A. Cutaneous infections: These include wound
and burn infection, pustules, furuncles or boils
carbuncles, styes, impetigo and pemphigus
neonatorum.
B. Deep infections: These include osteomyelitis,
periostitis, tonsillitis, pharyngitis, sinusitis,
bronchopneumonia, empyema, septicemia,
meningitis, endocarditis, breast abscess, renal
abscess and abscesses in other organs.
C. Toxin-mediated diseases
i. Food poisoning: Staphylococcal food
poisoning may follow 26 hours after the
ingestion of food in which S. aureus has
multiplied and formed enterotoxin.
ii. Toxic shock syndrome (TSS): Toxinproducing strains of S. aureus have been
implicated in most cases of TSS, a multi
system disease that primarily afflicts young
women. Most cases occur in menstruating
women who use tampons. However,
Chap-24.indd 167
|167
Bacteriophage Typing
Staphylococci may be typed, based on their
susceptibility to bacteriophages. An internationally
recognized set of 23 standard typing phages is used
for epidemiological studies and tracing the source
of infection. (Table 24.2).
The strain to be typed is inoculated on a plate of
nutrient agar to form a lawn culture. After drying.
the phages are applied over marked squares in
a fixed dose (routine test dose). After overnight
incubation, the culture will be observed to be lysed
by some phages but not by others (Fig. 24.3). The
phage type of a strain is expressed by designation
of the phages that lyse it, and there is interna
tional agreement on the interpretation of results.
Thus, if a strain is lysed only by phages 3C, 55
and 71, it is called phage type 3C/55/71. Phage
typing is important in epidemiological studies of
staphylococcal infections.
The reference center for staphylococcal phage
typing in India is located in the Department of
Designation of phages
29
52
52A
79
80
II
3A
3C
55
71
95
42E
47
53
54
83A
84
85
III
75
77
94
96
Unclassified
81
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Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens: The specimens to be collected
depend on the type of lesion, for example:
pus from suppurative lesions; sputum from
respiratory infect ions; food remains and
vomit from cases of food poisoning; nasal and
perineal swabs from suspected carriers.
Swabs of the perineum, pieces of hair and
umbilical stumpmay be necessary in special
situations.
2. Direct microscopy: Direct microscopy with
Gram stained smears is useful in the case of
pus, where cocci in clusters may be seen. This
is of no value for specimens like sputum where
mixed bacterial flora are normally present.
3. Culture: The specimens are cultured on a blood
agar plate. Staphylococcal colonies appear
after overnight incubation specimens, where
staphylococci are expected to be outnumbered
by other bacteria (e.g. wound swab and
feces), are inoculated on selective media like
Ludlams or salt-milk agar or Robertsons cooked
meat medium containing 10% sodium. The
inoculated media is incubated at 37C for 1824
hours. On blood agar plate, look for hemolysis
around the colonies. The plates are inspected
for golden-yellow or white colonies. Smears are
examined from the culture and coagulase test
done when stahylococci are isolated.
4. Identification: Relatively simple biochemical
tests (e.g. positive reactions for coagulase
(clumping factor), heat-stable nuclease, alkaline
phosphatase, and mannitol fermentation) can
be used to differentiate S. aureus and the other
staphylococci.
Coagulase test: Coagulase test is done by two
methods-slide and tube coagulase test.
5. Antibiotic sensitivity tests: As a guide to
treatment antibiotic sensitivity tests should be
Chap-24.indd 168
Treatment
Benzyl penicillin is the most effective antibiotic,
if the strain is sensitive but most clinical isolates
of S.aureus are resistant to benzyl penicillin due to
production of beta lactamase. Cloxacillin, oxacillin,
flucloxacillin and methicillin are penicillinaseresistant penicillins.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA) are also resistant to other penicillins
and cephalosporins. Glycopeptides (vancomycin
or teicoplanin) are the agents of choice in the
treatment of systemic infection, but these agents
are expensive and may be toxic.
For mild superficial lesions, topical applications
of drugs as bacitracin, chlorhexidine or mupirocin
may be sufficient.
The treatment of carriers is by local application
of antibiotics such as bacitracin and antiseptics
such as chlorhexidine. In resistant cases, rifampicin
along with another oral antibiotic may be effective.
Control
1. The focus of infection (e.g. abscess) must be
identified and drained.
2. Treatment is symptomatic for patients with
food poisoning.
3. Proper cleansing of wounds and use of
disinfectant.
4. Thorough hand washing and covering of
exposed skin helps medical personnel prevent
infection or spread to other patients.
5. Asymptomatic nasopharyngeal carriage
the use of chemoprophylaxis consisting of
vancomycin and rifampin to prevent spread of
oxacillin-resistant organisms
Other Coagulate-positive
staphylococci
Other staphylocoagulase producing (coagulase
p ositive) staphylococci are S. intermedius,
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|169
S. aureus
S. epidermis
S. saprophyticus
Mannitol
Acid aerobically
Acid anaerobically
+
+
Coagulase
DNAase
Phosphatase
-Toxin
+
+
/weak+
Novobiocin sensitivity
Sensitive
Sensitive
Resistant
V, variable
Coagulase-negative
Staphylococci
Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CONS) are
commonly found on the surface of healthy persons.
They are opportunistic pathogens that cause
infection in debilitated or compromised patients.
Various species are Staph. epidermidis, Staph.
saprophyticus, Staph. hemolyticus, Staph. hominis,
and Staph. capitis.
Staphylococcus epidermidis
Staph. epidermidis is invariably present on normal
human skin. It is nonpathogenic ordinarily but
can cause disease when the host defences are
breached. S. epidermidis has a distinct predilection
for foreign bodies, such as artificial heart valves,
indwelling intravascular catheters, central nervous
system shunts, and hip prostheses. Their etiological
role is proved by repeated isolation.
Clinical Infection
Staphylococcus saprophyticus
S. saprophyticus is a common cause of urinary tract
infections in sexually active young women. It may
also cause urethritis in men and women, catheterassociated urinary tract infections, prostatitis in
elderly men, and rarely bacteremia, sepsis and
endocarditis.
This coagulase-negative Staphylococcus can be
distinguished from S. epidermidis by its resistance
Chap-24.indd 169
Sensitivity to Antibiotics
Before the introduction of penicillin, most of the
strains of S. aureus were sensitive to this antibiotic.
Staphylococci quickly developed drug resistance
after penicillin was introduced.
Penicillin resistance is of three types:
1. Production of beta lactamase (penicillinase):
Production of beta lactamase (penicillinase)
which inactivates penicillin by splitting the beta
lactam ring. Staphylococci produce four types
of penicillinases, A to D. Penicillinase is an
inducible enzyme and its production is usually
controlled by plasmids which are transmitted
by transduction or conjugation.
Penicillinase plasmids are transmitted to
the sensitive staphylococci by transduction and
also possibly by conjugation.
2. Changes in bacterial surface receptors:
Changes in bacterial surface receptors, reduc
ing binding of beta-lactam antibiotics to cells.
This change is normally chromosomal in nature
and is expressed more at 30C than at 37C. This
resistance also extends to cover beta lactamaseresistant penicillins, such as methicillin and
cloxacillins. Some of these strains may show
resistance to other antibiotics and heavy metals
also and cause outbreaks of hospital infection.
These strains have been called epidemic
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
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Staphylococcus
Micrococcus
Gram staining
Gram-positive
Grape-like clusters
Uniform staining
Colony characters
Modified oxidase
Resistant
Sensitive
Lysostaphin sensitivity
Sensitive
Resistance
Sensitive
Resistance
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA)
Methicillin was the first compound developed
to combat resistance due to penicillinase (beta
lactamase) production by staphylococci. Due
to the limitations in clinical use of methicillin,
cloxacillins are used instead against penicillinaseproducing strains. But methicillin resistant strains
of Staph. aureus (MRSA) became common, which
were resistant not merely to penicillin, but also
to all other beta lactam antibiotics and many
others besides. Isolates that are resistant have
been traditionally termed methicillin-resistant
staphylococci, with S. aureus being called MRSA
and S. epidermidis referred to as MRSE. When
any staphylococcus isolated is identified as being
resistant to methicillin, this implies that it is
also resistant to nafcillin and oxacillin and to all
-lactam antibiotics, including the cephalosporins.
MRSA is also becoming more common in the
community, especially in long-stay institutions.
Treatment-glycopeptides (vancomycin or
teicoplanin) are the agents of choice in the
treatment of systemic infection, but these agents
are expensive and may be toxic. Concerns with
rising resistance to glycopept ides call for the
restrictive use of these drugs.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. For laboratory purposes, oxacillin is generally
used for detection of methicillin resistance.
The use of an oxacillin-salt agar plate, such as
the oxacillin resistance screening agar can be
used as a screening test for MRSA in clinical
Chap-24.indd 170
Micrococci
Micrococci are catalase-positive, gram-positive,
coagulase-negative and usually oxidase-positive.
They may ocassionally colonize the skin or mucous
membrane of humans, but they are only rarely
associated with infections.
Only two species, Micrococcus luteus and
Micrococcus lylae, remain in the genus. Micrococci,
especially M. luteus, have a tendency to produce
a yellow pigmented colony. Nine species of genus
Micrococcus have been described.
Table 24.4 gives some differentiating features
of Staphylococcus and Micrococcus.
Key Points
Staphylococcus
Staphylococcus is gram-positive cocci arranged in
clusters
Species of staphylococci are classified by the
coagulase test into two groups: the coagulasepositive (Staphylococcus aureus) and coagulasenegative staphylococci. S. epidermidis and S.
saprophyticus
Staphylococcus aureus
Staph. aureus strains usually exhibit following
characteristics: (1) Beta hemolysis; (2) Golden
yellow pigment; (3) Coagulase positive; (4) Greater
biochemical activity, ferment mannite; (5) Liquefy
gelatin; (6) Produce phosphatase; (7) Black colonies
on potassium tellurite blood
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Important Questions
1. Describe the morphoplogy, cultural characteristics
and antigenic structure of Staphylococcus aureus.
2. Name various virulence factors of Staphylococcus
aureus.
3. Classify staphylococci. Discuss pathogenicity and
laboratory diagnosis of Staph. aureus.
4. Write short notes on:
a. Coagulase or staphylocoagulase
b. Clumping factor
c. Toxins and enzymes of produced by Staphylo
coccus aureus
d. Staphylococcal food poisoning.
e. Toxic shock syndrome
Chap-24.indd 171
|171
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25
Chapter
Streptococcus and Enterococcus
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Classify streptococci
Describe antigenic structure of Str. pyogenes
List and describe toxins and enzymes of Strepto
coccus pyogenes
Discuss pathogenicity of streptococci
Introduction
Classification
|173
1. Hemolytic Activity
A. Alpha-hemolytic () Streptococci
Streptococcus pyogenes
Morphology
2. Serological Properties
Lancefield Grouping
The work of Rebecca Lancefield in 1933 laid the
groundwork for the serological classification of
b- hemolytic streptococci. On the basis of groupspecific carbohydrate (C) antigens in the cell
wall, b-hemolytic streptococci are divided into 21
serological groups from A to W (without I and J).
These are known as Lancefield groups. Groups
A, B, C, D, and G are most commonly found
associated with human infections.
Griffith Typing
Hemolytic streptococci of group A are known as
Str. pyogenes. These are further divided into types
based on the protein (M, T and R) antigens present
on the cell surface (Griffith typing). About eighty
types of Str. pyogenes have been recognized so far
(types 1, 2, 3 and so on).
Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobe and facultative anaerobes, growing
best at a temperature of 37C (range 2242C). The
optimal pH for growth is 7.47.6. It is exacting in
nutritive requirements, growth occurring only in
media containing fermentable carbohydrates or
enriched with blood or serum.
On blood agar, S. pyogenes colonies are small
(0.51 mm in diameter), circular, semitransparent,
low convex disks surrounded by a wide zone
of -hemolysis, several times greater than the
diameter of the colony after incubation for 24
hours. An enhancement of growth and hemolysis
are promoted by 10% CO 2 . The matt (finely
granular) colonies contain M antigen, which are
virulent strains, while avirulent strains form glossy
colonies. Mucoid colonies may occur when a strain
is heavily capsulate. Very rarely, nonhemoloytic
group A streptococci are encountered, which are
typical of S. pyogenes in other respects.
Crystal violet blood agar and PNF medium
(blood agar containing polymyxin-B, neomycin
and fusidic acid) are selective for beta hemolytic
streptococci. Pikes medium is a transport
medium for clinical specimens containing Group A
streptococci. Pikes medium is prepared by adding
crystal violet (1 in 1,000,000) and sodium azide (1
in 16,000) to blood agar.
In liquid media, such as glucose or serum
broth, growth occurs as a granular turbidity with a
powdery deposit. No pellicle is formed.
Lancefield
group
Hemolysis
Natural habitat
Associated diseases
Laboratory tests
Str. pyogenes
Beta
Throat, skin
Bacitracin sensitive;
PYR test positive;
Ribose not
fermented
Str. agalactiae
Beta
Female genital
tract, rectum
S. equisimilis
Beta
Throat
Pharyngitis, endocarditis
Enterococcus sp.
(Enterococcus
fecalis and other
enterococci)
Group D
Variable
hemolysis
Nonenterococcal
Group D species
(Streptococcus
bovis)
Group D
Alphahemolytic or
nonhemolytic
Gastrointestinal
tract, oral cavity,
gallbladder,
urethra, and
vagina
Gastrointestinal
tract
Ribose and
trehalose
fermentation
Growth in 6.5%
NaCI; PYR positive
Neonatal meningitis
No growth in 6.5%
NaCI
Str. anginosus
group
A, C, F, G,
untypable
Beta (alpha,
gamma)
Throat, colon,
female genital
tract
Pyogenic infections
Group A strains
bacitracin-resistant
PYR negative
colony variants of
other groups
Viridans
streptococci (Str.
mitis, Str. mutans,
Str. salivarious,
and many other
species)
Not typed
Alpha
(gamma)
Mouth, throat,
colon, female
genital tract
Optochin
resistant, species
classification
on biochemical
properties
Hippurate
hydrolysis, CAMP
test,
Biochemical Reactions
Resistance
Strep. pyogenes is a delicate organism, can be killed
by heating at 54C for 30 minutes. It can, however,
survive in dust for several weeks, if protected from
sunlight. It is more resistant to crystal violet than
many other bacteria, including Staphylococcus
aureus; hence, it is used for preparation of selective
media. It is sensitive to benzylpenicillin and a
wide range of antimicrobial drugs. It is susceptible
to sulfonamides, but unlike Staph. aureus does
not develop resistance to drugs. It is sensitive to
bacitracin, and this property is employed as a
convenient method for differentiating Str. pyogenes
from other hemolytic streptococci.
|175
Test performance
The extract and the specific antisera are allowed to
react in capillary tubes. A white disk of precipitation
may be seen within five minutes. Tests may be
performed in the narrowing neck of small Pasteur
pipette. A variety of agglutination techniques using
extracts or whole cells may also be used.
3. Outer layer
a. Type-specific Antigens
Several proteins antigens have been identified
in the outer layer of the cell wall. Streptococcus
pyogenes can be typed, based on the surface
proteins M, T and R.
i. M protein
The M protein is the most important of these three.
It acts as virulence factor by inhibiting phagocytosis.
It is antigenic and specific anti-M antibody develops
after infection. M protein is resistant to heat and
acid but susceptible to trypsin. It can be extracted
by the Lancefield acid extraction method and M
typing is performed by capillary tube precipitation
test using type-specific antisera and acid extract.
About 100 M protein types have been recognized.
ii. T protein
T (Trypsin-resistant) protein is heat and acid-lable
but resistant to trypsin present in many serotypes of
S. pyogenes. It may be specific but many different
M types possess the same antigen. T typing is
performed by a slide agglutination test that uses
trypsin-treated whole streptococci.
iii. R protein
Some strains of S. pyogenes (types 2, 3, 28 and 48)
and some strains of groups B, C and G contain
third antigen R protein. R protein has no relation
to virulence.
c. Capsule
The outermost layer of the cell wall is the capsule,
which is composed of hyaluronic acid and is not
immunogenic. It has an antiphagocytic effect like
other bacterial capsule.
A. Toxins
1. Hemolysins
Two hemolytic and cytolytic toxinsstreptolysin
O (SLO) and streptolysin S (SLS)are produced
by most strains of group A streptococci and many
strains of groups C and G.
i. Streptolysin O
Streptolysin O is so called because it is oxygenlabile hemolysin. It is inactivated in the oxidized
form but may be reactivated by treatment with
mild reducing agents. SLO is heat-labile protein,
cytolytic and capable of lysing erythrocytes,
leukocytes, platelets and cultured cells. It is lethal
on intravenous injection into animals and has a
specific cardiotoxic activity.
ASO Test
Streptolysin O is strongly antigenic and antistreptolysin O (ASO) antibodies appears in sera
following streptococcal infection. An ASO titer
in excess of 200 Todd units/mL is considered
significant and suggests either recent or recurrent
infection with streptococci.
ii. Streptolysin S (SLS)
Streptolysin S is an oxygen-stable and causes the
hemolysis around the colonies on aerobic blood
culture. It is protein but nonantigenic. It is cellbound hemolysin that can lyse erythrocytes, leuko
cytes, and platelets.
2. Pyrogenic Exotoxins (Erythrogenic, Dick,
Scarlatinal Toxin)
The primary effect of the toxin is induction of fever
and so it was renamed streptococcal pyrogenic
B. Enzymes
1. Deoxyribonucleases (streptodornase DNAase)
These enzymes are capable of depolymerizing the
highly viscous DNA which accummlates in thick pus
as a result of disintegration of polymorphonuclear
leukocytes. Streptodornase helps to liquefy the
thick pus and may be responsible for the thin serous
character of streptococcal exudates. This property
has been applied therapeutically for breaking down
blood clots, thick pus and fibrinous exudates in
closed spaces such as joints or pleural cavity.
There are four antigenically distinct nucleases
(A, B, C and D), of which B is the most antigenic in
human beings. Antibody titers to DNase B are of
great value in the serodiagnosis of pharyngeal or
skin infection, especially the latter, where the ASO
titer may be low.
2. Streptokinase (Fibrinolysin)
Streptokinase, also known as fibrinolysin, is
another spreading factor. This acts on plasminogen,
a factor present in normal plasma, which is
converted into plasmin, an active proteolytic
enzyme that lyses fibrin. Fibrinolysin appears to
play a biological role in streptococcal infections by
breaking down the fibrin barrier around the lesions
and facilitates the spread of infection.
An antigenic protein and neutralizing anti
bodies appear in convalescent sera which provide
retrospective evidence of streptococcal infection.
3. Hyaluronidase
Hyaluronidase splits hyaluronic acid, and might
favor the spread of streptococcal infection along
the intercellular spaces.
4. Proteinase
It destroys several proteins formed by the Strepto
coccus itself.
Epidemiology
Group A streptococci commonly colonize the
oropharynx of healthy children and young adults.
Person-to-person spread is by respiratory droplets
(pharyngitis) or through breaks in skin after direct
contact with infected person, fomite, or arthropod
vector. Although the organism is ubiquitous, there
are seasonal incidences of specific diseases.
Pharyngitis due to S. pyogenes is primarily a
disease of childhood between the age of 5 and 15
years, but. Crowding, such as in classrooms and
daycare facilities, increase the opportunity for the
organism to spread. No seasonal distribution has
been identified in the tropics. Immunity is type
specific and appears to be associated with antibody
to the M protein. Reinfections occur because of the
multiplicity of the serotypes.
Pathogenesis
Acute diseases associated with Streptococcus
pyogenes occur chiefly in the respiratory tract,
bloodstream, or the skin. Two post streptococcal
sequelae (rheumatic fever following respiratory
infection and glomerulonephritis following
respiratory or skin infection), occur in 13% of
untreated infections.
B. Nonsuppurative Sequelae
Str. pyogenes infections lead to two important
nonsuppurative sequelae: acute rheumatic
fever (ARF) and acute glomerulonephritis
(AGN). Both are caused by immune reactions
induced by the streptococcal infection. These
complications ensue 15 weeks after the acute
infection. They differ in their natural history in
a number of respects (Table 25.2).
1. Acute Rheumatic Fever (ARF)
Rheumatic fever is a nonsuppurative inflammatory
reaction that is epidemiologically and serologically
related to antecedent group A streptococcal
infection. Typically, rheumatic fever follows
persitent or repeated streptococcal throat infection
with a srong antibody response. The disease is
caused by specific M types.
Pathogenesis
The pathogenesis of rheumatic fever is poorly
understood. The disease is autoimmune in nature
|177
Acute
rheumatic
fever
Acute
glomerulonephritis
Primary site of
infection
Throat
Throat or skin
Latent period
Longer
(25 weeks)
Prior
sensitization
Essential
Not necessary
Repeated
attacks
Common
Absent
Genetic
susceptibility
Present
Not known
Serotype of
Str. pyogenes
Any
Immune
response
Marked
Moderate
Complement
level
Unaffected
Lowered
Course
Progressive or
static
Not indicated
Prognosis
Variable
Good
Penicillin
prophylaxis
Essential
Not indicated
Pathogenesis
1. Immune complex deposition in the glomeruli.
2. Reaction of antibodies cross-reactive with
streptococcal and glomerular antigen.
3. Alterations of glomerular tissues by strepto
coccal products such as streptokinase.
4. Direct complement activation by streptococcal
components that have a direct affinity for
glomerular tissues.
Laboratory diagnosis
In acute infections, diagnosis is established by
the isolation and identification of -streptococci
from the patient, while in non-suppurative
complications, diagnosis is based mainly on the
examination of the patients serum for a rising titer
of antibody to one or more streptococcal antigens.
B. Microscopy
Presumptive information may be obtained by an
examination of Gram stained films from pus and
CSF. The observation of typical gram-positive
cocci in chains may indicate the likelihood of the
presence of streptococcal infection. In contrast,
smears are of no value in infections of throat or
genitalia, where streptococci may form part of part
of the resident flora and has a poor predictive value.
C. Culture
For culture, swabs should be collected under vision
from the affected site and either plated immediately
or if there is likely to be delay, swab should be sent
to the laboratory in Pikes medium (blood agar
containing 1 in 1,000,000 crystal violet and in 1 in
16,000 sodium azide). The specimen is plated on
blood agar and incubated at 37C anaerobically or
under 510% CO2, as hemolysis develops better
und er these conditions. Sheep blood agar is
recommended for primary isolation because it is
inhibitory for Haemophilus haemolyticus, colonies
of which may be confused with those of hemolytic
streptococci but their hemolysis is stronger on
aerobic than on anaerobic plates.
Crystal violet blood agar and PNF medium
are selective media that inhibit many throat
commensal bacteria and may facilitate the
detection of small numbers of S. pyogenes in throat
swabs.They are rarely used for routine culture. S.
pyogenes does not grow on MacConkeys bile-salt
medium.
For isolating group A streptococci from throat
swabs the most common medium is blood agar
supplemented with antibiotics trimethoprim/
sulfamethoxazole to suppress the groth of normal
flora.
D. Identification
Colonies of S. pyogenes on SBA are small,
transparent, and smooth with a well-defined area
of -hemolysis. A Gram stain will reveal grampositive cocci with some short chains. Hemolytic
streptococci are grouped by the Lancefield
technique using serologic methods, or biochemical
tests can be performed. The fluorescent antibody
technique has been employed for the rapid
identification of group A streptococci. A key test
that should be done is bacitracin susceptibility
or PYR hydrolysis.
Bacitracin susceptibility: S. pyogenes is more
sensitive to bacitracin than most other streptococci,
A disk containing 0.04 units of bacitracin is applied
on the surface of an inoculated blood culture plate.
S. pyogenes should show a large inhibition zone
(e.g. >15 mm diameter) and most other streptococci
should show little or no inhibition. S. pyogenes is
susceptible to bacitracin and hydrolyzes PYR,
whereas the other -hemolytic groups are resistant
to bacitracin and are PYR negative.
Typing of Str. pyogenes is required for epidemio
logical in specialized reference laboratories.
E. Antigen Detection
Detection of Str. pyogenes is done directly in throat
swabs without cultivation. Enzyme immunoassay
(ElA) or agglutination tests are used to demonstrate
the presence of the antigen.
2. Non-suppurative Complications
Serological Tests
Detection of antibodies against antigens of Str.
pyogenes is an important means of establishing
the diagnosis of poststreptococcal rheumatic
fever and glomerulonephritis. Some immunologic
tests used to detect past infection with S. pyogenes
include ASO, anti-DNase, antistreptokinase, and
antihyaluronidase titers.
Antistreptolysin O (ASO) test is used most
frequently. ASO titers higher than 200 Todd units/
mL are indicative of prior streptococcal infection.
High levels are usually found in acute rheumatic
fever but in glomerulonephritis, titers are often low.
Antideoxyribonuclease B (antiD Nase B)
estimation is also commonly employed. Titers
higher than 300 or 350 are taken as significant.
AntiDNase B and antihyaluronidase (ASH) tests
are very useful for the retrospective diagnosis of
streptococcal pyoderma, for which ASO is of much
less value.
Commercial products are available for detection
of antistreptococcal antibodies. Streptozyme
test detects a mixture of antibodies.It is a passive
slide hemagglutination test using erythrocytes
Treatment
S. pyogenes is very sensitive to penicillin and
penicillin resistance has not yet been observed in
S. pyogenes. Erythromycin or an oral cephalosporin
can be used in patients with a history of penicillin
allergy. Adequate treatment during acute infection
prevents the complications of acute rhematic fever.
Prophylaxis
Patients with a history of rheumatic fever require
long-term antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent
recurrence of the disease. Those persons who have
recovered from ARF are given oral penicillin for many
years to prevent recurrence. Antimicrobial drugs
have no effect on established cases of AGN and ARF.
Group C Streptococci
Streptococci of this group are predominantly
animal pathogens and comprise four species: S.
equi, S. equisimilis, S. dysgalactiae and S. zooep
idemicus. Group C strains isolated from human
sources usually belong to S. equisimilis. It can
cause upper respiratory infections, as well as deep
infections, such as endocarditis, osteomyelitis,
brain abscess, pneumonia and puerperal sepsis.
All species of group C are -hemolytic, with
the exception of S. dysgalactiae, which may be
a-hemolytic or nonhemolytic. It resembles Str.
pyogenes in fermenting trehalose but differs in
fermenting ribose. It produces streptolysin O,
streptokinase and other extracellular substances.
Treatment: Treatment is similar to that used for
group A streptococcal infections.
Group G Streptococci
These are commensals in the throats of human
beings, monkeys or dogs. These may cause sore
Clinical Diseases
1. Infection in the neonate
A. Early-onset disease : It develops during the
first week of life and disease is characterized by
bacteremia, pneumonia, or meninigitis and is
often fatal.
B. Late-onset disease: It develops between
second and twelfth weeks of life. The predominant
manifestation is bacteremia with meningitis, but
septic arthritis.
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Group D Streptococci
Until the mid-1980s, the group D streptococci were
divided into the two groups:
1. Enterococcus group (enterococci or fecal
streptococci) which have been reclassified as
a separate genus called Enterococcus.
2. Nonenterococcal group, for example, Str. bovis,
Str. equinus.
Enterococcus
The enterococci (enteric cocci) were previously
classified as group D streptococci (Table 25.3). The
enterococci were reclassified into the new genus
Enterococcus, and there are currently 16 species
in this genus.
Species
Enterococcus faecalis (pertaining to feces) is
the Enterococcus most often isolated from human
sources.
Enterococcus faecium (of feces).
Other species: E. durans, E. avium, E. casseliflavus,
E. gallinarum, and E. raffinosus are observed
occasionally.
Characteristics of Enterococci
The enterococci are gram-positive cocci typically
arranged in pairs and short chains, and is nonmotile
and noncapsulate. The cocci are facultatively
anaerobic and grow optimally at 35C, although
most isolates can grow in the temperature range
10C to 45C. They grow readily on blood agar
media, with large, white colonies appearing
after 24 hours of incubation; the colonies are
typically nonhemolytic but can be -hemolytic or
-hemolytic. It grows readily on ordinary nutrient
Group D
streptococci
Enterococcus spp
1. Hemolysis type
, none
, , none
2. G
rowth in 6.5%
sodium chloride
3. G
rowth in
presence of 40%
bile
4. Growth at 45C
5. PYRase test
6. S usceptibility to
penicillin
Identification
The identification of Enterococcus species is made
on biochemical characteristics. E. aecalis can
be identified by its ability to ferment mannitol,
sucrose, sorbitol and aesculin, and to grow on
tellurite blood agar producing black colonies with
gas production. It is VP positive.
Clinical Infections
The enterococci inhabit the gasterointestinal
tract and the genitourinary tract in humans and
other animals. Enterococci are frequent causes of
nosocomial infections and may cause urinary tract
infection, bacteremia, infective endocarditis,
biliary tract infection, intra-abdominal abscess
complicating diverticulitis, peritonitis and
wound infection.
Treatment
Most strains of enterococci are resistant to
penicillin. They are also resistant to sulfonamides.
Recently they have developed resistance to newer
penicillins and cephalosporins, streptomycin and
gentamicin.
Viridans streptococci
The viridans streptococci are commensals of
mouth and upper respiratory tract. The viridans
group of streptococci are a heterogeneous
collection of -hemolytic and nonhemolytic
streptoc occi. The term viridis means green.
(Latin for green) because many of these bacteria
produce a green pigment on blood agar media.
Classification
The current classification assigns streptococci
species in the viridans group to one of the four
groups:
1. Anginosus group (S. anginosus, S. constellatus,
and S, intermedius): Organisms of the angi
nosus group may possess the Lancefield group
A, C, F, G, or N antigen and in some instances
may not be groupable.
2. Mitis group (S. sanguis, S. mitis, etc.)
3. Mutans group (S. mutans, etc.)
4. Salivarius groups (S. salivarius).
Clinical Infections
The viridans streptococci are opportunistic
pathogens but can, on occasion, cause disease.
Two clinically important phenomena are associ
ated with viridans streptococci. dental caries and
subacute endocarditis. Streptococcus anginosus is
responsible for causing pyogenic infections, They
have also been implicated in meningitis, abscesses,
osteomyelitis, and empyema.
1. Dental Caries
S. mutans is the principal cause of dental caries
(tooth decay). S. mutans adheres to dental surfaces
via extracellular carbohydrates (dextran) and
erodes the teeth by converting sucrose to acetic
acid and lactate. It breaks down dietary sucrose,
producing acid and a tough adhesive dextran.
The acid damages dentine and the dextrans bind
together food debris, epithelial cells, mucus and
bacteria to form dental plaques, which lead
to caries. Experimental caries in monkeys has
been prevented by a Str. mutans vaccine, but its
extention to human use is fraught with problems.
2. Subacute Endocarditis
Viridans streptococci are the most common cause
of subacute bacterial endocarditis. About twothirds of the viridans-associated cases are due to
S. sanguis and S. mutans. Transient bacteremia is
associated with endocarditis. Most patients have
underlying valvular heart disease, and the course
of the endocarditis is generally subacute. Dental
procedures, vigorous tooth brushing or chewing,
and use of a water pick to clean teeth can cause
a transient bacteremia that is enough to initiate
valvular infection in a person with damaged
valvular tissue. While viridans streptococci
are generally penicillin-sensitive, some strains
may be resistant. It is, therefore, essential that
in endocarditis, the causative strain is isolated
and its antibiotic sensitivity determined so that
appropriate antibiotics in adequate bactericidal
concentration can be employed for treatment.
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Key Points
Streptococci are gram-positive cocci arranged in
long chains
Three different schemes are used to classify the
organism:
Streptococcus pyogenes
Strep. pyogenes are gram-positive, spherical to ovoid
organisms
Catalase-negative; PYR-positive; bacitracinsusceptible are important identification tests
Crystal violet blood agar and PNF medium are
selective for beta hemolytic streptococci
Antigenic structure: Many streptococci can be
categorized based on Lancefield group antigens
Diseases:
A. Respiratory infection 1. Streptococcal pharyngitis;
2. Scarlet fever (complication of pharyngitis)
B. Pyogenic cutaneous infections: Impetigo,
erysipelas, cellulitis; necrotizing fasciitis involving
deep subcutaneous tissues; streptococcal toxic
shock syndrome
Nonsuppurative sequelae: Rheumatic fever and
acute glomerulonephritis
Laboratory diagnosis is done by microscopy, culture,
antigen detection and serological tests such as
ASO, anti-DNase, antistreptokinase, and antihyaluronidase titers to detect past infection with
S. pyogenes
Streptococcus agalactiae is a significant cause of
invasive disease in newborns. Positive CAMP and
hippurate hydrolysis reactions are important
identification tests
Enterococci: Enterococcus faecalis is the Enterococcus
most often isolated from human sources. Enterococci
are frequent causes of nosocomial infections and
may cause urinary tract infection, bacteremia,
infective endocarditis, biliary tract infection, intraabdominal abscess complicating diverticulitis,
peritonitis and wound infection
Viridans streptococci: The viridans streptococci are
commensals in mouth and upper respiratory tract
that are regarded as opportunistic pathogens. Two
clinically important phenomena are associated with
viridans streptococci: dental caries (tooth decay)
and infective endocarditis.
Important Questions
1. Classify streptococci. Describe the laboratory
diagnosis of streptococcal sore throat.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Antigenic structure of Str.pyogenes
b. Lancefield grouping
c. Toxins and enzymes of Streptococcus pyogenes
d. Pathogenicity of streptococci
e. Nonsuppurative complications of Str. pyogenes
infections
3. Write briefly about:
a. Group B streptococci
b. CAMP reaction
c. Group D streptococci
d. Enterococci (or) fecal streptococci
e. Viridans streptococci
f. Heat test.
26
Chapter
Pneumococcus (Diplococcus pneumoniae:
Streptococcus pneumoniae)
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology and cultural characters of
pneumococci
Describe Quellung reaction
Introduction
Pneumococcus, a gram-positive lanceolate
Diplococcus, formerly classified as Diplococcus
pneumomiae, has been reclassified as Str.
pneumoniae because of its genetic relatedness to
streptococcus. Pneumococcus differs from other
streptococci chiefly in its morphology, bile solubility,
optochin sensitivity and possession of a specific
polysaccharide capsule. Pneumococci are normal
inhabitants of the human upper respiratory tract.
Pneumococcus
(Diplococcus Pneumoniae,
Streptococcus Pneumoniae)
Morphology
Pneumococci are gram-positive cocci in pairs
(diplococci). The cocci are about 1 m, slightly
elongated cocci, with one end broad or rounded
and the other pointed, presenting a flame-shaped
or lanceolate appearance (Fig. 26.1). They are
nonmotile and nonsporing.
All freshly isolated strains are capsulate. The
capsule encloses each pair. The capsule may
be demonstrated as a clear halo in Indian ink
preparations (Fig. 26.2) or may be stained directly
by special techniques or by use of homologous
type-specific antibody in the Quellung reaction.
Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobes and facultative anaerobes. It
grows best in air or hydrogen with 510% CO2 ,
Biochemical Reactions
1. Inulin fermentation: Pneumococci ferment
several sugars with the production of acid and
no gas. Fermentation of inulin by pneumococci
is a useful test for differentiating them from
streptococci as the latter do not ferment it.
Fermentation is tested in Hisss serum water
or serum agar slopes.
2. Bile solubility test:
Basis: Bile solubility test for identifying
pneum ococci is based on the presence in
pneumococci, of an autolytic amidase that
cleaves the bond between alanine and muramic
acid in the peptidog lycan. The amidase is
activated by surface-active agents such as bile
or bile salts, resulting in lysis of the organisms.
Procedure: When sodium deoxyc holate
solution is added to broth culture, the culture
clears due to lysis of cocci. Pneumococci are
soluble in bile; viridans and other streptococci
are not.
Alternatively, touch a suspected pneumo
coccal colony with a loopful of 2% sodium
deoxycholate solution, it disappears, leaving
an area of -hemolysis on the blood agar.
3. Pneumococci are catalase and oxidase
negative.
Resistance
Pneumococci are delicate organisms and are killed
by moist heat at 55C in 10 min, and readily by most
disinfectants. Most strains are highly sensitive to
benzylpenicillin, other penicillins. A drug resistant
Strep. pneumoniae (DRSP) strain originating in
Spain has spread to most parts of the world posing
problems in treament.
Antigenic Structure
1. Capsular Antigens
The most important antigen of the Pneumococcus
is the type specific capsular polysaccharide. It is
also called the specific soluble substance (SSS)
as this polysaccharide diffuses into the culture
medium or infective exudates and tissues. These
polysaccharides are antigenic and form the basis
for the separation of pneumococci into different
serotypes. A total of 90 different capsular serotypes
have been identified. The serotypes are designated
by numbers, and those that are structurally related
are grouped together (I, 2, 3. 4, 5, 6A, 68, etc.).
The tests may be done by :
1. Agglutination of washed capsulate cocci.
2. Precipitation of SSS from culture supernates.
3. Quellung reaction or capsule swelling reaction
It was described by Neufeld (1902). In the
capsule swelling or quellung reaction (quellung
= swelling), a suspension of pneumococci is mixed
on a slide with a drop of the type specific antiserum
and a loopful of methylene blue solution and then
examined using the oil-immersion objective. The
capsule becomes apparently swollen, sharply
delineated and refractile in the presence of the
homologous antiserum. This reaction can be used
to identify the organism directly from sputum, CSF,
and other sources. It used to be a routine bedside
procedure in the past.
2. Somatic Antigen
a. C polysaccharide: The cell wall of S. pneumoniae
contains a species specific carbohydrate
antigen, referred to as C substance. C-reactive
protein (CRP) is an abnormal protein (beta
globulin) that precipitates with the somatic C
antigen of pneumococci. It appears in acute
phase sera of cases of pneumonia but dis
appears during convalescence. It is known as
C-reactive protein because it precipitates with
C antigen of pneumococci. CRP is present in
low concentrations in healthy people but in
elevated concentrations in patients with acute
inflammatory diseases.
It is an acute phase substance, produced
in hepatocytes. Its production is stimulated by
bacterial infections, inflammation, malignancies
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Genetic Variation
3. Meningitis
Virulence Factors
5. Other Infections
Pathogenesis
Pneumococci are one of the most common
bacteria causing pneumonia, both lobar and
bronchopneumonia. They also cause acute
tracheobronchitis and empyema. Bacteremia
may complicate pneumococcal pneumonia.
This can result in metastatic involvement of the
meninges, joints and, rarely, the endocardium.
1. Pneumonia
i. Lobar pneumonia: In adults, types 18
are responsible for about 75% of cases of
4. Bacteremia
Bacteremia occurs in 2530% of patients with
pneumococcal pneumonia and in more than 80%
of patients with meningitis.
Epidemiology
S. pneumoniae is a common inhabitant of the throat
and nasopharynx in healthy people. Pneumonia
occurs when the endogenous oral organisms are
aspirated into the lower airways. Cases are more
common in winter and affect the two extreme age
groups more often.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
Sputum, lung aspirate, pleural fluid, cerebrospinal
fluid, urine or blood are collected according
to the site of lesion. Blood culture is useful in
pnemococcal septicemia.
5. Culture
Specimen is inoculated on plates of blood agar and
heated-blood agar incubated in air with 510%
CO2 for 1824 hours. Typical colonies develop
with -hemolysis. The colonies are small (0.51
mm), dome-shaped and glistening, with an area
of green discoloration (alpha hemolysis) around
them. On further incubation, the colonies have
draughtsman or carrom coin appearance.
6. Identification
Procedures commonly used to distinguish S.
pneumoniae from the viridans streptococci are
optochin susceptibility, bile solubility, and the
quellung reaction. S. pneumoniae is susceptible to
optochin, whereas other -hemolytic species are
resistant (Table 26.1).
8. Blood Culture
In the acute stage of pneumonia, the organism may
be obtained from blood culture in glucose broth.
The finding of pneumococci in the blood is much
better evidence of their pathogenic role in the
lung than is their finding in sputum. Isolation of
pneumococci from blood indicates bad prognosis.
Pneumococcus
Viridans
streptococci
Morphology
Ovoid or
lanceolate
diplococci; some
short chains
Short or long
chains of
rounded cocci
Capsule
Present
Usually absent
Colonies
Become
flattened
or draughtsman
Convex
Effect on
blood agar
Narrow zones of
a-hemolysis
Wide or narrow
zone of
a-hemolysis
Optochin
sensitivity
Sensitive
Resistant
Bile solubility
Inulin
fermentation
Virulence in mice
Prophylaxis
Immunity is type-specific and associated
with antibody to the capsular polysaccharide.
The existence of some 90 serotypes makes a
complete polyvalent vaccine impracticable. The
current vaccine contains 23 different capsular
polysaccharides which is stated to give 8090%
protection. The vaccine is immunogenic in normal
adults, and the immunity is long-lived. It is not
meant for only in persons at enhanced risk of
pneumococcal infection, such as patients with
absent or dysfunctional spleen, sickle cell disease,
celiac disease, chronic renal, lung, heart and liver
diseases, diabetes mellitus and immunodeficien
cies, including human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) infection and renal transplant.
Vaccination is contraindicated in young
children and elderly with lymphoreticular malig
nancies and immunosuppressive therapy.
Treatment
Penicillin is the drug of choice for susceptible
strains, alt hough resistance is increasingly
common. Cephalosporins, er ythromycin,
chloramphenicol, or vancomycin are used for
patients allergic to penicillin or for treatment of
penicillin-resistant strains.
Key Points
Streptococcus pneumoniae are elongated or
lancet-shaped, gram-positive cocci arranged in
pairs (diplococci). They are capsulated
The Pneumococcus has complex nutritional
requirements. On blood agar, the colonies are small
Important questions
1. Describe the laboratory diagnosis of pneumococcal
infections
2. Differentiate between Str. pneumoniae and Str.
viridans in a tabulated form.
|187
causes
following
following
27
Chapter
Neisseria and Moraxella
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology, culture characteristics,
biochemical reactions and antigenic structure of
Neisseria meningitidis
Discuss pathogenicity and lab diagnosis of
meningococcal meningitis
Introduction
Cultural Characteristics
Species
Important spec ies of the genus Neisseria are:
N. meningitidis, N. gonorrhoeae, N. flavescens, N.
subflava, N. sicca, N. mucosa, N. lactamica and
N. polysacchareae. N. gonorrhoeae and N. menin
gitidis are the primary human pathogens of the
genus.
Neisseria meningitidis
(Meningococcus; Diplococcus
intracellularis meningitidis)
Morphology
Meningococci are gram-negative oval or spherical
cocci (0.60.8 m in size), typically arranged
in pairs, with the adjacent sides flattened or
concave opposing edges and the long axes parallel.
They are typically seen in large numbers inside
polymorphonuclear leukocytes (Fig. 27.1).
Most fresh isolates are capsulated. They are
nonsporing and nonmotile.
Biochemical Reactions
1. They are catalase and oxidase positive.
Oxidase test: When 1% solution of oxidase
reagent (tetramethylparaphenylene-diaminedihydrochloride) is poured on culture media,
Neisseria colonies quickly turn deep-purple.
This prompt oxidase reaction helps in the
identification of meningococci and gonococci
in mixed cultures.
The test may also be performed by rubbing
a little of the growth with a loop on a strip of
filter paper moistened with the oxidase reagent
(Kovacs method). A deep purple color appears
immediately.
2. Sugar fermentation: Meningococci ferment
glucose and maltose with the production of
acid but no gas, but not lactose or sucrose
(gonococci ferment glucose but not maltose).
3. Indole and hydrogen sulfide are not produced
and nitrates are not reduced.
Antigenic Classification
Based on their capsular polysaccharide antigens,
meningococci are classified into at least 13
serogroups: A, B, C, X, Y, Z, Zl (29E) and W135.
Further serogroups H, I, K and L have also been
described. A group D was described but no
capsular polysaccharide specific for this group has
yet been demonstrated. Groups A, B and C are the
most important. Serogroups are further classified
into serotypes and subtypes.
Resistance
Meningococci are very delicate organisms, being
highly susceptible to heat, dessication, alterations
in pH and to disinfectants. They die within a few
days at room temperature. They are killed by
heating at 55C in 5 minutes.
Pathogenicity
Meningococci are strict human parasites
inhabiting the nasopharynx. Infection is usually
asymptomatic.
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Third StageMeningitis
In the third stage of meningococcal infection, the
organisms can cross the bloodbrain barrier and
infect the meninges. The route of spread from the
nasopharynx to the meninges is controversial. The
spread may be directly along the perineural sheath
of the olfactory nerve, through the cribriform plate
to the subarachnoid space, or more probably,
through the bloodstream. In certain cases, the site of
entry of the Meningococcus may be the conjunctiva.
On reaching the central nervous system, a
suppurative lesion of the meninges is set up. Case
fatality is variable but in untreated cases may be as
high as 80%. Survivors may have sequelae such as
blindness and deafness.
The pathogenic agent in meningococcal disease
appears to be the endotoxin (LPS) released by
autolysis. The vascular endothelium is particularly
sensitive to the endotoxin.
Epidemiology
Humans are the only natural carriers for N. menin
gitidis. The oral and nasopharyngeal carriage rates are
highest for school-aged children and young adults,
are higher in lower socioeconomic populations.
The carrier rate is higher in the members of the
household of a patient with meningococcal disease.
Natural infection is limited to human beings.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
i. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF),
ii. Blood for culture (which may come from a
patient with meningitis, a hemorrhagic rash
or pyrexia of uncertain origin)
2. Examination of CSF
If meningitis is suspected, a lumbar puncture
should be performed as soon as possible unless
there are signs of raised intracranial pressure.
i. Perform a cell count. The exudate in mening
ococcal meningitis is typically polymor
phonuclear.
ii. Centrifuge the remaining CSF. Make a
smear of the centrifuged deposit and stain
with Gram-stain. CSF from a typical case of
meningococcal meningitis will show gramnegative diplococci inside a limited proportion
of the pus cells; many are extracellular.
Stain a second film with methylene blue to
determine the cell type; occasionally, diplococci
may be seen more easily with this stain.
If fluorescein isothiocyanate coupled
antiserum is available, a smear of the deposit
may be examined for the direct identification
of the meningococcal serogroup responsible
for infection.
iii. Divide the supernatant CSF into two aliquots:
One to be kept if necessary for biochemical
examination, the other to be examined for the
presence of meningococcal polysaccharide
antigen by counterimmunoelectrophoresis,
latex agglutination or coagglutination using
meningococcal antisera. Similar tests are also
available for pneumococcus, H. influenzae
type b and group B Streptococcus antigens.
Antigen detection is particularly useful in
partially treated patients in whom smear and
culture tests may be negative.
iv. Cuture: Plate out the centrifuged deposit on
both blood and heated blood agar (chocolate
agar) and incubate at 37C in 510% CO2.
Colonies appear after 1824 hours which
may be identified by morphology and
biochemical reactions.
Subculture: Add Robertsons cooked meat
broth to the remaining deposit, incubate
overnight and subculture in the same way. In
the absence of visible meningococci, glucose
broth may be added to the remaining sed
iment of the centrifuged deposit to facilitate
the isolation.
v. Biochemical reactions
Sugar utilization tests or commercial kits are
used to identify any gram-negative diplococci.
3. Blood Cultures
Blood culture is often positive in meningococcemia
and in early cases of meningitis. Cultures should
be incubated for 47 days, with daily subcultures.
Subculture to blood agar and heated blood agar.
Incubate cultures in 510% CO 2 for 24 hours
and examine oxidase-positive colonies of gramnegative diplococci as above.
5. Petechial Lesions
Meningococci may sometimes be demonstrated in
petechial lesions by microscopy and culture.
6. Serological Diagnosis
Paired sera may be tested for the presence of
complement-fixing antibodies.
Specific antibodies to capsular polysaccharide
may be demonstrated by a (i) hemagglutination
test (ii) ELISA tests.
Treatment
Penicillin is currently the antibiotic of choice.
Chloramphenicol is effective, but risks of blood
dyscrasia have limited its use. Either chloramphenicol
or a third-generation cephalosporin, such as
cefotaxime or ceftriaxone is used in persons allergic
to penicillin allergy.
At the end of a course of therapy with penicillin,
it is important to give eradicative treatment with
rifampicin or ciprofloxacin.
Prophylaxis
1. Chemoprophylaxis: Minocycline and rifampin
have been used effectively for antibioticmediated chemoprophylaxis. Ciprofloxacin is
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
(gonococcus)
N. gonorrhoeae causes the venereal disease
gonorrhea. Gonococci resemble meningococci
very closely in many properties.
Morphology
Morphology and staining of N. gonorrhoeae are
identical to those of N. meningitidis. In smears
from the urethral discharge in acute gonorrhea,
the organism appears as a Diplococcus with the
adjacent sides concave (Fig. 27.2), being typically
kidney-shaped. It is found predominantly within
the polymorphs, some cells containing as many
as a hundred cocci.
Cultural Characterstics
Gonococci are more diffic ult to grow than
meningococci They are aerobic but may grow
anaerobically also. Growth occurs best at pH 7.0
7.4 and at a temperature of 3536C. It is essential
to provide 510% CO2.
They grow well on chocolate agar and Mueller
Hinton agar. A popular selective medium is
the ThayerMartin medium (chocolate agar
containing vancomycin, colistin and nystatin)
which inhibits most contaminants, including
nonpathogenic Neisseria. Colonies are small,
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Biochemical Reactions
Gonococcus is oxidase positive and resembles
mening ococci except in the fermentation of
maltose. Gonococci ferment only glucose and
not maltose and neither species ferments lactose
or sucrose. This can be remembered by G for
Gonococcus and M+G for Meningococcus.
Antigenic Structure
The structure of N. gonorrhoeae is typical of gramnegative bacteria. The surface structures include
the following:
1. Pili: Pili are hair-like appendages that extend
up to several micrometers from the gonococcal
surface. They act as virulence factors by
promoting attachment to host cells and
inhibiting phagocytosis. The pili are composed
of repeating protein subunits (pilins). Pili
undergo antigenic and phase variation.
2. Por proteins (protein I): The Por proteins
(formerly protein I) are porin proteins that form
pores or channels in the outer membrane. Two
classes of Por proteins (PorA and PorB), have
been identified. Anyone strain carries only
either IA or IB but not both.
3. Opa protein (protein II): These proteins facili
tate bacterial adherence to each other and to
eukaryotic cells and also for the clumping of
cocci seen in urethral exudate smears.
4. Rmp (protein III): These proteins stimulate
antibodies that block serum bactericidal
activity against N. gonorrhoeae.
5. Lipooligosaccharide (LOS): This antigen
possesses endotoxic activity.
6. Other proteins: Other important gonococcal
proteins are IgA1 protease, -lactamase,
which degrades penicillin and Fbp (ironbinding protein).
Pathogenesis
Gonorrhea
Gonorrhea is a venereal disease. The disease is
acquired by sexual contact. The incubation period
is 28 days.
A. Disease in men: The most common clinical
presentation is acute urethritis in the male.
Dysuria and a purulent penile discharge
make most sufferers seek treatment rapidly.
The infection extends along the urethra to the
prostate, seminal vesicles and epididymis.
Chronic urethritis may lead to stricture
formation. The infection may spread to the
periurethral tissues, causing abscesses and
multiple discharging sinuses (watercan
perineum).
B. Disease in women: Asymptomatic carriage
in women is common, espec ially in the
endocervical canal. The infection may extend
to Bartholins glands, endometrium and
fallopian tubes to give rise to acute salpingitis,
which may be followed by pelvic inflammatory
disease and a high probability of sterility.
Peritoneal spread occasionally occurs and may
produce a perihepatic inflammation (Fitz
HughCurtis syndrome).
Proctitis occurs in both sexes. Gonococcal
pharyngitis may follow orogenital contact in
either sex. Conjunctivitis may occur usually by
autoinoculation with fingers.
C. Disseminated gonococcal disease: Blood
invasion may occur from the primary site of
infection and may lead to metastatic lesions
such as arthritis, ulcerative endocarditis and
very rarely meningitis.
D. Disease in childern
i. Ophthalmic neonatorum: A nonvenereal
infection is ophthalmia neonatorum in
the newborn, in which the eyes are coated
with gonococci as the baby passes down
the birth canal. A severe purulent eye
discharge with periorbital edema occurs
within a few days of birth. If untreated,
ophthalmia leads rapidly to blindness.
Epidemiology
Gonorrhea occurs only in humans. It has no other
known reservoir. N. gonorrhoeae is transmitted
primarily by sexual contact. A higher incidence of
gonorrhea has been observed in persons belonging
to blood group B. The basis for this is not known.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis can be established readily in the acute
stage but chronic cases sometimes present great
difficulties.
1. Specimens
A. Specimens in Men
1. Urethra: In men, urethral samples usually suffice
(with rectal cultures in homosexual males).
In acute gonorrhea, the urethral discharge
contains gonococci in large numb ers. The
meatus is cleaned with a gauze soaked in saline
and a sample of the discharge collected with a
platinum loop for culture, or directly on slide for
smears. Purulent discharge may be expressed at
the anterior urethra and collected with a swab.
In chronic infections, there may not be any
uret hral discharge. The morning drop of
secretion may be examined or some exudate
may be obtained after prostatic massage. It may
also be possible to demonstrate gonococci in
the centrifuged deposits of urine in cases where
no urethral discharge is available.
2. Anal canal: In homosexual males.
B. Specimens in Women
1. Endocervical swab: In women, uret hral,
cervical and rectal specimens should always be
examined. A single well taken endocervical swab
will detect approximately 90% of gonococcal
infections in women. A high vaginal swab is
not suitable. Throat infection also occurs and
should be sought where appropriate.
2. Urethral
3. Anal canal and
4. Throat.
C. Blood, Swabs of skin lesions, or pus aspirated
from a joint.
D. Conjunctival Swab: Particularly in neonatal
ophthalmia.
2. Transport
For culture, specimens should be inoculated on
prewarmed plates, immediately on collection. If
this is not possible, specimens should be collected
with charcoal impregnated swabs and sent to the
laboratory in Stuarts transport medium.
3. Direct Microscopy
Do the Gram staining shows characteristic kidneyshaped gram-negative diplococci lying within
polymorphonuclear leukocytes with a few extra
cellular. Approximately 95% of infected men will
yield a positive smear. It has to be emphasized that
diagnosis of gonorrhea by smear examination is
unreliable in women as some of the normal genital
flora have an essentially similar morphology.
Immunologic methods employing monoclonal
antibodies may be used for the identification of
N. g onorrho eae. These methods include
coagglutination and fluorescent antibody testing.
4. Culture
In acute gonorrhea, cultures can be obtained
readily on chocolate agar or MuellerHinton agar
incubated at 3536C under 510% CO2. In chronic
cases, where mixed infection is usual and in the
examination of lesions, such as proctitis; however,
it is better to use a selective medium such as the
ThayerMartin medium. Examine plates after 24
hours incubation and the growth is identified by
morphology and biochemical reactions. Incubation
of primary isolation plates is continued for 48 hours.
Colonies are small, round, translucent, convex
or slightly umbonate, with finely granular surface
and lobate margins. They are soft and easily
emulsifiable. After 48 hours, the colonies are larger
(1.52.5 mm), sometimes with a crenated margin
and an opaque raised center.
Smear is made from the colony and Gram
staining is done. Gonococci are gram-negative
cocci arranged in pairs (diplococci) with adjacent
sides concave (pear or bean shaped).
5. Identification
N. gonorrhoeae is identified preliminarily on the
basis of the isolation of oxidase-positive, gramnegative diplococci that grow on chocolate blood
agar or on media that are selective for pathogenic
Neisseria species.N gonorrhoeae is oxidase positive.
It ferments glucose with acid only. It does not
ferment maltose unlike meningococci.
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6. Genetic Probes
Probes specific for the nucleic acids of N. gonorr
hoeae have been developed for the direct detection
of bacteria in clinical specimens.
7. Serological Diagnosis
No serological test has been found useful for
routine diagnostic purposes.
Treatment
Penicillin is no longer the antibiotic of choice for
treatment of gonorrhea since the development and
widespread use of penicillin, gonococcal resistance
to penicillin has gradually risen, owing to the selection of chromosomal mutants, so that many strains
now require high concentrations of penicillin G for
inhibition (MIC 2 g/mL).
Penicillinase p roducing gonococci (PPNG):
In 1976, gonococci producing -lactamase
(penicillinase) have appeared, rendering penicillin
treatment ineffective. Penicillinase production, in
gonococci, is plasmid-mediated.
Chromosomally-mediated resistance (CMRNG):
This chromosomally-mediated resistance
(CMRNG) is not limited only to penicillin but
extends to tetracyclines, erythromycin, and
aminoglycosides.
Empirical therapy: Currently, the Centers for Dis
ease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends
that ceftriaxone, cefixime, ciprofloxacin, or
ofloxacin be used as the initial therapy for cases
of uncomplicated gonorrhea. Doxycycline or
azithromycin should be added for infections
complicated by dual infections with Chlamydia.
Prophylaxis
Control of gonorrhea consists of early detection of
cases, contact tracing, health education and other
general measures.
As even clinical disease does not confer any
immunity, vaccination has no place in prophylaxis.
Nongonococcal (nonspecific)
urethritis
Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU), also known
as nonspecific urethritis (NSU), refers to chronic
urethritis where gonococci cannot be demonstrated.
Causative Agents
The most important causative agents are as follows:
A. Bacterial
Chlamydia trachomatis
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Mycoplasma hominis
Gardnerella vaginalis
Acinetobacter wolfii
Acinetobacter calcoaceticus.
B. Viral
Moraxella
Herpes virus
Cytomegalovirus.
C. Fungi
Candida albicans.
D. Protozoa
Trichomonas vaginalis.
Diagnosis
1. Demonstration of a leukocyte exudate
2. Exclusion of urethral gonorrhea by Gram stain
and culture.
3. Several rapid tests for detecting Chlamydia in
urine specimens are also available.
Treatment
Treatment is with tetracycline, doxycyc line,
erythromycin, or sulfisoxazole.
Commensal neisseriae
Several species of Neisseriae inhabit the normal
respiratory tract. They are regularly found in the
throat, nose and mouth and, less frequently, on
the genital mucosae. The characteristic features
of some of the common species are listed in
Table 27.1. Their pathog enic significance is
uncertain though some of them (for example,
They are oval gram-negative cocci. They are noncapsulate and non-motile.
Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobes. Most strains grow on nutrient
agar, blood agar or chocolate agar.
Biochemical Reactions
Pathogenesis
They form part of the normal pharyngeal flora
but can cause respiratory infections, including
otitis media, sinusitis, tracheobronchitis and
pneumonia.
Colonies
Growth
Fermentation
On
nutrient
agar
At 22C
Glucose
Maltose Sucrose
Serological
classification
N. menigitidis
Thirteen antigenic
Groups
N. gonorrhoeae
Antigenically
heterogeneous
N. flavescens
Resemble meningococ- +
cus but pigmented
yellow
Antigenically distinct
homogeneous group
N. sicca
Autoagglutinable
N. catarrhalis
(Branhamella
catarrhalis
+
Variable, smooth and
translucent or adherent
and opaque, not easily
emulsifiable
Autoagglutinable
Treatment
As many strains produce beta-lactamases,
penicillins are not useful in treatment unless given
in combination with clavulanate or sulbactam.
Morphology
These are short, plump, gram-negative bacilli
usually arranged in pairs. They are nonflagellated
but have been reported to be sluggishly motile.
Culture
They are strictly aerobes, grow on ordinary
media but require blood or serum for growth. On
Loefflers serum slope, the colonies form pit or
lacunae (hence the name lacunata).
Biochemical Reactions
They do not ferment sugars and oxidase and
catalase positive.
Pathogenesis
The moraxellas occur as components of the normal
flora of the upper respiratory tract, the conjunctiva,
the skin and the genital tract.
1. Moraxella lacunata causes a form of purulent
conjunctivitis classically presenting as an
angular blepharoconjunctivitis. A few species
of Moraxella cause endophthalmitis, sinusitis,
conjunctivitis, bronchitis, endocarditis,
meningitis septicemia and sytemic infections.
Treatment
M. lacunata is very sensitive to zinc salts. They are
sensitive to penicillin and most other antibiotics.
Kingella
The genus Kingella, comprising some species of
oxidase positive, nonmotile, gram-negative rods,
with a tendency to occur as coccobacillary and
diplococcal forms was formerly grouped under the
genus Moraxella. The genus contains three species
(K. kingae, K. indologenes and K. denitrificans).
K. kingae is the most commonly isolated
species. It is part of the normal oral flora and has
been associated with endocarditis and infections
of bones, joints and tendons.
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Key Points
Neisseria
Important spec ies of the genus Neisseria are N.
meningitides and N. gonorrhoeae
Neisseria meningitidis
Gram-negative diplococci with fastidious growth
requirements
Growth is facilitated by 510% CO 2 and high
humidity and grows best at 35C to 37C. Blood agar,
chocolate agar and MuellerHinton starch casein
hydrolysate agar are the media commonly used for
culturing meningococci. Modified ThayerMartin is
a useful selective medium
Oxidase and catalase positive; acid produced from
glucose and maltose oxidatively
Antigenic classification: Based on their capsular
polysaccaride antigens, meningococci are classified
into at least 13 serogroups.
Diseases: Meningitis, meningoencephalitis, bactere
mia, pneumonia, arthritis, urethritis
For immunoprophylaxis, vaccination is used only for
serogroups A, C, Y, and W135.
N. gonorrhoeae
N. gonorrhoeae appears as a Diplococcus with the
adjacent sides concave, being typically kidney
shaped
It has fastidious growth requirements. They grow
well on chocolate agar and MuellerHinton agar.
A popular selective medium is the ThayerMartin
medium
Diseases: It causes urethritis, cervicitis, salpingitis,
pelvic inflammatory disease, proctitis, bacteremia,
arthritis, conjunctivitis, pharyngitis
Treatment: Gonococci producing -lactamase
(penicillinase) have appeared called penicillinase
p roducing gonococci (PPNG) and is plasmid
mediated. Chromosomally mediated resistance
(CMRNG) have also been isolated
Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU), refers to chronic
urethritis where gonococci cannot be demonstrated
Commensal Neisseriae: They are regularly found
in the throat, nose and mouth. Their pathogenic
significance is uncertain (for example, N. flavescens,
N. catarrhalis)
Morexella (Branhamella) catarrhalis: They are now
recognized as an important respiratory pathogen
Kingella: K. kingae is part of the normal oral flora
and has been associated with endocarditis and
infections of bones, joints and tendons.
28
Chapter
Corynebacterium
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology, cultural characteristics,
biochemical reactions, toxin production and
pathogenesis of diphtheria
Differentiate three biotypes: Gravis, intermedius
and mitis of C. diphtheriae
Introduction
Corynebacteria are gram-positive, nonacid fast,
nonmotile rods with irregularly stained segments,
and sometimes granules. They frequently show
club-shaped swellings and hence the name
Corynebacteria (from coryne, meaning club).
The diphtheria bacillus was first observed and
described by Klebs (1883) but was first cultivated
by Loeffler (1884). It is hence known as the
KlebsLoeffler bacillus. Roux and Yersin (1888)
discovered the diphtheria exotoxin and established
its pathogenic effect. The antitoxin was described
by von Behring (1890) who was awarded nobel
prize for this work.
Diseases: The major disease caused by C.
diphtheriae is diphtheria (greek, diphtheria,
leathery skin, referring to the pseudomembrane
that initially forms on the pharynx).
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Morphology
They are, thin, slender gram-positive bacilli but
are decolorized easily, particularly in old cultures,
measuring approximately 36 m 0.60.8 m.
They have a tendency to clubbing at one or both
ends. They are highly pleomorphic. They are nonmotile, non-spore forming, and nonacid fast.
The bacilli are arranged in a characteristic
fashion in smears. They are usually seen in pairs,
palisades (resembling stakes of a fence) or small
Cultural Characteristics
C. diphtheriae is an aerobe and facultative anaerobe;
the optimum temperature for growth is 37C (range
1540C) and optimum pH 7.2. It can grow on
ordinary nutrient agar, but its growth is improved
by the presence of animal proteins such as blood
or serum. Two media are useful for this purpose:
1. Loefflers serum slope: Diphtheria bacilli
grow on LoeffIers serum slope very rapidly
and colonies can be seen in 68 hours, long
before other bacteria grow. Colonies are at first
small, circular white opaque disks but enlarge
on continued incubation and may acquire a
distinct yellow tint.
2. Tellurite blood agar: The addition of potassium
tellurite (0.030.04%) makes the medium
selective for Corynebacteria by inhibiting most
other pathogenic and commensal bacteria. On
this medium, C. diphtheriae give grey/black,
shiny or dull black colonies. The addition
Biochemical Reactions
C. diphtheriae ferments glucose and maltose
with the production of acid (but no gas) but not
lactose, mannitol, trehalose or sucrose. Starch and
glycogen are used for biochemical differentiation
of three biotypes of C. diphtheriae (Table 28.1).
Gravis strains utilize glycogen and starch, while
mitis and intermedius do not. Fermentation of
sugars are usually done in Hisss serum peptone
water medium.
2. Colony on tellurite
blood agar
3. Consistency of colonies
4. Hemolysis
5. Growth in broth
Gravis
i. Usually short rods, with
uniform staining
ii. Few or no granules.
iii. P leomorphism (some
degree), with irregularly
barred, snow-shoe and
teardrop forms
i. In 18 hours: Colony is
12 mm in size, greyish
black centre, paler,
semitranslucent periphery
and commencing
crenation of edge.
ii. In 23 days: 35 mm in
size, flat colony with raised
dark centre and crenated
edge with radial striation daisy head colony
i. Brittle, moves as a whole
on the plate like cold
margarine.
ii. Not easily picked out or
emulsifiable
Variable
Intermedius
i. Long barred forms with
clubbed ends;
ii. Poor granulation
iii. Very pleomorphic
Mitis
i. Long, curved, rods
ii. Prominent granules
iii. Pleomorphic
Nonhemolytic
Usually hemolytic
Turbidity in 24 hours,
clearing in 48 hours, with
fine granular sediment
Negative
Almost 100%
Severe
Epidemic areas
9599%
Moderate
Epidemic areas
8085%
Mild
Endemic areas
Negative
Toxin
Toxigenic strains of C. diphtheriae produce a a
very powerful exotoxin. The toxicity observed
in diphtheria is directly attributed to the toxin
secreted by the bacteria at the site of infection.
Synthesis
Almost all strains of gravis, 95-99% of intermedius
and 80-85% of mitis produce this toxin. Strains of
all three types are invariably virulent when isolated
from acute cases. Avirulent strains are common
among convalescents, contacts and carriers. The
strain almost universally used for toxin production
is the Park Williams 8 strain, which has been
variously described as a mitis (Topley and Wilson)
and an intermedius strain (Cruickshank).
Properties of toxin
Diphtheria toxin is an iron-free, crystalline, heat
labile protein. The diphtheria toxin is a protein and
has a molecular weight of about 62000. It consists
of two fragments A (active) and B (binding) of
molecular weights 24000 and 38000 respectively.
Both fragments are required for toxicity. Fragment
A has all the enzymatic activity whereas fragment
B is responsible for binding the toxin to the cells
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Mode of Action
The diphtheria toxin acts by inhibiting protein
synthesis. It inhibits polypeptide chain elongation
in the presence of nicotinamide adenosine
dinucleotide (NAD) by inactivating elongation
factor 2 (EF-2), an enzyme required for elongation
of polypeptide chains on ribosomes. Inhibition of
protein synthesis is probably responsible for both
the necrotic and neurotoxic effects of the toxin.
NAD+ + EF2 = ADPREF2 + nicotinamide + H+
Active
Inactive
Resistance
They are readily killed, however, by a 1-minute
exposure to100C or a 10 minute exposure to 58C.
They are susceptible to most of the routinely used
disinfectants. It remains alive for weeks in dust and
on fomites when dry and protected from sunlight.
It is susceptible to penicillin, erythromycin and
broad spectrum antibiotics.
Antigenic Structure
Diphtheria bacilli possess three distinct antigens:
1. A deep-seated antigen found in all Coryne
bacterial species
2. A heat-labile protein (K-antigen)
3. A heat-stable polysaccharide (O-antigen).
Serotypes: On the basis of agglutination reaction,
biotypes gravis, intermedius and mitis have been
divided into 13, 4 and 40 serotypes, respectively.
Bacteriophage Typing
The susceptibility of C. diphtheriae to bacterio
phage strains has been most comprehensively
studied; 22 phages were used to type the gravis
strains into 14 types, the intermedius into 3 and the
mitis into 4. An additional set of 33 phages has also
been used. The only other corynebacteria reported
as susceptible to the diphtheria typing phages are
C. ulcerans and C. pseudotuberculosis.
Pathogenesis
The organism is carried in the upper respiratory tract
and spread by droplet infection or hand-to-mouth
A. Respiratory Diphtheria
The illness begins gradually and is characterized
by low-grade fever, malaise, and a mild sore throat.
The most common site of infection is the tonsils
or pharynx. The organisms rapidly multiply on
the epithelial cells, and the toxigenic strains of C.
diphtheriae produce toxin locally, causing tissue
necrosis and exudate formation triggering an
inflammatory reaction. This combination of cell
necrosis and exudate forms a tough gray to white
pseudomembrane, which attaches to the tissuescommonly over the tonsils, pharynx, or larynx. Any
attempt to remove the pseudomembrane results
in bleeding. In nasopharyngeal infection, the
pseudomembrane may involve nasal mucosa, the
pharyngeal wall and the soft palate. In this form,
oedema involving the cervical lymph glands may
occur in the anterior tissues of the neck, a condition
known as bullneck diphtheria. Laryngeal
involvement leads to obstruction of the larynx and
lower airways.
Systemic effects
The toxin also is absorbed and can produce a vari
ety of systemic effects involving the kidneys, heart,
and nervous system, although all tissues possess
the receptor for the toxin and may be affected.
Intoxication takes the form of myocarditis and
peripheral neuritis, and may be associated with
thrombocytopenia. Visual disturbance, difficulty in
swallowing and paralysis of the arms and legs also
occur but usually resolve spontaneously. Complete
heart block may result from myocarditis. Death is
most commonly due to congestive heart failure and
cardiac arrhythmias.
Complications
The common complications are as follows:
1. Asphyxia due to mechanical obstruction of the
respiratory passage by the pseudomembrane
for which an emergency tracheostomy may
become necessary.
2. Acute circulatorv failure, which may be
peripheral or cardiac.
3. Postdiphtheritic paralysis, which typically
occurs in the third or fourth week of the disease;
palatine and ciliary but not pupillary paralysis
is characteristic, and spontaneous recovery is
the rule.
4. Septic, such as pneumonia and otitis media.
B. Cutaneous Diphtheria
In cutaneous diphtheria, which is prevalent in the
tropics, the toxin also is absorbed systemically, but
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnostic laboratory tests serve to confirm the
clinical impression and are of epidemiologic
significance but not for the treatment of individual
cases. Specific treatment should be instituted
immediately on suspicion of diphtheria without
waiting for laboratory tests. Any delay may be
fatal. Laboratory diagnosis consists of isolation
of the diphtheria bacillus and demonstration of
its toxicity.
1. Specimens
Swabs from the nose, throat, or other suspected
lesions must be obtained before antimicrobial
drugs are administered. In suspected cases,
whether of faucial or nasal dipht heria, swabs
should be taken both from the throat and from the
nose, and preferably two swabs from the site most
affected. Swabs should also be taken from skin
lesions and wounds where diphtheritic infection is
suspected, and both throat and nose swabs should
be taken from suspected carriers.
2. Microscopy
Direct microscopy of a smear is unreliable since
C. diphtheriae is morphologically similar to
other coryneforms. Smears stained with alkaline
methylene blue or Grams stain show beaded rods
in typical arrangement. Hence smear examination
alone is not sufficient for diagnosing diphtheria
but is important in identifying Vincents angina.
For this, a Gram or Leishman stained smear is
examined for Vincents spirochetes and fusiform
bacilli. Toxigenic diphtheria bacilli may be
identified in smears by immunofluorescence.
3. Culture
The swab should be inoculated on Lofflers serum
slope, tellurite blood agar, and blood agar. The
cultures should be incubated aerobically at 37C.
Unless the swab can be inoculated promptly, it
should be kept moistened with sterile horse serum
so the bacilli will remain viable.
i. Loefflers serum slope: After incubation for 6
hours or overnight, make a smear of growth from
all parts of the slope mixed in the condensation
water, stain by the Albert-Laybourn method and
look for the presence of slender green-stained
bacilli containing the purple-black granules
characteristic of C. diphtheriae.
ii. Tellurite blood agar: Blood tellurite agar is
examined after 24 hours and after 48 hours,
as growth may sometimes be delayed.
iii. Blood agar: It is used for differentiating
streptococcal or staphylococcal pharyngitis,
which may simulate diphtheria.
4. Identification Tests
Identification is based on carbohydrate ferment
ation reactions and enzymatic activities. C.
diphtheriae ferments glucose and maltose,
producing acid but not gas, and is catalase positive.
It reduces nitrate to nitrite and is nonmotile.
Commercial kits such as the API Coryne strip
provide a reliable identification.
5. Virulence Tests
Such tests are really tests for toxigenicity of an
isolated diphtheria-like organism. Diagnosis of
diphtheria depends on showing that the isolate
produces diphtheria toxin. Virulence testing may
be by in vivo or in vitro methods.
A. In vivo tests
i. Subcutaneous test
ii. Intracutaneous test
B. In vitro test
i. Precipitation test
ii. Tissue culture test
iii. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays
iv. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
A. In vivo Tests
i. Subcutaneous test: The growth from an
overnight culture on Loefflers slope is
emulsified in 24 mL broth and 1 mL of the
emulsion injected subcutaneously into
two guinea pigs or rabbits, one of which has
been protected with the diphtheria antitoxin
(5001000 units) 1824 hours previously and
was used as control. If the strain is virulent,
the unprotected animal will die within
four days. Postmortem examination would
show hemorrhage at the site of injection
and injected blood vessels, with typically
hemorrhagic adrenal necrosis.
Simple and reliable subcutaneous
toxigenicity tests in rabbits or larger guineapigs were used in the past, at a time when
laboratories had many isolates each day.
The method is not usually employed as it is
wasteful of animals.
ii. Intracutaneous (Intradermal) test: The
broth emulsion of the culture is inoculated
intracutaneously into two guinea pigs (or
rabbits) so that each receives 0.1 mL in two
different sites. One animal acts as the control
and should receive antitoxin (500 units)
the previous day. After four hours the skin
test, the other is given 50 units of antitoxin
intraperitoneally in order to prevent death.
In the test animal, toxigenicity is indicated by
inflammatory reaction at the site of injection,
progressing to necrosis in 4872 hours and in
the control animal no change.
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Schick Test
Schick (1913) introduced an intradermal test
(Schick test) for distinguishing between susceptible
and immune persons.
Prophylaxis
The methods of immunization available are active,
passive or combined.
A. Active Immunization
The preparations used for active immunization
are as follows:
1. Toxin-antitoxin mixture: It is not without hazards.
2. Single vaccines are less frequently used
3. Combined preparations:
DPT (diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus) vaccine
DT (diphtheria-tetanus toxoid)
dT (diphtheria-tetanus, adult type).
B. Passive Immunization
This is an emergency measure to be employed
where susceptibles (nonimmunized) are exposed
to infection, as when a case of diphtheria is
admitted to general pediatric wards. It consists of
the subcutaneous administration of 5001000 units
of antitoxin (antidiphtheritic serum, ADS). As this is
a horse serum, precaution against hypersensitivity
should be observed.
C. Combined Immunization
This consists of administration of the first dose
of adsorbed toxoid on, while ADS is given on the
other arm, to be continued by the full course of
active immunization since protection conferred
by passive immunization is of short duration.
Ideally, all cases that receive ADS prophylactically
should receive combined immunization.
Treatment
Specific treatment of diphtheria consists of
antitoxic and antibiotic therapy. Antitoxin
should be given immediately as soon as clinical
diagnosis is made to neutralize the toxin being
produced. The dosage recommended is 20,000
units intramuscularly for moderate cases and
50,000 to 100,000 units for serious cases, half the
dose being given intravenously.
C. diphtheriae is sensitive to most antibiotics,
including penicillin and erythromycin for the
treatment of patients as well as carriers. The
antibiotics do not neutralize circulating toxin.
Penicillin-sensitive individuals can be given
erythromycin. Erythromycin is more active than
penicillin in the treatment of carriers.
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Table 28.2 Medically important nondiphtheria corynebacteria and disease associations of these
corynebacteria
Organism
Major habitat
Disease association
C. ulcerans
C. pseudotuberculosis
Man: lymphadenitis
Animals: abscesses and abortion
C. jeikeium
Skin
C. urealyticum
C. amycolatum
C. glucuranalyticum
C. minutissimum
Erythrasma, bacteremia
C. striatum
C. pseudodiphtheriticum
Respiratory tract
Arcanobacterium haemolyticum
Throat
Rhodococcus equi
Animals, soil
1. Corynebacterium ulcerans
C. ulcerans has been isolated from patients with
diphtheria-like illness. It resembles gravis type
of C. diphtheriae but it liquefies gelatin, ferments
trehalose slowly and does not reduce nitrate to
nitrite. It is PYZ negative and urease positive. It
commonly produces diphtheria toxin as well as the
separate toxin produced by C. pseudotuberculosis.
It is pathogenic to guinea pigs. The lesions
produced resembling those caused by C. diphtheriae.
It can cause mastitis in cattle and man exposed to
infected animals or milk may develop infection.
2. Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis
(C. ovis)
Like C. ulcerans, C. pseudotuberculosis (PreiszNocard bacillus) is primarily an animal pathogen
and rarely infects man. Human infections mainly
occur in patients with animal (sheep) contact.
It causes caseous lymphadenitis in sheep and
goats and abscesses or ulcerative lymphangitis in
horses. Rarely, it may cause subacute and chronic
lymphadenitis involving axillary or cervical lymph
nodes in those with prolonged exposure to sheep
and horses.
3. Corynebacterium minutissimum
It is believed to be the causative agent of erythrasma.
It is a localized infection of the stratum corneum.
4. Corynebacterium jeikeium
Cornybacterium jeikeium, infections have been
limited to patients who are immune compromised,
have undergone invasive procedures, or have a
5. Corynebacterium xerosis
C. xerosis is commonly found on skin and mucocut
aneous sites. Human infection with C. xerosis is
rare, and affected patients are invariably immuno
suppressed.
6. Corynebacterium bovis
C. bovis, commensal of cows udder, which may
cause bovine mastitis. Many of them cause
infections in immunocompromised patients.
Diphtheroids
Corynebacteria resembling C. diphtheriae, occur
as normal commensals in the throat, skin and
other areas. These may be mistaken for diphtheria
bacilli and are known as diphtheroids. They
stain more uniformly than diphtheria bacilli,
are arranged in V forms or palisades rather
than Chinese letter arrang ement and possess
few or no metachromatic granules. They can be
differentiated from C. diphtheriae on the basis
of biochemical characters and toxigenicity tests
(Table 28.3). The common diphtheroids are C.
pseudodiphtheriticum and C. xerosis.
C. diphtheriae
Diphtheroids
1. Morphology
2. Culture
3. Biochemical tests
4. Toxin production
5. Virulence tests
Key Points
Important questions
1.
Discuss morphology, cultural characteristics
and biochemical characters of Corynebacterium
diphtheriae.
2. Name different species of genus Corynebacterium.
Discuss in detail laboratory diagnosis of diphtheria.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Diphtheria toxin
b. Pathogenicity of C. diphtheriae
c. Toxigenicity tests/Virulence tests of C. diphtheriae
d. Schick test
e. Prophylaxis of diphtheria
Nontoxic
Negative
f. Nondiphtheria corynebacteria
g. Diphtheroids.
29
Chapter
Bacillus
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe the morphology, cultural characteristics
and pathogenicity of Bacillus anthracis
Introduction
The family Bacillaceae has two clinically important
genera are Bacillus (the aerobic and facultative
anaerobic spore-formers) and Clostridium (the
strict anaerobic spore-formers ). In the past
few years, Bacillus has been subdivided into six
genera.
Bacillus anthracis
Historically, considerable attention was early
focused on the genus Bacillus because of the
economic importance of anthrax, the disease
caused by B. anthracis.
Morphology
B. anthracis is one of the largest of pathogenic
bacteria. 38 by 11.3 m and is gram-positive
nonacid fast, non-motile straight, sporing
bacillus. It is rectangular in shape and arranged
in filamentous chains in culture. In cultures, the
bacilli are arranged end to end in long chains. The
ends of the bacilli are truncated or often concave
and somewhat swollen so that a chain of bacilli
presents a bamboo stick appearance.
The spore is oval (ellipsoidal), refractile, central
in position and of the same diameter as the Bacillus
and not swelling the mother cell (Fig. 29.1). Spores
are formed in culture, in the soil, and in the tissue
and exudates of dead animals but never in the
blood or tissues of living animals. Spores seen as
Cultural Characteristics
It is aerobe and facultative anaerobe. Temperature
range for growth is 1245C (optimum 37C). Good
growth occurs on ordinary media.
1. Nutrient agar: On nutrient agar, colonies are
irregularly round, 23 mm in diameter, raised,
dull, opaque, greyish white, with a frosted
glass appearance. The edge of the colony is
composed of long, interlacing chains of bacilli,
resembling locks of matted hair under the low
power microscope. This is called the Medusa
head appearance (Fig. 29.2).
2. Blood agar: Colonies on horse or sheep blood
agar are virtually nonhemolytic.
Biochemical Reactions
B. anthracis ferments glucose, maltose, sucrose,
trehalose and dextrin with the production of
acid and no gas. Nitrates are reduced to nitrites.
Catalase is formed.
Resistance
The spores are resistant to chemical disinfectants
and heat. With moist heat, the vegetative bacilli are
killed at 60C in 30 minutes and the spores at 100C
in 10 minutes. With dry heat the spores are killed at
150C in 60 minutes. The spores are also killed by
4% formaldehyde or 4% potassium permanganate
in a few minutes.
The bacilli are sensitive to benzylpenicillin,
streptomycin, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol,
ciprofloxacin, the cephalosporins and sulfonamides.
Antigenic Structure
Three main antigens have been characterized:
1. Capsular polypeptide: It is polypeptide con
sisting exclusively of D-glutamic acid.
2. Somatic polysaccharide: It is a component of
the cell wall.
3. Complex protein toxin (anthrax toxin):
Anthrax toxin is a complex exotoxin consisting of
three protein components: Protective antigen
(PA), lethal factor (LF), and edema factor (EF).
Each of the separate components is serologically
active and distinct and is also immunogenic.
Virulence Factors
The pathogenesis of B. anthracis depends on two
important virulence factors: A poly (D-glutamic
acid) capsule and a three-component protein
exotoxin. Fully virulent organisms have two large
plasmids that code for these products.
1. Capsule: The capsule interferes with phagocytosis.
2. Anthrax toxin: Anthrax toxin consists of three
proteins called protective antigen (PA), edema
factor (EF), and lethal factor (LF), each of
which individually is nontoxic but together act
synergistically to produce damaging effects.
The three factors have been characterized and
cloned.
Pathegenesis
Cattle, sheep, goats and other herbivores are
naturally infected.
A. Animal Infection
Anthrax is a zoonosis. Animals are infected by the
ingestion of the spores present in the soil. Direct
spread from animal to animal is rare. The disease
is generally a fatal septicemia but may sometimes
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B. Human infection
Based on the mode of infection, human Anthrax
presents in one of three ways: (1) cutaneous (2)
pulmonary, or (3) intestinal. All types leading to
fatal septicemia or meningitis.
1. Cutaneous Anthrax
Cutaneous anthrax used to be caused by shaving
brushes made with animal hair. It begins 25 days
after infection as a small papule that develops
within a few days into a vesicle filled with dark
bluish black fluid. Rupture of the vesicle reveals
a black eschar at the base, with a very prominent
inflammatory ring of reaction around the eschar.
(The name anthrax, which means coal, comes
from the black color of the esc har). This is
sometimes referred to as a malignant pustule.
The lesion is classically found on the hands,
forearms, or head and is painless. The disease used
to be common in dock workers carrying loads of
hides and skins on their bare backs and hence was
known as the hide porters disease. Cutaneous
anthrax generally resolves spontaneously, but
1020% of untreated patients may develop fatal
septicemia or meningitis.
2. Pulmonary Anthrax
Pulmonary anthrax, known as wool-sorters
disease, because it used to be common in workers
in wool factories, due to inhalation of dust from
infected wool. It occurs in patients who handle raw
wool, hides, or horsehair and acquire the disease
by the inhalation of spores. This is a hemorrhagic
pneumonia with a high fatality rate. Hemorrhagic
meningitis may occur as a complication.
3. Intestinal Anthrax
Intestinal anthrax, is rare and occurs mainly in
primitive communities who eat the carcasses of
animals dying of anthrax. An individual may suffer
after a day or so from hemorrhagic diarrhea, and
dies rapidly from septicemia.
Treatment
Ciprofloxacin is the drug of choice. Penicillin,
doxycycline, erythromycin, or chloramphenicol
can be used (if susceptible).
Prophylaxis
Control of human anthrax ultimately depends on
control of the disease in animals. Animals with
known or suspected anthrax should be handled
with care and carcasses of animals suspected to have
died of anthrax are incinerated or buried deep in
quicklime. Wool, horsehair, and hides coming from
areas where epidemic anthrax is present should be
gas sterilized. A vaccine is available for control of
outbreaks of human anthrax in an industrial setting.
Immunization
Live-attenuated bacilli were first used by Louis
Pasteur in May 1881. Pasteurs vaccine was the
anthrax bacillus attenuated by growth at 4243C.
The original Pasteurs anthrax vaccine is of great
historical importance.
Sterne strain of live spore vaccine: Subsequently,
the Sterne strain of live spore vaccine has been
used for animal immunization. The Sterne vaccine
contained spores of a noncapsulated avirulent
mutant strain. Live bacterial vaccines are not
considered safe for man.
Alum-precipitated toxoid prepared from the
protective antigen has been shown to be a safe
and effective vaccine for human use. It has been
used in persons occupationally exposed to
anthrax infection. Three doses intramuscularly at
intervals of six weeks between first and second,
and six months between second and third doses
induce good immunity, which can be reinforced if
necessary with annual booster injections. Frequent
booster doses are necessary.
ANTHRACOID BACILLI
Nonpathogenic aerobic spore bearing bacilli having
a general resemblance to anthrax bacilli have been
Bacillus cereus
B. cereus has recently assumed importance as a
cause of food poisoning. It is widely distributed in
nature, may be readily isolated from soil, vegetables
and a wide variety of foods including milk, cereals,
spices, meat and poultary.
Pathogenesis
1. Emetic form (the short incubation type): The
emetic form results from the consumption of
contaminated rice. The heat-stable enterotoxin
that is released is not destroyed when the rice
is reheated. After ingestion of the enterotoxin
and a 16-hour incubation period, a disease of
short duration (less than 24 hours) develops.
Symptoms consist of vomiting, nausea, and
abdominal cramps. Fever and diarrhea are
generally absent.
Two mechanisms of action have been
described for the enterotoxin of B. cereus, one
involving stimulation of CAMP system and the
other independent of it.
2. Diarrheal form: The diarrheal form of B. cereus
food poisoning results from the consumption
of contaminated meat, vegetables or sauces.
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Laboratory Diagnosis
If food is available for testing, confirmation is easy.
High numbers of B. cereus, in the absence of other
food poisoning bacteria are sufficient to make the
diagnosis.
Large facultatively anaerobic Gram-positive
bacilIi that produce anthracoid colonies on blood
agar after overnight incubation at 37C are almost
certain to be B. cereus.
Treatment : Both the emetic and diarrheal
syndromes are shortlived and no specific treatment
is needed.
B. anthracis
Anthracoid bacilli
1. Motiliy
Nonmotile
Generally motile
2. Capsule
Capsulated
Noncapsulated
3. Chain formation
Not present
No growth
Grow usually
Usually well-marked
Rapid liquefaction
8. Turbidity in broth
No turbidity
Turbidity usual
9. Salicin fermentation
Negative
Usually positive
No growth
Grows usually
Growth inhibited
Not inhibited
Susceptible
Not susceptible
Pathogenic
Not pathogenic
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
Important questions
Key Points
30
Chapter
Clostridium
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe classification of clostridia and diseases
produced by different clostridia
Discuss morphology, cultural characteristics of
C. welchii
Discuss Nagler reaction
Discuss lab. diagnosis and prophylaxis of gas
gangrene
Introduction
The genus Clostridium includes all anaerobic,
gram-positive bacilli capable of forming
endospores. Spores of clostridia are usually wider
than the diameter of the rods in which they are
formed, giving the bacillus a swollen appearance
resembling a spindle (Clostridium is Latin for little
spindle). The name Clostridium is derived from
the word Kloster (meaning a spindle).
Most of the species are saprophytes that
normally occur in soil, water and decomposing
plant and animal matter. The genus contains bacteria
responsible for three major diseases of human
beingsgas gangrene, food poisoning and tetanus.
Classification
The traditional method for classifying an isolate in
the genus Clostridium was based on a combination
of diagnostic tests, including the demonstration of
spores, optimal growth in anaerobic conditions, a
complex pattern of biochemical reactivity such as
saccharolytic and proteolytic capacities and the
findings yielded by gas chromatography analysis
of the metabolic byproducts. With these methods,
more than 130 species have been defined.
Fortunately, most of the clinically important
isolates fall within a few species.
Morphology
It is a relatively large gram-positive bacillus (about
46 1m) . It is pleomorphic, and filamentous. It
is capsulated and nonmotile.
Spores are typically oval, central or sub terminal
and not bulging but are rarely seen in artificial culture
or in material from pathological lesions, and their
absence is one of the characteristic morphological
features of C. perfringens. Special media normally
must be used to demonstrate sporulation.
B.Tetanus
C. tetani
C.Food poisoning
1. Gastroenteritis
C. perfringens (Type A)
2. Necrotizing enteritis
3. Botulism
D. Acute colitis
C. perfringens (Type C)
C. botulinum
C. difficile
C. perfringens
C. septicum
C. novyi
C. histolyticum
C. fallax
C. bifermentans
C. sporogenes
Biochemical Reactions
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Toxins
C. perfringens is one of the most prolific of toxinproducing bacteria, forming at least 12 distinct
soluble substances or toxins, all of which are of
protein in nature and antigenic. Major lethal toxins
include: (alpha), b (beta), e (epsilon) and i (iota)
and minor lethal toxins include: g (gamma), d
(delta), k (kappa), l (lambda), m (mu), n (nu), q
(theta) and h (eta). The four 'major toxins', alpha,
beta, epsilon and iota, are predominantly respon
sible for pathogenicity.
Classification
C. perfringens can be divided into five types, A to
E on the basis of four major toxins. Strains of C.
perfringens type A that produce enterotoxin are
associated with a mild form of food poisoning.
Alpha Toxin
The alpha (a) toxin is produced by all types of
C. perfringens and most abundantly by type A
strains, is a lecithinase (phospholipase C) that lyses
erythrocytes, platelets, leukocytes, and endothelial
cells. It is lethal, dermonecrotic and hemolytic for
the red cells of most species, except horse and
goat. The lysis is of the hot-cold variety, being best
seen after incubation at 37C followed by chilling
at 4C. This toxin increases vascular permeability,
resulting in massive hemolysis and bleeding,
tissue destruction, hepatic toxicity, and myocardial
dysfunction. It is relatively heat stable.
Naglers Reaction
Basis: The alpha (a) toxin is lecithinase C (or
phospholipidase C) splits lecithin into phosphoryl
choline and diglyceride, in the presence of Ca++ and
Mg++ ions because the toxin is activated by Ca++ and
Mg++ ions. This reaction is seen as opalescence in
serum or egg yolk media and is specifically neutral
ized by the antitoxin. This is the basis of Nagler
reaction.
Procedure: For rapid detection of C. perfringens, a
culture plate containing 6% agar, 5% peptic digest
of sheep blood and 20% human serum or 5% eggyolk is prepared. The incorporation of neomycin
sulphate in the medium makes it more selective,
inhibiting coliforms and aerobic spore bearers.
On one half of the plate, 23 drops of C.
perfringens antitoxin are spread and allowed to dry.
The plate is then inoculated with the test organisms
or the exudate under investigation and incubated
anaerobically at 37C for 18 hours.
Minor Toxins
Gamma and eta toxins have minor lethal toxins.
Delta toxin has a lethal effect and is hemolytic for
the red cells of even- goat, pigs and cattle. Theta
toxin is oxygen-labile hemolysin antigenically
related to streptolysin O. It is also lethal and a
general cytolytic toxin.
Enterotoxin
C. perfringens type A strains produce a potent
enterotoxin which causes diarrhaea and other
symptoms of food poisoning.
Pathogenesis
1. Soft Tissue Infections
Soft tissue infections caused by C. perfringens
are subdivided into (1) cellulitis, (2) fasciitis or
suppurative myositis, and (3) myonecrosis or gas
gangrene.
2. Septicemia
Invasion of the bloodstream may occur in associ
ation with malignancy and may involve a localized
myonecrosis in addition to a fulminating clostridial
septicemia.
3. Food Poisoning
The organisms usually involved are strains of type
A. Meat, chicken, fish and their by-products are the
most common vehicles for clostrial food poisoning.
Clostridial food poisoning, is characterized by (i) a
short incubation period (824 hours), (ii) a clinical
presentation that includes abdominal cramps and
watery diarrhea but no fever, nausea, or vomiting,
and (iii) a clinical course lasting less than 24 hours.
The illness is self-limited and recovery occurs in
2448 hours.
5. C. perfringens Colitis
A sporadic diarrheal syndrome, usually occurring in
elderly patients during treatment with antibiotics,
has been described.
6. Clostridial Endometritis
This condition is a grave complication of incom
plete abortion, or the use of inadequately sterilized
instruments.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Gas gangrene is a medical emergency. The diagnosis
of gas gangrene must be made primarily on clinical
grounds, and the function of the laboratory is only
to provide confirmation of the clinical diagnosis
as well as identification and enumeration of the
infecting organisms.
A. Specimens
(1) Edge of the affected muscles; (2) Exudates from
the wound; and (3) Necrotic tissue and muscle
fragments.
B. Microscopy
Gram stained films give presumptive information
about the species of clostridia present and their
relat ive numbers. If gas gangrene is present,
Gram-positive rods may predominate. Thick,
stubby, Gram-positive rods suggest C. perfringens
or C. sordellii, citron bodies, boat- or leafshaped
pleomorphic bacilli with irregular staining, may
indicate C. septicum; slender rods with round
terminal spores suggest C. tetani and large rods with
oval sub terminal spores indicate C. novyi.
C. Culture
Fresh and heated blood agar are used for aerobic
and anaerobic cultures. To prevent swarming
by some species of clostridia, the use of plates
containing increased agar (5-6%) are considered. A
plate of serum or egg yolk agar, with C. perfringens
antitoxin spread on one half is used for the Nagler
reaction.
Four tubes of cooked meat broth are inoculated
and heated at 100C for 5, 10, 15 and 20 minutes,
incubated and subcultured on blood agar plates
after 2448 hours, to differentiate the organisms
with heat resistant spores. Blood cultures are
often positive, especially in C. perfringens and
C. septicum infections. However, C. perfringens
bacteremia may occur without gas gangrene.
D. Identification
Examine plates for typical colonies. The isolates are
identified based on their morphological, cultural,
biochemical and toxigenic characters.
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Animal Pathogenicity
0.1 mL 24 hours growth in cooked meat broth is
injected into a healthy guinea pig by intramuscular
route. The animal dies within 24 hours. A control
animal protected with antiserum prior to test is also
included. On autopsy, bacteria can be recovered
from heart and spleen of the test animal.
Clostridium tetani
Clostridium telani is the causative agent of tetanus,
a disease that is now relatively rare in welldeveloped countries.
Morphology
It is a gram-positive, slender bacillus, 25 0.41 mm
with rounded ends. The spores are spherical, ter
minal and twice the diameter of vegetative cells
giving them typical drumstick appearance (Fig.
30.3). It is non-capsulated and motile by peritrichate
flagella (except C. tetani type VI) with peritrichate
flagella. Young cultures of the organism usually stain
Gram-positive, but in older cultures and in smears
made from wounds, they are gram-variable and even
are gram-negative.
Cultural Characteristics
C. tetani is an obligate anaerobe. The optimal
temperature for growth is 37 C, and the optimal pH
is 7.4. It can grow well in cooked meat broth (CMB),
thioglycollate broth, nutrient agar and blood agar.
In cooked meat broth (CMB), growth occurs as
turbidity and there is also some gas formation.
Biochemical Reactions
C. tetani has feeble proteolytic but no saccharolytic
property. It does not attack any sugar. Gelatin
liquefaction occurs very slowly. It is indole positive
and MR, VP, H2S and nitrate reduction negative.
A greenish fluorescence is produced on media
containing neutral red (as on MacConkeys medium).
Resistance: The spores are killed by boiling for
1015 minutes but some resist boiling for up
to three hours. They can, however, be killed by
autoclaving at 121C for 15 minutes.
Spores are able to survive in soil for years.
They are killed by exposure to iodine (1% aqueous
solution), hydrogen peroxide (10 volumes) and
glutaraldehyde (2%) within a few hours.
Antigenic Structure
Flagella (H), somatic (O), and spore antigens
have been demonstrated in C. tetani. The spore
antigens are different from the H and 0 antigens of
the somatic cell.
Flagella (H) antigen: Ten serological types have
been recognized based on agglutination (types I
to X) of which type I and III are the most common.
This typing is on the basis of their flagellar (H)
antigens. Type VI contains nonflagellated strains.
Tetanus Toxin
Epidemiology
Tetanospasmin
All of the symptoms in tetanus are attributable to an
extremely toxic neurotoxin, tetanospasmin. The toxin
is a heat-labile, oxygen stable, powerful plasmidencoded neurotoxin and has been crystallized. It
gets toxoided spontaneously or in the presence of low
concentrations of formaldehyde. It is a good antigen
and is specifically neutralized by the antitoxin.
On release from the bacillus, it is autolyzed to
form a heterodimer consisting of a heavy chain
(93,000 MW) and a light chain (52,000 MW) joined
by a disulphide bond. The purified toxin is active in
extremely small amounts and has an minimal lethal
dose (MLD) for mice of about 5075 10-6 mg.
Tetanolysin
Tetanolysin is a heat labile, oxygen labile hemo
lysin, antigenically related to the oxygen labile
hemolysins produced by C. perfringens, C. novyi and
Str. pyogens. It is not relevant in the pathogenesis of
tetanus.
Pathogenicity
Tetanus develops following the contamination
of wound with C. tetani spores. The most typical
focus of infection in tetanus is a puncture wound.
Introduced foreign bodies or small areas of cell
killing create a nidus of devitalized material in
which tetanus spores can germinate and grow.
Germination of spores is dependent upon the
reduced oxygen tension occurring in devitalized
tissue. After germination of the spores, toxin
is elaborated and gains entrance to the central
nervous system.
C. tetani has little invasive power. Infection
strictly remains localized in the wound and the
disease is due to the effect of a potent diffusible
exotoxin (tetanospasmin). The toxin exerts its effects
on the spinal cord, the brainstem, peripheral nerves,
at neuromuscular junctions and directly on muscles.
Toxin diffuses to affect the relevant level of the
spinal cord (local tetanus) and then to affect the
entire system (generalized tetanus). These stages,
including the intermediate one of ascending
Laboratory Diagnosis
The diagnosis of tetanus is made on clinical
grounds. Laboratory tests only help in confirmation.
A. Specimen: Wound exudate or tissue removed
from the wound.
B. Microscopy: Microscopy is unreliable and the
demonstration of the typical drumstick bacilli
in wounds in itself is not diagnostic of tetanus.
It may not also be possible to distinguish by
microscopy between C. tetani and morphologi
cally similar bacilli such as C. tetanomorphum
and C. sphenoides. Hence, microscopy is
unreliable. Simple light microscopy is often
unsuccessful. Immunofluorescence microscopy
with a specific stain is possible but not generally
available.
C. Culture: The material is inoculated on one
half of a blood agar plate. C. tetani produces
a swarming growth which may be detected
on the opposite half of the plate after 12 days
incubation anaerobically. The incorporation of
polymyxin B, to which clostridia are resistant,
makes the medium more selective.
The material is also inoculated into three
tubes of cooked meat broth, one of which is
heated to 80C for 15 minutes, the second
for five minutes, and the third left unheated.
The purpose of heating for different periods
is to kill vegetative bacteria, while leaving
undamaged tetanus spores, which vary widely
in heat resistance. The cooked meat tubes are
incubated at 37C and subcultured on one half
of blood agar plates daily for up to four days.
D. Toxigenicity test: Toxigenicity is best tested
in animals. Control mice are protected with
tetanus antitoxin. Two mice, one unprotected
and other protected are used for each test.
One animal is protected by giving 1,000 units of
tetanus antitoxin intraperitoneally 1 hour before
the test. Inject 0.1 ml of a 48 hours CMB culture
supernate of the organism intramuscularly into
the hind limb of one mouse (the test) and the
same amount in the another animal (control
Prophylaxis
The available methods of prophylaxis are:
1. Surgical attention
2. Antibiotics
3. Immunizationpassive, active or combined.
1. Surgical prophylaxis: This includes prompt and
adequate wound toilet and proper surgical debri
dement of wound, removal of foreign material,
necrotic tissue and blood clots to prevent an
anaerobic environment for the growth of C. lelani.
2. Antibiotic prophylaxis: Antibiotics destroy
or inhibit C. tetani and pyogenic bacteria
in the wound, so that the production of the
toxin can be prevented. Long-acting penicillin
injection is the drug of choice. An alternative
is erythromycin. Antibiotic prophylaxis does
not replace immunoprophylaxis but serves as
a useful adjunct.
3. Immunoprophylaxis
It includes 3 types of immunization:
i. Active immunization
ii. Passive immunization
iii. Combined immunization
i. Active immunization: Tetanus is best
prevented by active immunization with tetanus
toxoid. Two preparations are available for active
immunization are:
a. Combined vaccine (DPT)
b. Monovalent vaccines
Plain or fluid (formol) toxoid
Tetanus vaccine, adsorbed (PTAP, APT)
Tetanus toxoid (formol toxoid), which is
available either as plain toxoid, or adsorbed
on aluminum hydroxide or phosphate (APT),
is commonly used for active immunization.
Three doses of 0.5 ml tetanus toxoid
(APT) each are given intramuscularly,
with an interval of 46 weeks between first
two doses and 612 months between the
second and third dose. A full course of three
doses confers immunity for a period of at
least 10 years. A booster dose of toxoid is
recommended after 10 years.
Tetanus toxoid is given along with diphtheria
toxoid and pertusis vaccine called DPT in
children as triple vaccine. Pertusis vaccine
acts as adjuvant. Three doses are given
intramuscularly at interval of 46 weeks,
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Treatment
1. The patient remains conscious and requires
skilled sedation and constant nursing.
2. Treatment of tetanus requires debridement
of the primary wound, use of metronidazole,
passive immunization with human tetanus
immunoglobulin, and vaccination with tetanus
toxoid.
3. Full wound exploration and debridement is
arranged, and the wound is cleansed and left
open with a loose pack.
4. The patient is given 10,000 units of human
tetanus immunoglobulin (HTIG) in saline by
slow intravenous infusion.
6. Penicillin or metronidazole is given for as long
as considered necessary to ensure that bacterial
growth and toxin production are stopped.
7. Vaccination with a series of three doses of
tetanus toxoid followed by booster doses every
10 years is highly effective in preventing tetanus.
Cultural Characteristics
Pathogenicity
Morphology
Classification
The species C. botulinum has been divided into
eight serologically distinct typesA, B, C1, and
C2, D, E, F, and G-on the basis of the type of toxin
produced. The toxins produced by different types
are antigenically distinct but pharmacologically
similar.
Botulinum Toxin
A powerful exotoxin produced by C. botulinum is
responsible for its pathogenicity. It differs, however,
from a classic exotoxin in that it is not released
during the life of the organism but appears in
the medium only after death and autolysis of the
organism. It is believed to be synthesised initially
as a nontoxic protoxin or progenitor toxin. Trypsin
and other proteolytic enzymes activate progenitor
toxin to active toxin. The production of botulinum
toxin is governed by specific bacteriophages.
Properties of toxin: Botulinum toxin is one of the
most potent toxins known. It is isolated as a pure
crystalline protein with MW 70,000. It has a lethal
dose for mice of 0.000,000,033 mg and lethal dose for
human beings is probably 12 mg. It is a neurotoxin
and acts slowly, taking several hours to kill.
1. Food-borne Botulism
It is due to the ingestion of preformed toxin. The
source of botulism is usually preserved food such
as meat and meat products, fish, and vegetables.
Food responsible for botulism is usually abnormal
in appearance and odour.
Symptoms usually begin 1836 hours after inge
stion of food and may include nausea, vomiting,
thirst, constipation, double vision, difficulty in
swallowing, speaking and breathing. This may be
followed by muscular weakness, blurred vision,
and death as a result of respiratory failure. Case
fatality varies from 2570%.
2. Wound Botulism
Wound botulism is a very rare condition resulting
from wound infection with C. botulinum. Toxin is
produced at the site of infection and is absorbed.
The symptoms are those of foodborne botulism
except for the gastrointestinal components which
are absent. Type A has been responsible for most
of the cases studied.
3. Infant Botulism
This is a toxico-infection. C. botulinum spores are
ingested in food, get established in the gut and
there produce the toxin. The disease typically
affects infants younger than 1 year (most between
me and 6 months). The most common food source
in infant botulism is honey contaminated with
botulinum spores.
Clinically, infant botulism is an acute flaccid
paralysis. After a period of normal development;
the infant develops constipation, listlessness,
difficulty in sucking and swallowing, weak or
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Treatment
Laboratory Diagnosis
Clostridium difficile
Prophylaxis
Control can be achieved by proper canning and
preservation. Children younger than 1 year should
not eat honey.
A prophylactic dose of polyvalent antitoxin
should be given intramuscularly to all persons who
have eaten food suspected of causing botulism.
Active immunization should be considered
for laboratory staff. Two injections of aluminum
sulfate adsorbed toxoid may be given at an interval
of ten weeks, followed by a booster a year later.
Morphology
C. difficile is a motile Gram-positive rod with oval
subterminal spores. Spores are large, oval and
terminal. It is nonhemolytic, saccharolytic and
weakly proteolytic.
Pathogenesis
Toxins: The organism produces an enterotoxin
(toxin A) and a cytotoxin (toxin B).
1. Toxin A is an enterotoxin that is primarily
responsible for diarrhea. It is capable of pro
ducing fluid accumulation in ligated rabbit ileal
loop assay.
2. Toxin B is a potent cytotoxin capable of
producing cytopathogenic effects in several
tissue culture cell lines.
Pathogenesis: It is a proven cause of antibiotic
associated diarrhea (AAD), and pseudomembranous
colitis (PMC) a life-threatening condition. The
disease develops in people taking antibiotics.
The three drugs most commonly implicated are
clindamycin, ampicillin and the cephalosporins.
The severity of disease varies widely from mild
diarrhea through varying degrees of inflammation
of the large intestine to a fulminant PMC.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Isolation of bacilli: C. difficile can be isolated
from the feces by enrichment and selective
culture procedures.
2. Demonstration of toxin: Toxin B can be
demonstrated in the feces of patients by its
characteristic effect on Hep-2 and human
diploid cell cultures or both toxins may be
demonstrated by immunological methods, e.g.
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
Important questions
1. Classify clostridia. Discuss the laboratory diagnosis
of gas gangrene.
2. Discuss the pathogenicity and prophylaxis of gas
gangrene.
3. Define gas gangrene and discuss its bacteriology
and pathogenesis
4. Enumerate various pathogenic clostridia. Describe
the pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of
tetanus.
5. Write short notes on:
a. Alpha toxin
b. Stormy clot reaction
c. Nagler reaction
d. Gas gangrene.
e. Toxins of C. tetani
f. Tetanospasmin
g. Prophylaxis of tetanus.
h. Clostridium botulinum
i. Botulism
j. Botulinum toxin
k. Laboratory diagnosis of botulism
l. Clostridium difficile.
m. Pseudomembranous colitis.
n. Antibiotic associated colitis (diarrhea).
31
Chapter
Nonsporing Anaerobes
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe classification of nonsporing anaerobes
Introduction
The anaerobic bacteria are widespread in nature.
A bewildering range of anaerobes is found in the
mouth and oropharynx, gastrointestinal tract
and female genital tract of healthy individuals as
part of the commensal flora. They constitute the
predominant part of our normal indigenous flora
on skin and membrane surfaces and outnumber
facultatively anaerobic bacteria in the gut by a
factor of 1000:1. The numbers of anaerobes present
have been estimated to be 104 to 105/mL in the small
intestine, 108/mL in saliva and 1011/g in the colon.
On the skin, in the mouth, in the upper respiratory
tract, and often in the female lower genital tract,
they outnumber facultatively anaerobic bacteria
by a factor of 5: 1 to 10: 1. Many of these anaerobic
organisms. Previously considered to be harmless
commensals of our indigenous flora, are now
recognized as opportunistic pathogens that may
produce disease when the hosts resistance is
reduced.
Classification
Medically important anaerobes may be broadly
classified as shown in Table 31.1.
Anaerobic cocci
Strictly anaerobic gram-positive cocci have
been assigned to the genera Peptococcus,
Peptostreptococcus, Coprococcus, Ruminococcus
and Sarcina. Strictly anaerobic gram-negative
cocci are included in Veillonella, Megasphera and
Acidaminococcus.
Peptococcus
Most of the peptococci have now been reclassified
as peptostreptococci. Peptococcus niger is the
only surviving member of the genus Peptococcus.
They are gram-positive, nonsporing, anaerobic
cocci, that occur singly or in pairs or in clusters.
Peptostreptococcus
They are cocci of small size (0.22.5 m). Many of
them are aerotolerant and grow well under 10%
CO2 in an aerobic atmosphere.
Peptostreptococcus anaerobius is most often
responsible for puerperal sepsis and Pst. magnus
for abscesses.
Anaerobic, nonspore-forming,
gram-positive bacilli
This group contains many genera, of which medically
relevant are Eubacterium, Propionibacterium,
Lactobacillus, Mobiluncus, Bifidobacterium and
Actinomyces.
1. Eubacterium
Members of the genus Eubacterium are strictly
anaerobic and grow very slowly. They are members
of the normal mouth and intestinal flora. Some
species (E. brachy, E. timidum and E. nodatum)
are commonly seen in periodontitis. E. lentum is
commonly isolated from nonoral clinical specimens.
2. Bifidobacterium
Bifidobacterium is gram-positive bacilli nonmotile,
nonsporing and pleomorphic, showing true and
false branching. They occur as normal flora of
mouth, gastrointestinal tract (GI) tract and genito
urinary tract. They are usually nonpathogenic.
4. Mobiluncus
Members of the genus Mobiluncus are obligate
anaerobic, gram-variable or gram-negative, curved
bacilli with tapered ends. Two species, Mobiluncus
curtisii and Mobiluncus mulieris, have been identified
in humans.
Mobiluncus curtisii and Mobiluncus mulieris
have been isolated from the vagina in bacterial
vaginosis, along with Gardnerella vaginalis. The
organisms colonize the genital tract in low numbers
but are abund ant in women with bacterial
vaginosis. Their microscopic appearance is a useful
marker for this disease, but the precise role of these
organisms in the pathogenesis of bacterial vaginosis
is unclear.
5. Propionibacterium
3. Lactobacillus
Propionibacterium propionicus
Causes lacrimal canaliculitis and abscesses.
1. Bacteroides
The genus Bacteroides can be divided.
a. Bile-tolerant
i. Members of the B. fragilis groupB. fragilis, B.
ovatus, B. distasonis, B. vulgatus, B. thetaiotao
micron, and others.
ii. Two other speciesBacteroides eggerthii and
Bacteroides splanchnicus.
1. Bacteroides
a. Bile-tolerant Species
Members of the B. fragilis group, which contains
about 10 related species, are especially pathogenic.
B. fragilis is the most common species of anaerobic
bacteria isolated from infectious processes of soft
tissue and anaerobic bacteremia.
B. fragilis is the most frequent of the nonsporing
anaerobes isolated from clinical specimens. It is
often recovered from blood, pleural and peritoneal
fluids, CSF, brain abscesses, wounds and urogenital
infections. Their polysaccharide capsule is an
important virulence factor, conveying resistance
to phagocytosis.
b. Bile-sensitive Species
i. Pigmented species
1. Prevotella
Prevotella spp. appears as gram-negative coccobacilli
or bacilli, very similar to Bacteroides spp. Prevotella
melaninogenica is part of the normal flora of the
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2. Porphyromonas
Porphyromonas species can be cultured from
gingival and periapical tooth infections and, more
commonly, breast, axillary, perianal, and male
genital infections.
2.
Fusobacterium
3. Leptotrichia
They are long, straight or slightly curved rods, often
with pointed ends. This species was originally
classified in the genus Fusobacterium, and was
formerly known as Vincents fusiform bacillus or
Fusobacterium fusiforme. The genus Leptotrichia
contains the single spec ies, L. buccalis. The
association of L. buccalis with disease is not clearcut,
although it has been reported in acute necrotizing
Anaerobic infections
Most of the anaerobic bacteria that cause infection
are members of our normal indigenous flora.
Anaerobic infections are usually endogenous and
are caused by tissue invasion by bacteria normally
resident on the respective body surfaces. Anaerobic
bacteria are normally present on the skin, mouth,
nasopharynx and upper respiratory tract, intestines
and vagina (Table 31.2).
Anaerobic infections generally follow some
precipitating factor, such as trauma, tissue necrosis,
impaired circulation, hematoma formation or the
presence of foreign bodies. Diabetes, malnutrition,
malignancy or prolonged treatment with aminoglyco
side antibiotics, corticosteroids and cytotoxic agents
may act as predisposing factors. Anaerobic infections
are typically polymicrobial.
Table 31.3 lists the common sites and type of
anaerobic infections and the bacteria responsible.
Laboratory Diagnosis
As anaerobes form part of the normal flora of the
skin and mucous surfaces, their isolation from
specimens has to be interpreted cautiously. The
mere presence of an anaerobe does not prove its
causal role.
B. Direct Microscopy
Examination of a gram stained smear is very useful.
Pus in anaerobic infection usually shows a large
variety of different organisms and numerous pus
cells.
Examination of the specimen under ultraviolet
light may show the bright red fluorescence of P.
melaninogenica.
C. Culture
Several special media have been described for
anaerobes but for routine diagnostic work, freshly
prepared blood agar with neomycin, yeast extract,
Skin
MouthNasopharynx Intestine
Clostridium
++
Actinomyces
Bifidobacterium
Propionibacterium
Vagina
++
++
Bacteroides fragilis
++
P. melaninogenica
++
Fusobacterium
++
++
Gram-positive cocci
++
++
++
Gram-negative cocci
++
++
Spirochetes
|225
Type of infection
Brain abscess
B. fragilis; Peptostreptococcus
D. Respiratory
E. Abdominal
B. fragilis
F. Female genitalia
P. melaninogenica,
anaerobic occi; B. fragilis
Genital anaerobes and Cl. perfrinfens
Anaerobic cocci.
Anaerobic cocci; P. melaninogenica
(Staphylococcus aureus commonest cause)
B. fragilis and others
D. Identification
Colony morphology, pigmentation, and fluorescence
are helpful in identifying anaerobes. Biochemical
activities and production of short-chain fatty acids
as measured by gas-liquid chromatography are used
for laboratory confirmation. It takes time and is
difficult, but it is possible to report on the following:
1. Whether the infection is solely aerobic, anaerobic
or mixed.
2. The identification of the more common anaero
bes, particularly of B. fragilis.
Key Points
Many anaerobic bacteria are pathogenic for human
beings, and they outnumber aerobic bacteria in
many habitats
Anaerobic gram-positive cocci: Most of important
anaerobic cocci belong to the genus Peptostreptococcus
Important questions
1.
Classify nonsporing anaerobes. Discuss the
laboratory diagnosis of infections caused by
nonsporing anaerobes.
2. Give an account of infections caused by nonsporing
anaerobes.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Anaerobic cocci
b. Lactobacillus
c. Bacteroides
d. Fusobacterium
e. Anaerobic gram-positive bacilli.
32
Chapter
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Classify mycobacteria
Discuss morphology and culture characteristics
and biochemical characteristics of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
INTRODUCTION
The genus Mycobacterium belongs to the family
Mycobacteriaceae. There are over 80 named
species of mycobacteria. The most familiar of
the species are Mycobacterium tuberculosis
(MTB) and Mycobacterium leprae, the causative
agents of tuberculosis (TB) and Hansens disease
(leprosy), respectively. The name mycobacterium,
meaning fungus like bacterium is derived from
the mould-like appearance of Mycobacterium
tuberculosis when growing in liquid media.
They are aerobic, nonmotile, noncapsulated
and nonsporing. Growth is generally slow. The
genus includes obligate parasites, opportunistic
pathogens and saprophytes (Table 32.1). They
do not stain readily, but once stained with hot
carbol fuchsin or other aryl methane dyes, they
resist decolorization with dilute mineral acids (or
alcohol). Mycobacteria are, therefore, known as
acid-fast bacilli (AFB).
The first member of this genus to be identified
was the lepra bacillus discovered by Armal1er
Hansen in 1868. Robert Koch (1882) isolated
the mammalian tubercle bacillus and proved
its causative role in tuberculosis by satisfying
Kochs postulates. Tuberculosis in humans was
subsequently shown to be caused by two types
of the bacillusthe human and bovine types,
designated Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M.
bovis respectively. Saprophytic mycobacteria were
isolated from a number of sources. These included
Chap-32.indd 227
15-03-2016 11:13:50
MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS
Morphology
M. tuberculosis is a slender, straight, or slightly
curved rod with rounded ends, about 3 m 0.3 m,
in pairs or as small clumps. The bacilli are nonmotile,
nonsporing, noncapsulated and acid-fast.
When stained with carbol fuchsin by the Ziehl
Neelsen method or by fluorescent dyes (auramine
O, rhodamine), they resist decolorization by 20%
sulphuric acid and absolute alcohol for 10 minutes
(acid and alcohol fast). With ZiehlNeelsen acidfast stain, the tubercle bacilli stain bright red, while
the tissue cells and other organisms are stained
blue (Fig. 32.1).
Acid fastness has been ascribed variously to
the presence in the bacillus of an unsaponifiable
wax (mycoloic acid) or to a semi permeable
membrane around the cell. It is related to the
integrity of the cell and appears to be a property
of the lipid-rich waxy cell wall. Staining may be
uniform or granular. In M. tuberculosis beaded or
barred forms are frequently seen, but M. bovis stains
more uniformly. M. bovis appear straighter, stouter
and shorter with uniform stainin (Table 32.2).
Cultural Characteristics
M. tuberculosis is an obligate aerobe while M.
bovis is microaerophilic on primary isolation,
becoming aerobic on subculture. The optimal
growth temperature of tubercle bacilli is 3537C.
Optimum pH is 6.47.0. The bacilli grow slowly,
the generation time in vitro being 1415 hours.
Colonies appear in about two weeks and may
sometimes take up to eight weeks.
Solid Medium
Tubercle bacilli are able to grow on a wide range of
enriched culture media and do not have exacting
growth requirements. The solid media contain egg
(Lowenstein Jensen, Petragnini, Dorset), blood
(Tarshis), serum (Loeffler) or potato (Pawlowsky).
The solid medium most widely employed
for routine culture is LowensteinJensen (LJ)
medium. This consists of coagulated hens egg,
mineral salt solution, asparagine and malachite
green, the last acting as a selective agent inhibiting
Chap-32.indd 228
Figs 32.2: LJ media without growth (A) and with growth (B)
15-03-2016 11:13:51
|229
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
M. bovis
1. Morphology
2. Growth on LJ medium
Growth is dysgonic
3. Effect of glycerol
4. Oxygen requirement
Obligate aerobe
5. Colony morphology
Dry, rough, raised, wrinkled, offwhite to buff colored and not easily
emulsifiable (rough, buff and tough)
+
+
Variable
7. Susceptibility to pyrazinamide
(50 g/mL)
8. Susceptibility to thiophen
2-carboxylic acid
hydrazide (10 g/mL )
+
+
6.
Biochemical reactions
Nitrate reduction
Niacin production
Tween 80 hydrolysis
9. Animal pathogenicity
Guinea-pig, rabbit
Liquid Media
Among the several liquid media described,Dubos,
Middlebrooks, Proskauer and Becks, Sulas and
Sautons media are the more common. Dubos
medium and Middlebrook 7H9 are two commonly
used liquid media. Liquid media are not generally
employed for routine cultivation, but are used
for sensitivity testing, chemical analyses and
preparation of antigens and vaccines.
In liquid media without dispersing agents the
growth begins at the bottom, creeps up the sides and
forms a prominent surface pellicle which may extend
along the sides above the medium. Ordinarily,
mycobacteria grow in clumps or masses because of
the hydrophobic character of the cell surface. Diffuse
growth is obtained in Dubos medium containing
Tween-80 (sorbitan monooleate). In liquid cultures
they often grow as twisted rope-like colonies termed
serpentine cords. Virulent strains tend to form long
serpentine cords in liquid media, while avirulent
strains grow in a more dispersed manner. The cord
factor itself is not a virulence factor, as it is present
in some avirulent strains as well.
Resistance
Although mycobacteria can survive for several
weeks in the dark, especially under moist
conditions, and for many days in dried sputum
on clothing and in dust, they are rapidly killed
by ultraviolet light (including the component in
daylight and sunlight), even through glass, and
Chap-32.indd 229
Biochemical Reactions
Several biochemical tests are used in identifying
and differentiation of mycobacterial species.
1. Niacin test: Most mycobacteria possess the
enzyme that converts free niacin to niacin
ribonucleotide. M. tuberculosis lacks this
enzyme and accumulates niacin (nicotinic
acid) in the culture medium. The test is positive
with human type and negative with bovine type
of bacilli.
2. Nitrate reduction test: M. tuberculosis, M.
kansasii, M. fortuitum, M. chelonei, M szulgai,
M. flavescens, M. terrae and M. triviale produce
enzyme nitroreductase. Therefore, all these
reduce nitrate to nitrite. M. avium do not do so.
3. Catalase activity: Catalase is an enzyme that
can split hydrogen peroxide into water and
oxygen. Mycobacteria are catalase positive.
15-03-2016 11:13:51
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Antigenic Structure
Mycobacteria possess two types of antigens,
cell wall (insoluble) and cytoplasmic (soluble)
antigens.
Chap-32.indd 230
2. Cytoplasmic Antigens
Cytoplasmic antigens are protein antigens which
are employed to type the mycobacteria. These
include antigen 5, antigen 6, antigen 14, antigen
19, antigen 32, antigen 38 and antigen 60. All are
protein in nature except antigen 60 which is a
lipopolysaccharide protein complex.
Mycobacteriophages
Numerous phages with activities on many
mycobacterial species, including M. tuberculosis, have
been isolated from both clinical and environmental
sources. Many mycobacteriophages have been
isolated from soil, water and other environmen
tal sources as well as from lysogenic strains. Many
mycobacteria infected with phage are not truly lyso
genic. Instead of being integrated with the bacterial
chromosome, the phage genome appears free, like
a plasmid. This is called pseudolysogeny.
M. tuberculosis has been classified into four
phage types - A,B,C, and I (a type intermediate
between A and B). Phage type A is the most common
and is present worldwide. Type B is common in
Europe, the Middle East and North America. Type
C is seen rarely. Type I is common in India and
neighboring countries. Phage 33D can lyse M.
tuberculosis, M. bovis, M. africanum and M. microti.
Pathogenesis
The source of infection is usually an open case of
pulmonary tuberculosis. The mode of infection is
by direct inhalation of aerosolized bacilli contained
in droplet nuclei of expectorated sputum tubercle
bacilli are acquired from persons with active
disease who are excreting viable bacilli by means
of coughing, sneezing, or talking. Infection also
occurs infrequently by ingestion, for example,
through infected milk, and rarely by inoculation.
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1. Primary Tuberculosis
The site of the initial infection is usually the lung,
following the inhalation of bacilli. These bacilli
engulfed by alveolar macrophages multiply and give
rise to a subpleural focus of tuberculous pneumonia,
commonly located in the lower lobe or the lower part
of the upper lobe to form the initial lesion or Ghon
focus. The Ghon focus, together with the enlarged
hilar lymph nodes, form the primary complex. In
addition, bacilli are seeded by further lymphatic and
hematogenous dissemination in many organs and
tissues, including other parts of the lung.
Within about 10 days of infection, clones of
antigen-specific T lymphocytes are produced
interacting with macrophages. These release
cytokines, notably interferon-gamma, which activates
macrophages and cause them to form a compact
cluster or granuloma, around the foci of infection.
These activated mainphages are called epitheloid
cells.
If there is little antigen and a great deal of
hypersensitivity reaction, a hard tubercle or
granuloma may be formed. When fully developed,
this lesion, a chronic granuloma, consists of three
zones:
1. A central area of large, multinucleated giant
cells containing tubercle bacilli.
2. A mid zone of pale epithelioid cells, often
arranged radially, and
3. A peripheral zone of fibroblasts, lymphocytes,
and monocytes.
Later, peripheral fibrous tissue develops, and the
central area undergoes caseation necrosis. Such a
lesion is called a tubercle. A caseous tubercle may
break into a bronchus, empty its contents there, and
form a cavity. It may subsequently heal by fibrosis
or calcification.
Chap-32.indd 231
|231
Epidemiology
Tuberculosis is an ancient disease. Tuberculosis
also remains the leading cause of death among
notifiable infectious diseases. It has been called
the white plague and the captain of all the men
of death.
The most frequent source of infection is
the human who excretes, particularly from the
respiratory tract, large numbers of tubercle bacilli.
The large majority of the cases and deaths are from
the poor nations. India accounts for nearly onethird of global burden of tuberculosis.
Poverty and tuberculosis go together. Tuber
culosis had declined rapidly in the affluent nations
with improvements in standards of living. But with
the progress of the AIDS pandemic, tuberculosis
became a problem for the rich nations also.
M. bovis infection in humans is zoonotic
acquired through direct contact or by ingestion
of raw milk from animals. Bovine tuberculosis is
spread from animal to animal.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The definitive diagnosis of tuberculosis is based on:
Microscopy, culture, by transmitting the infection
to experiment al animals, demonstration of
hypersensitivity to tuberculoprotein and molecular
diagnostic methods.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
1. Specimens
a. Sputum: The most usual specimen for diagnosis
of pulmonary tuberculosis is sputum. Patient is
instructed to cough up the sputum into a clean
wide-mouthed container. Disposable waxed
cardboard containers are ideal. If sputum is
scanty, a 24-hour sample may be tested. Three or
more consecutive samples should be examined,
collected first thing in the morning if possible.
b. Laryngeal swabs or bronchial washings:
Laryngeal swabs or bronchial washings may
be collected where sputum is not available.
c. Gastric lavage: Gastric lavage can be examined in
small children who tend to swallow the sputum.
Tissue biopsies are homogenized by
grinding for microscopy and culture.
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Observed in (oil
immersion field)
Report
300 fields
Negative
12
100 fields
19
100 fields
1+
19
10 fields
2+
19
1 field
3+
More than 9
1 field
4+
Chap-32.indd 232
3. Concentration Methods
Several methods have been described for the
homogenization and concentration of sputum
and other specimens. Concentration methods
that do not kill the bacilli and so can be used for
culture and animal inoculation. Several methods
are in use:
i. Petroffs method: This simple method is widely
used. Equal volumes of sputum and 4% sodium
hydroxide are mixed and incubated at 37C with
frequent shaking till it gets liquefied and beco
mes clear. It is then centrifuged at 3,000 r.p.m.
for 30 minutes. The supernatant fluid is pipetted
off and the deposit is neutralized by adding 8%
hydrochloric acid in the presence of a drop of
phenol red indicator and used for smear, culture
and animal inoculation.
ii. Other methods: Instead of alkali, homogenization
can be achieved by treatment with dilute acids (6%
sulphuric acid, 3% hydrochloric acid or 5% oxalic
acid), N acetyl cysteine with NaOH, pancreatin,
desogen, zephiran and cetrimide.
4. Culture
It is a very sensitive diagnostic technique for tubercle
bacilli, detecting as few as 10100 bacilli per mL. The
concentrated material is inoculated onto at least
two bottles of LJ medium. A direct drug sensitivity
test may also be set-up if the specimen is positive
by microscopy.
Inoculated media are incubated at 3537C.
Growth of most strains of M tuberculosis may
appear in 28 weeks.
Cultures are examined for growth after
incubation at 37C for four days (for rapid growing
mycobacteria, fungi and contaminant bacteria)
and at least twice weekly thereafter. Any bacterial
growth is stained by the ZN method and, if acid-fast,
it is subcultured for further identification. The first
step in identification is to determine whether an
isolate is a member of the M. tuberculosis complex
(Fig. 32.4).
For routine purposes, a slow growing, nonpig
mented, niacin positive acid fast bacillus is taken
as M. tuberculosis. Confirmation is by detailed
biochemical studies. When the isolate is niacin
negative, a battery of tests may be needed for
identification, including growth at 25C and
45C, animal pathogenicity and biochemical tests
(Tables 32.2 and 32.4).
In recent years, isolation of mycobacteria from
clinical samples has been improved by newer
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Table 32.4 Some differential characteristics of tubercle bacilli causing human disease
Species
Oxygen
preference
Glycerol
enhanced
Niacin
Nitrate
TCH
reduction
Pyrazinamide
Pathogenicity
M.
tuberculosisa
Aerobic
Yes
Positive
Positive
Resistantb
Sensitive
Pathogen
M. bovis
Microaerophilic
No
Negative
Negative
Sensitive
Resistant
Pathogen
M. bovis BCG
Aerobic
Yes
Negative
Negative
Sensitive
Resistant
Opportunistic
pathogen
M. africanum
Microaerophilic
No
Variable
Variable
Sensitive
Sensitive
Pathogen
Chap-32.indd 233
5. Animal Inoculation
Sputum is decontaminated and concentrated by
Petroffs method and 0.5 mL each of the neutralized
and centrifuged deposit is inoculated intramuscu
larly into the thigh of two healthy, tuberculin-nega
tive guinea-pigs about 12 weeks old. The animals
are weighed before inoculation and at intervals
thereafter at weekly intervals and tuberculin test
is done after 34 weeks. One animal is killed after
four weeks and autopsied. If it shows no evidence
of tuberculosis, the other is autopsied after eight
weeks.
Necropsy shows the following:
i. Caseous lesion at the site of inoculation.
ii. The draining and internal lymph nodes are
enlarged and caseous. The infection may
spread to lumbar, portal, mediastinal and
cervical lymph nodes.
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6. Immunodiagnosis
i. Serology: Various serological tests like enzy
me-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA),
radioimmunoassay (RIA) and latex agglutination
have been tried for the serodiagnosis of
tuberculosis. ELISA is considered to be the
most sensitive and specific. ELISA test has been
attempted using several antigenic materials
such as antigen 5, antigen 6, antigen 60, purified
mycobacterial glycolipids, unheated sterile
culture filtrate of M. tuberculosis and purified
protein derivative derived from M. tuberculosis.
ii. Tuberculin testing: Demonstration of hyper
sensitivity to tuberculoprotein (tuberculin
testing) is a standard procedure. Its scope and
limitations are discussed below.
8. Chromatography
The cell walls of Mycobacterium organisms contain
long chain fatty acids called mycolic acids, which
may be detected chromographically. Earlier
Chap-32.indd 234
Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis
For diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis,
extrapulmonary tuberculosis microscopy, culture
and occasionally animal inoculation are also used,
though it is difficult to get conclusive results as the
bacilli are present in far fewer numbers in these
lesions than in pulmonary disease.
CSF from tuberculous meningitis often develops
a spider web clot on standing, examination of
which may be more successful than of the fluid.
The use of PCR and DNA probes may help detect
the bacilli speedily and more often.
Bone marrow and liver biopsy specimens from
miliary tuberculosis and blood from those with
HIV coinfection are useful for culture. Pus from
tuberculous abscesses often yields positive results
in smear and culture.
Pleural effusion and other exudates may be
collected with citrate to prevent coagulation. If free
from other bacteria, they may be used for culture
after centrifugation. If other bacteria are present,
prior concentration is necessary.
Urinary excretion of bacilli in renal tuberculosis is
intermittent. Hence it is advisable to test 36 morning
samples of urine. Each sample is centrifuged for 3000
rpm for 30 minutes and the sediment used for culture
after concentration.
Sensitivity Testing
Drug-resistant mutants continuously arise at a low
rate in any mycobacterial population. The purpose
of sensitivity testing is to determine whether the
great majority of the bacilli in the culture are
sensitive to the antitubercular drugs currently in
use. Several methods have been described:
1. Absolute concentration method: Resistance is
expressed as the lowest concentration of drug
that inhibits all or almost all of the growth,
that is, the minimum inhibitor concentration
(MIC). This method is inferior to resistance
ratio method because known sensitive strain
is not tested for MIC.
2. Resistance ratio method: The resistance-ratio
method in which test strains and susceptible
controls, i.e. a known sensitive strain (H37Rv)
of M. tuberculosis are inoculated on sets of LJ
medium containing doubling dilutions of drug.
The results are expressed as the ratio of the drug
concentration inhibiting the test strain to that
inhibiting the control strains.
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4.
5.
6.
Chap-32.indd 235
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Koch Phenomenon
Robert Koch (1890, 1891) originally described the
response of a tuberculous animal to reinfection.
In a normal guinea pig subcutaneous injection of
virulent tubercle bacillus produces no immediate
response, but after 1014 days a nodule develops
at the site, which breaks down to form an ulcer
that persists till the animal dies of progressive
tuberculosis. The draining lymph nodes are
enlarged and caseous. If on the contrary, virulent
tubercle bacillus is injected in a guinea pig which
had received a prior injection of the tubercle
bacillus 46 weeks earlier, an indurated lesion
appears at the site in a day or two. This undergoes
necrosis in another day or so to form a shallow
ulcer, followed by rapid healing and no lymph
node involvement or other tissues. This is known
as the Koch phenomenon and is a combination of
hypersensitivity and immunity.
Tuberculin Test
Principle: The principle of this test is delayed
(Type IV) hypersensitivity reaction.
Reagents
i. Original or old tuberculin (OT): Koch pre
pared a protein extract of tubercle bacillus by
concentrating tenfold by evaporation, a 68
week culture filtrate of the bacillus grown in
5% glycerol broth. This was called original or
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Method
1. Mantoux test: In the Mantoux test, 0.1 mL of
PPD containing 5 TU is injected intradermally
on the flexo r aspect of the forearm with a
tuberculin syringe.
A PPD dose of 1 TU is used when extreme
hypersensitivity is suspected; and doses of 10
or 100 when 5 TU test is negative.
Interpretation: Tuberculin tests should be
read 4872 hours after injection. Induration of
diameter 10 mm or more is considered positive,
5 mm or less negative and 69 mm is of doubtful
significance because it may be due to other
mycobacterial infections.
2. Heaf test: Multiple puncture testing as Heaf test
is done with a spring-loaded gun which fires
six prongs into the skin through a drop of PPD
(Heaf method). Single-test disposable devices
with PPD dried onto prongs (tine tests) are also
available for individual testing.
Result
I. Positive Test
A positive tuberculin test indicates hypersensitivity
to tuberculoprotein denoting infection with tuber
cle bacillus or BCG immunization, recent or past,
with or without clinical disease. The test becomes
positive 46 weeks after infection or immunization.
Chap-32.indd 236
Prophylaxis
In the prevention of tuberculosis general measures
such as adequate nutrition, good housing and
health education are as important as specific anti
bacterial measures. The latter consists of early
detection and treatment of cases, BCG vaccination
and by chemoprophylaxis.
BCG Vaccination
Immunoprophylaxis is by intradermal injection of
the live attenuated vaccine developed by Calmette
and Guerin (1921), the Bacille Calmette Guerin
or BCG. This is a strain of M. bovis attenuated by
239 serial subcultures in a glycerine-bile-potato
medium over a period of 13 years between the
years 1908 and 1920 which was avirulent for man
while retaining its capacity to induce an immune
response. The foller widely used BCG strains
include pasteur 1173 P2, Tokyo-172, copenhagen
1331 and Glaxo-1077.
Aim: The aim of BCG vaccination is to induce
a benign, artificial primary infection which will
stimulate an acquired resistance to possible
subsequent infection with virulent tubercle bacilli.
Dose and administration: BCG vaccine is available
in liquid form and freeze-dried (lyophilized) form.
Freeze-dried (lyophilized) form is more stable
preparation and commonly used. The lyophilized
vaccine is reconstituted by sterile physiological
saline to make a final concentration of 0.1 mg
(moist weight) in 0.1 mL of the vaccine and it is
supplied by BCG vaccine laboratory,Chennai.
Vaccine should be utilized within 36 hours once
reconstituted. The organisms grow to a limited
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Protective Efficacy
The duration of protection is from 15 to 20 years.
Several field trials have been conducted to assess the
efficacy of the BCG vaccine. Studies have shown that
the range of protection offered by BCG varied from
0 to 80% in different parts of the world (Table 32.5).
The consensus opinion is that BCG may not
protect from the risk of tuberculosis infection, but
gives protection to infants and young children
against the more serious types of the disease, such
as meningitis and disseminated tuberculosis.
BCG induces a nonspecific stimulation of the
immune system providing some protection against
leprosy and leukemia. Multiple injection of BCG
has been tried as adjunctive therapy in some
malignancies.
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Chemoprophylaxis
Chemoprophylaxis or preventive chemotherapy
is the administration of antituberculous drugs
(usually only isoniazid) to persons with latent
tuberculosis (asymptomatic tuberculin positive)
and a high risk of developing active tuberculosis, or
to the uninfected exposed to high risk of infection.
It is particularly indicated in infants of mothers
with active tuberculosis and in children living with
a case of active tuberculosis in the house. Isoniazid
5 mg/kg daily for 612 months is the usual course.
Trials have shown that this reduces the risk of
developing active disease by 90%. HIV infected
contacts of active tuberculosis also benefit from
this prophylaxis.
Treatment
The bactericidal drugs, along with the bacteri
static drug ethambutol (E) constitute the first-line
drugs in antituberculous therapy. The old practice
of daily administration of drugs for two years or
so has been replaced by short course regimens of
67 months, which are effective and convenient. A
typical example of such a schedule for a new smear
positive case is a combination of four drugs (HRZE)
given three times a week during an initial intensive
phase of two months, followed by 45 months of
continuing phase with only two drugs (HR) three
times a week.
Country or population
Efficacy (%)
193538
020
80
193748
Chicago, USA
Neonates
75
1947
Georgia, USA
617
194951
Puerto Rico
118
31
1950
>5
14
195052
UK
1415
78
All ages
60
Chingleput,
South India (Rural)
All ages
196871
Chap-32.indd 237
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Key Points
Mycobacteria are aerobic, nonmotile, noncapsulated
and nonsporing. Growth is generally slow
Mycobacteria are, known as acid-fast bacilli (AFB).
Acid fastness has been ascribed variously to the
presence in the bacillus of mycolic acid or to a sem
ipermeable membrane around the cell
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is weakly gram-positive,
strongly acid-fast, aerobic bacilli
Ziehl-Neelsen acid-fast stain is useful in staining
organisms. With this stain, the tubercle bacilli stain
bright red. Tubercle bacilli may also be stained with
the fluorescent dyes (auramine 0, rhodamine) and
appear yellow luminous bacilli under the fluorescent
microscope
They are aerobes, slow growers, produce luxuriant
eugonic growth after 28 weeks
The solid medium most widely employed for routine
culture is LowensteinJensen (LJ) medium without
starch
On LJ media, M. tuberculosis forms dry, rough, raised,
irregular colonies with a wrinkled surface. They are
creamy white, becoming yellowish or buff colored
on further incubation. They are tenacious and not
easily emulsified. Mycobacterium tuberculosis has
a luxuriant growth (eugenic growth) as compared
to Mycobacterium bovis, which grows poorly on LJ
glycerol medium (dysgonic growth)
Chap-32.indd 238
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Describe the morphology, cultural characteristics
and pathogenicity of M. tuberculosis.
2. Classify mycobacteria. Describe the laboratory
diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis.
3. Differentiate between Mycobacterium tuberculosis
and Mycobacterium bovis in a tabulated form.
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Chap-32.indd 239
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33
Chapter
Mycobacterium leprae
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology of M. leprae
Discuss cultivation of lepra bacilli
Explain animal models in leprosy
Describe pathogenesis of leprosy
Introduction
Leprosy is probably the oldest disease known to
mankind. Leprosy was described as kushta in
Sushruta Samhita written in India in 600 B.C. It
is caused by Mycobacterium leprae which was
discovered by Hansen in 1874 in Norway.
Mycobacterium leprae
Morphology
M. leprae is a straight or slightly curved rod, 18
mm x 0.20.5 mm in size, showing considerable
morphological variations. The rods may stain
uniformly or show granules and beads that are
slightly larger than the average diameter of the
cell. Polar bodies and other intracellular elements
may be present. Clubbed forms, lateral buds or
branching may be observed. They are nonmotile
and nonsporing.
They are gram-positive and stain more readily
than M. tuberculosis. With ZiehlNeelsen stain,
they are less acid-fast than tubercle bacilli, so 5%
sulfuric acid is employed for decolorization after
staining with carbol fuchsin. The bacilli are seen
singly and in groups, intracellularly or lying free
outside the cells. Inside the cells they are present
as bundles of organisms bound together by a lipidlike substance, the glia. These masses are known as
globi. Large numbers of bacilli may be packed in
the cells in an arrangement that suggests packets of
cigars. The parallel rows of bacilli in the globi give
appearance of a cigar bundle. In tissue sections, the
Cultivation
In spite of the efforts of many workers it has not so
far been possible to cultivate lepra bacilli either in
bacteriological media or in tissue culture. There
have been several reports of successful cultivation
but none has been confirmed. One of the best
known of such reports (1962) came from the Indian
Cancer Research Center (ICRC) Mumbai, where
an acid-fast bacillus was isolated from leprosy
patients, employing human fetal spinal ganglion
cell culture. This is known as ICRC bacillus. This
ICRC bacillus has been adapted for growth on
Lowenstein-Jensen medium. Its relation to the
lepra bacillus is uncertain.
There have been many attempts to transmit
leprosy to experimental animals. However, the
real break through was in 1960, when Shepard
discovered that M. leprae could multiply in the
footpads of mice kept at a low temperature (20C).
This observation has been confirmed and has
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Resistance
Antigenic Structure
Classification
Classification System of Ridley and Jopling
Lepromatous leprosy
1.Resistance
2.Infectivity
High
Low
3. Bacilli in skin
+++
+++
5. Granuloma formation
+++
6. Lepromin test
+++
7. Antibodies to M. leprae
Hypergammaglobulinemia
Normal
8.Prognosis
Poor
Good
Pathogenesis
Leprosy (Hansens disease) is a chronic granulo
matous disease of humans primarily involving
the skin, peripheral nerves and nasal mucosa but
capable of affecting any tissue or organ.
M. leprae is an obligate intracellular parasite
that multiplies very slowly within the mononuclear
phagocytes, especially the histiocytes of the skin
and Schwann cells of the nerves. M. leprae has an
especially strong predilection for nerves and is the
only known human pathogen that preferentially
attacks the peripheral nerves. The two extreme or
polar forms of the disease are the lepromatous and
tuberculoid types TT) types (Table 33.2).
1. Lepromatous Leprosy
Patient develops numerous nodular skin lesions
(lepromata) on face, ear lobes, hands, feet and
less commonly trunk. Skin lesions contain many
macrophages, often seen as large foamy cells
packed with AFB. Skin biopsy specimens may
contain up to 109 bacilli per gram of tissue. This is
known as multibacillary disease. Nodular skin
lesions ulcerate due to repeated trauma as a result
of loss of sensation. The ulcerated nodules become
secondarily infected that leads to distortion and
mutilation of extremities.
Bacilli invade the mucosa of the nose, mouth
and upper respiratory tract and are shed in large
numbers in nasal and oral secretions. Bacillemia
is common. Eyes, testes, kidneys and bones are
also involved.
Lepromatous leprosy is more infectious than
other types and has a poor prognosis. Cell-mediated
immunity is deficient and the lepromin test is
negative in lepromatous leprosy. Humoral antibodies
against mycobacterial antigens are produced in high
concentrations which play no protective role. Most
cases show biological false positive reaction in
standard serological tests for syphilis.
4. Indeterminate Type
There is an early unstable tissue reaction with mild
transient tissue lesion, often resembling maculoanesthetic patches which is not characteristic of
either the lepromatous or the tuberculoid type. In
many persons, the indeterminate lesions undergo
healing spontaneously. In others, the lesions may
progress to the tuberculoid or lepromatous types.
Epidemiology
Leprosy is an exclusively human disease and the
only source of infection is the patient. Disease is
spread by person-to-person contact. The mode
of entry may be either through the respiratory
tract or through the skin. Asymptomatic infection
appears to be quite common in endemic areas.
Bacilli may also be transmitted via breast milk
from lepromatous mothers, by insect vectors, or
by tattooing needles.
BT
BB
BL
LL
Bacilli in skin
+/
++
+++
+++
Granuloma formation
+++
++
Lepromin test
+++
+/
Antibodies to M. leprae
+/
+/
++
+++
TT, tuberculoid; BT, borderline tuberculoid; BB, borderline; BL, borderline lepromatous; LL, lepromatous
Immunity
Leprosy is a disease of low infectivity. A high degree
of innate immunity against lepra bacilli seems to
exist in human beings so that only a minority of
those infected develop clinical disease.
Infection with lepra bacilli induces both
humoral and cellular immune responses. Humoral
antibodies do not have deleterious effect on the
bacilli, while cellular immune mechanisms are
able of destroying them. Also, in leprosy there is
a close correlation between the various clinical
forms and the cell-mediated immunity (CMI)
response of the host. When it is adequate, the
lesions are of the tuberculoid type. Patients with
tuberculoid leprosy exhibit a strong delayed-type
hypersensitivity to lepromin.
The lepromatous type of disease develops
when cell mediated immunity is deficient. Delayed
hypersensitivity to the lepra bacillus protein is
absent. A number of abnormal serologic activities
are also associated with lepromatous leprosy,
including a biologic false positive reaction in
routine serologic tests for syphilis.
Reactions
Though leprosy is a chronic disease, its course is
sometimes interspersed with acute exacerbations
due to immune reactions. These are of two types:
1. Type 1 (Reversal reaction or the lepra reaction)
2. Type 2 (Erythema nodosum leprosum, (ENL))
1. Type 1 (Reversal reaction or the lepra
reaction): This occurs in borderline cases,
occurring spontaneously or more often during
chemotherapy. It is a cell-mediated immune
reaction, with an influx of lymphocytes into
lesions, and a shift to tuberculoid morphology.
It may rapidly cause severe and permanent
nerve damage.
2. Type 2 (Erythema nodosum leprosum,
(ENL)): This is an immune-complex reaction
seen only in lepromatous and borderline
lepromatous cases, usually a few months after
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Lepromin Test
Till recently, the only method for studying
immunity in leprosy was a skin test for delayed
hypersensitivity, the lepromin test first described
by Mitsuda in 1919.
Lepromins: The lepromins used as antigen in
lepromin test may be of human origin (lepromin-H)
or of armadillo origin (lepromin-A) and are of two
types:
1. Integral lepromin (Mitsuda lepromin): The
original antigen (lepromin) was developed by
Mitsuda in 1919. The original crude Mitsuda
antigens extracted from skin lesions of
lepromatous patients (integral lepromins) were
standardized on the basis of tissue content.
Standard lepromins are being prepared
increasingly from armadillo-derived lepra
bacilli (lepromin A
).
2. Bacillary lepromin: This contains more of
bacillary components and less of tissue. An
important example of bacillary lepromin is
Dharmendra antigen which is prepared by
floating out the bacilli from finely ground
lepromatous tissue with chloroform, evapo
rating it dry and removing the lipids by washing
with ether. The antigen is made up in phenol
saline for use.
Procedure
The test is performed by injecting intradermally 0.1
ml of lepromin into the inner aspect of the forearm of
the individual. As a routine, the reaction is read at 48
hours and 21 days. The response to the intradermal
injection of lepromin is typically biphasic:
1. Early or Fernandez reaction: The early
reaction is also known as Fernandez reaction.
It consists of erythema and induration at the site
of inoculation developing in 2448 hours and
usually remaining for 35 days. This reaction
indicates that the patient has been infected at
some time in the past and is a measure of preexisting delayed hypersensitivity.
2. Late or Mitsuda reaction: This is the classical
Mitsuda reaction. The reaction develops late,
becomes apparent in 710 days following the
injection and reaching its maximum in 3 or 4
weeks. At the end of 21 days, if there is a nodule
more than 5 mm in diameter at the site of
inoculation, the reaction is said to be positive.
Laboratory Diagnosis
M. leprae cannot grow in cell-free cultures. Thus,
laboratory confirmation of leprosy requires
histopathologic findings consistent with the
clinical disease and either skin test reactivity to
lepromin or the presence acid-fast bacilli in the
lesions. The diagnosis consists of demonstration
of acid-fast bacilli in the lesions.
1. Specimens
For routine examination, specimens are collected
from the nasal mucosa, skin lesions and ear lobules.
Biopsy of the nodular lesions and thickened nerves,
and lymph node puncture may be necessary in
some cases.
i. Skin Smears
Slit and scrape method: Material from the skin
is obtained from an active lesion, and also from
both the ear lobes by the slit and scrape method.
Samples from the skin should be obtained from
the edges of the lesion rather than from the center.
The skin is pinched up tight to minimize bleeding.
A cut about 5 mm long is made with a scalpel,
deep enough to get into the infiltrated layers. After
wiping off blood or lymph that may have exuded,
the blade of the scalpel is then turned at right angle
to the cut (slit) and the bottom and the sides of the
slit are scraped with the point of the blade, several
times in the same direction so that tissue fluid and
pulp (not blood) collects on one side of the blade
which is smeared uniformly on a slide. When smear
2. Microscopy
Smears are stained by ZiehlNeelsen method using
5% instead of 20% sulfuric acid for decolourization.
Acidfast bacilli (AFB) arranged in parallel bundles
within macrophages (Lepra-cell) confirm the
diagnosis of lepromatous leprosy. The viable
bacilli stain uniformly and the dead bacilli are
fragmented, irregular or granular.
The smears are graded, based on the number of
bacilli as follows:
110 bacilli in 100 fields
= 1+
110 bacilli in 10 fields
= 2+
110 bacilli per field
= 3+
10100 bacilli per field
= 4+
1001,000 bacilli per field
= 5+
More than 1,000 bacilli,
clumps and globi in every field
= 6+
Differentiation of live and dead bacilli: Live bacilli
in the smear appear solid and uniformly stained,
while dead or dying forms appear fragmented,
beaded and granular.
i. Bacteriological index (BI): The bacteriological
index (the number of bacilli in tissues) is
calculated by totalling the grades (number of
pluses, +s scored in all the smears and divided
by number of smears. Thus if 7 (seven) smears
examined have a total of fourteen pluses (14+),
BI will be 2. For calculating BI, a minimum of
four skin lesions, a nasal swab and both the ear
lobes are to be examined.
ii. Morphological index (MI): It is defined as
the percentage of uniformly stained bacilli
out of the total number of bacilli counted. This
provides a method of assessing the progress
of patients on chemotherapy.
3. Animal Inoculation
Injection of ground tissue from lepromatous
nodules or nasal scrapings from leprosy patient into
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4. Lepromin Test
It is not a diagnostic test but is used to assess the
resistance of patient to M. leprae infection. The test
can be used to assess the prognosis and response
to treatment.
5. Serological Test
Detection of antibody against M. leprae phenolic
glycolipid antigen has been claimed to be a
specific diagnostic test. Various serological tests
like latex agglutination, Mycobacterium leprae
particle agglutination (MLPA) and ELISA have been
described. Anti-PGL-1 antibody titers are higher in
lepromatous patients but the tuberculoid patients
show low titers. The antibody titers decrease
following effective chemotherapy.
Treatment
Dapsone (4, 4-diaminodiphenyl sulfone; DDS)
was the first effective chemotherapeutic agent
against leprosy. Due to emergence of dapsone
resistance, WHO recommended multiple drug
therapy (MDT) for all leprosy cases based on
dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine. Patients
with paucibacillary (I, TT, BT) leprosy are given
rifampicin 600 mg once a month (supervised)
and dapsone 100 mg daily (unsupervised) for six
months. For multibacillary (BB, BL, LL leprosy,
rifampicin 600 mg once a month (supervised,
dapsone 100 mg daily (unsupervised), clofazimine
300 mg once monthly supervised and 50 mg daily,
unsupervised are given for two years or until skin
smears are negative.
Immunotherapy
Since lepromatous leprosy patients do not possess
CMI, efforts are being made to induce effective CMI
to M. leprae in these patients. Procedures for trying
to achieve this objective include:
1. Intravenous injection of peripheral blood lym
phocytes obtained from patients with tuber
culoid leprosy or from healthy donors possessing
vigorous CMI and showing a strongly positive
lepromin (Mitsuda) reaction.
Prophylaxis
Case finding and adequate therapy have been the
methods employed for prophylaxis. Long-term
chemoprophylaxis has given encouraging results
in child contacts of infectious cases in India and
the Philippines.
Immunoprophylaxis
At present no effective vaccine against leprosy
exists. A number of candidate vaccines have been
tried and are still under trial. However, none of
these have reached the stage for universal use.
BCG vaccine: There is now considerable evidence
that BCG vaccine can provide some protection
against clinical leprosy. The results of controlled
trials with BCG vaccine have demonstrated
significant but varying levels of protection in
four different countriesUganda, Myanmar,
Papua New Guinea and in India, the Chingleput
(Chennai), ranging from 2380%. Field trials in
Venezuela with killed M. leprae and BCG provided
no better protection than BCG alone.
Candidate vaccines: All the reported candidate
vaccines have shown a similar degree of lepromin
conversions in lepromatous patients (5070%)
and lepromin negative healthy individuals (90%).
Field trials with different leprosy vaccines (BCG +
killed lepra bacilli; ICRC bacillus) have not given
conclusive results so far.
Mycobacterium lepraemurium
M. lepraemurium, a causative agent of rat leprosy,
was first described by Stefan sky in 1901 at Ode
ssa. The disease is probably transmitted naturally
from rat to rat by fleas. Rat leprosy characterized
by subcutaneous indurations, swelling of lymph
nodes, emaciation, and sometimes ulceration arid
loss of hair.
DNA studies have revealed that M. leprae
murium and M. leprae are not related species but
that there is a relatedness between M. lepraemurium
and M. avium. M. lepraemurium can be maintained
for months in tissue cultures of monocytes, where
it has a generation time of about 7 days. It has also
been cultured in rat fibroblasts, and in vitro in a
cysteine-containing medium.
Important Questions
1. Describe mycobacteria. Discuss the etiology,
pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of leprosy.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Cultivation of leprae bacilli
b. Animal models in leprosy
c. Lepromatous leprosy
d. Tuberculoid leprosy
e. Differences between lepromatous and tuberculoid leprosy
f. Lepromin test
g. Mycobacterium lepraemurium.
34
Chapter
Nontuberculous Mycobacteria
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Classify nontuberculous mycobacteria and
examples of different groups of nontuberculous
mycobacteria
INTRODUCTION
Mycobacteria other than human or bovine tubercle
bacilli, may occasionally cause human disease
resembling tuberculosis. This large group of
mycobacteria have been known by several names;
atypical,anonymous, unclassified, paratubercle,
tuberculoid, environmental or nontuberculous
mycobacteria (NTM), opportunistic MOTT
(mycobacteria other than tubercle bacilli).
The names environmental or opportunistic
mycobacteria are better suited as their natural
habitat appears to be soil or water and they cause
opportunistic infections in human beings. The
name nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) has
gained wide acceptance in recent years.
PROPERTIES OF NONTUBERCULOUS
MYCOBACTERIA (TABLE 34.1)
1. Temperature: They can grow at 25C, 37C, and
even at 44C.
2. Rate of growth: Some of them are rapid
growers. They produce colonies within 12
weeks of incubation in the Lowenstein-Jensen
(LJ) medium.
3. Colony characters: Some of them may produce
bright yellow or orange pigments during their
growth on the LJ medium.
M. tuberculosis
Temperature
37
2545C
Rate of growth
Slow
Slow or rapid
Growth on LJ medium
Eugonic
Dysgonic
Colony characters
Niacin test
3. Animal pathogenicity
4. Transmission
Person to person
Soil or water
1. Cuture
2. Biochemical reactions
Chap-34.indd 247
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CLASSIFICATION
Runyon(1959) classified NTM into four groups
(Table 34.2) based on phenotypic characteristics of
the various species, most notably pigment (yellow
or orange) production and rate of growth. These
include:
Group I: Photochromogens
Group II: Scotochromogens
Group III: Nonphotochromogens
Group IV: Rapid growers.
Species identification depends on several
additional characteristics (Table 34.2).
Group I: Photochromogens
Photochromogens develop a bright yellow or
orange coloration if young cultures are exposed to a
light source. They are slow growing, though growth
is faster than that of tubercle bacilli. The important
species in this group are M. kansasii, M. marinum
and M. simiae.
Mycobacterium kansasii (M. kansasii): Myco
bacterium kansasii, which grows well at 37C and
Species
Photochromogens
M. kansasii
M. marinum
M. simiae
II
Scotochromogens
M. scrofulaceum
M. gordonae
M. szulgai
III
Nonphotochromogens
M. auium
M. intracellulare
M. xenopi
M. ulcerans
M. malmoense
IV
Rapid growers
M. chelonei
M. fortuitum
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Chap-34.indd 249
|249
SAPROPHYTIC MYCOBACTERIA
All the chromogenic rapid growers are sapro
phytes (for example, M. smegmatis, M. phlei).
Mycobacterium gordonae and Mycobacterium terrae
are among the saprophytic species that have been
associated with human disease on rare occasions.
Mycobacterium smegmatis: Since M. smegmatis
is normally present in smegma around the orifice
of urethra and is a frequent contaminant of urine
specimens. Some strains of M. smegmatis are acidfast but not alcohol-fast. Therefore, they are not
seen in a ZiehlNeelsen smear if acid alcohol is
used as decolorizer.
Mycobacterium phlei: M. phlei is rarely encountered
and is nonpathogenic. It can be differentiated from
M. smegmatis by its ability to grow at 52C and
survive heating at 60C for 4 hours.
Pathogenesis
Four main types of opportunist mycobacterial
disease have been described in man (Table 34.3).
A. Lymphadenopathy
M. avium complex
M. scrofulaceum
B. Skin lesions
1. Post-trauma abscesses
M. chelanae
M. fortuitum
M. terrae
M. ulcerons
C. Pulmonary disease
M. avium complex
M. kansasii
M. xenopi
M. malmoense
D. Disseminated disease
1. AIDS-related
2. Non-AIDS-related
M. avium complex
M. genevense
M. avium complex
M. chelonae
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Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimen: Sputum, pus or exudates.
B. Microscopy: ZiehlNeelsen staining of smear
shows acid fast bacilli. Reapeted smear
examination is necessary.
C. Culture: They grow well on LJ medium.
Several LJ media should be inoculated with
the specimen. These are incubated in the dark
and in the light at different temperatures for
distinguishing the species.
D. Identification: There is no universally recognized
identification scheme, although reliance is
usually placed on cultural characteristics (rate
and temperature of growth and pigmentation),
various biochemical reactions and resistance
to antimicrobial agents (Table 34.4). The
most discriminative methods are based on
Table34.4 Differentiation between tubercle bacilli and some species of atypical mycobacteria
Test
M.
M.
M.
M
M
M.
M. avium M.
tubercu bovis microti kansasii marinum scrofula intra
fortuitum
losis
ceum
cellulare
complex
Growth in
+
7 days
Growth at
+
+
+
+
25C
Growth at +
+
+
+
+
+
+
37C
Growth at
45C
Pigment
+
+
+
in light
Pigment
in dark
Niacin
+
Nitrate
+
+
reduction
Urease
+
+
+
+
+
Chap-34.indd 250
M.
M.
M.
chelonei phlei smegmatis
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Epidemiology
Environmetal mycobacteria are widely distributed
in nature. Infection with them is quite common,
from soil, water and air. Infect ion is mainly
asymptomatic. In countries in which tuberculosis is
uncommon, opportunist mycobacterial infections
are relatively common. In addition, the absolute
incidence is increasing as a result of the growing
number of immunocompromised individuals,
notably patients with AIDS.Some opportunist
species may colonise tap water. When staining
reagents were prepared from contaminated water,
false-positive sputum smear examinations for acidfast bacilli have occurred.
|251
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1.
Nontuberculous mycobacteria or atypical
mycobacteria show following features except:
a. They are acid fast as well as alcohol fast
b. They are arylsulfatase test positive
c. They are niacin test positive
d.
They are usually resistant to antitubercular
drugs such as streptomycin, INH, and p-aminosalicylic acid
2. All the following are scotochromogens except:
a. Mycobacterium kansasii
b. Mycobacterium scrofulaceum
c. Mycobacterium gordonae
d. Mycobacterium szulgai
3. All the following species are rapid growers except:
a. Mycobacterium fortuitum
b. Mycobacterium chelonae
c. Mycobacterium abscessus
d. Mycobacterium ulcerans
4. Which of the following bacteria cause/s pulmonary
disease?
a.
Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare
b.
M. kansasii
c.
M. xenopi
d. All of the above
5. Swimming pool granuloma is caused by:
a. M. ulcerans
b. Mycobacterium marinum
c.
M. chelonei
d.
M. ortuitum
6. Buruli ulcer is caused by:
a.
Mycobacterium marinum
b.
M. fortuitum
c. Mycobacterium ulcerans
d.
Mycobacterium xenopi
ANSWERS (MCQs)
1. c; 2. a; 3. d; 4. d; 5. b; 6. c
Treatment
Most environmental mycobacteria are resistant
to the usual antituberculosis drugs although
infections often respond to various combinations
of these drugs.
Key Points
Mycobacteria other than the tubercle and lepra
bacilli are known as nontuberculous mycobacteria
Classification: Runyon(1959) classified NTM into
four groups: Group I Photochromogens; Group II
Scotochromogens; Group III Nonphotochromogens
and Group IV Rapid Growers
Disease: A. Localized lymphadenitis; B. Skin lesions
following traumatic inoculation of bacteria; C.
Tuberculosis-like pulmonary lesions; D. Disseminated
disease
Laboratory diagnosis: ZiehlNeelsen staining of
smear shows acid fast bacilli. They grow well on
LJ medium.There is no universally recognized
identification scheme
Chap-34.indd 251
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35
Chapter
Actinomycetes
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology of Actinomyces
Explain clinical forms of Actinomyces
Introduction
Actinomycetes are traditionally considered to be
transitional forms between bacteria and fungi.
They form a mycelial network of branching
filaments like fungi but, like bacteria, they are
thin, possess cell walls containing muramic acid,
have prokaryotic nuclei and are susceptible to
antibacterial antibiotics. They are therefore true
bacteria, bearing a superficial resemblance to
fungi. Actinomycetes are related to mycobacteria
and corynebacteria.
They are gram-positive, nonmotile, nonsporing,
noncapsulated filaments that break up into
bacillary and coccoid elements. Although mostly
soil saprophytes, occas ionally cause chronic
granulomatous infections in animals and man.
Important genera: The family Actinomycetes
contains three major medically important genera,
Actinomyces, Nocardia and Actinomadura. Another
genus, Streptomyces rarely causes disease in man.
Actinomyces is anaerobic or microaerophilic
and nonacid-fast, while Nocardia is acid-fast and
aerobic. Streptomyces is nonacid-fast and aerobic.
Actinomyces
A mould-like organism in the lesion of lumpy jaw
(actinomycosis) in cattle was found by Bollinger
(1877).The name Actinomyces was coined by
Harz to refer to the raylike appearance of the
organism in the granules that characterize the
lesions (Actinomyces, meaning ray fungus). This
was named Actinomyces israelii. It causes human
actinomycosis.
Morphology
Actinomyces are Gram-positive, nonmotile, non
sporing, nonacid-fast. They often grow in mycelial
forms and break-up into coccoid and bacillary
forms. Most show true branching.
Cultural Characteristics
They are facultative anaerobes. They grow best
under anaerobic or micro-aerophilic conditions
with the addition of 510% CO2. The optimum tem
perature for growth is 3537C. They can be grown
on brain heart infusion agar, heart infusion agar
supplemented with 5% defibrinated horse, rabbit
or sheep blood. Suitable liquid media include brain
heart infusion broth and thioglycollate broth which
may be supplemented with 0.10.2% sterile rabbit
serum. Most species show good growth after 34
days incubation however, A. israelii may take 714
days.
Pathogenesis
Actinomycosis: The Actinomyces causes the
disease known as actinomycosis. Actinomycosis is a
chronic disease characterized by multiple abscesses
and granulomata, tissue destruction, extensive
fibrosis and the formation of sinuses. Within
diseased tissues the actinomycetes form large
masses of mycelia embedded in an amorphous
proteinpolysaccharide matrix and surrounded by
a zone of gram-negative, weakly acid-fast, club-like
structures (Fig. 35.1). The mycelial masses may
be visible to the naked eye and are called sulfur
granules, as they are often light yellow in color. The
sulfur granules may be dark brown and very hard in
Human Actinomycosis
Human actinomycosis may take several forms:
1. Cervicofacial: This is the most common type
and it occur mainly in cheek and submaxillary
regions. The disease is endogenous in origin.
Dental caries is a predisposing factor, and
infection may follow tooth extractions or other
dental procedures.
2. Thoracic: Thoracic actinomycosis commences
in the lung, probably as a result of aspiration of
actinomyces from the mouth.
3. Abdominal: The lesion is usually around the
cecum, with the involvement of the neighboring
tissues and the abdominal wall.
4. Pelvic: Pelvic actinomycosis occasionally
occurs in women fitted with plastic intrauterine contraceptive devices.
5. Punch actinomycosis: It is a rare infection of
the hand acquired by injury of the knuckles on
an adversarys teeth.
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3. Culture
Sulfur granules or pus containing actinomycetes are
washed and inoculated into thioglycollate liquid
medium or streaked on brain h
eart infusion agar
(BHI agar) blood agar and incubated anaerobically
at 37C. On solid media, A. israelii may form
so-called spider colonies that resemble molar teeth
in 4872 hours that become heaped up, white and
irregular or smooth, large colonies in 10 days. Other
species have different types of colonies.
4. Identification
The identity may be confirmed by direct fluo
rescence microscopy and biochemical tests or
by gas chromatography of metabolic products of
carbohydrate fermentation.
5. Biopsy
In hematoxylin and eosin stained sections, the
sulfur granules are deeply stained with hematoxy
lin except in the periphery which is stained by
eosin, which shows short, radiate, club-like
structures. On Gram staining, the filaments are
gram-positive and periphery gram-negative.
Epidemiology
2. Microscopy
Treatment
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
Nocardia
Nocardia resemble Actinomycetes morphologically
but are aerobic. Most species (such as N. asetroides
Nocardia spp.
Facultative anaerobes
Strict aerobes
Grow at 3537C
W
ide temperature
range of growth
Oral commensals
E nvironmental
saprophytes
Nonacid-fast mycelia
Morphology
Nocardiae are gram-positive bacteria and form
a mycelium that fragments into rod shaped
and coccoid elements. Nocardia resembles
Actinomyces, but some species are acid-fast, and a
few are nonacid-fast.
Cultural Characteristics
They are strict aerobes. Nocardiae readily grow in
ordinary media. They are slow growing (require
514 days). Nocardiae readily grow on nutrient
agar, Sabouraud dextrose agar, brain heart infusion
agar and yeast extract-malt extract agar. The
inoculated plates should be incubated at 36C
for up to 3 weeks. They can grow at wide range
of temperature. Selective growth is favored by
incubation at 45C. In addition, the technique of
paraffin baiting may be used. Colonies of nocardiae
are cream, orange or pink c olored.
Pathogenesis
Nocardiae produce opportunistic pulmonary disease
known as nocardiosis in immunocompromised
individuals including those with AIDS. Soil is
known to be natural habitat of Nocardia. Man
acquires infection by inhalation of the bacteria from
environmental sources. The infection is exogenous,
resulting from inhalation of the bacilli.
Bronchopulmonary disease: Systemic nocardiosis
usually caused by N. asteroides manifests primarily
as pulmonary disease, pneumonia, lung abscess
or other lesions resembling tuberculosis. Systemic
nocardiosis occurs more often in immunodeficient
persons.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis is by demonstration of branching fila
ments microscopically and by isolation in culture.
1. Specimens
Pus or purulent sputum.
2. Microscopy
The smears are stained with Gram staining and
ZiehlNeelsen (ZN) technique using decolorization
with 1% sulfuric acid. Gram-positive filamentous
bacteria can be seen on Gram staining. Acid-fast
bacilli are detected on ZN technique though some
species are nonacid-fast.
3. Culture
The specimens are inoculated on nutrient agar,
Sabourauds dextrose agar (SDA) and brain heart
infusion agar (BHI agar) and incubated at 36C for
3 weeks. Colony morphology is seen and bacteria
are identified by staining.
Nocardia can be isolated from sputum by para
ffin bait technique. The specimen is homogenized
with sterile glass beads and 2 ml of it is inoculated
into carbon-free broth containing paraffin coated
glass rod. The organisms grow on the rod at the
air-liquid surface which may be subcultured onto
agar media.
Treatment
Sulphonamide are the antibiotics of choice. They
are also susceptible to amik acin, imipenem,
minocycline, tobramycin and vancomycin.
Actinomycotic mycetoma
Mycetoma is a localized chronic, granulomatous
involvement of the subcutaneous and deeper
tissues, commonly affecting the foot and less often
the hand and other parts. It presents as a tumor
with multiple sinuses. This clinical syndrome was
first described from Madura by Gill (1842) and
came to be known as Maduramycosis. See chapter
73 for Mycetoma detail.
Etiology: It can be divided into three types,
eumycetomas, actinomycetomas and botryo
mycosis. Bacterial mycetomas are usually caused
by actinomycetesActinomyces (A. israelii, A.
bovis), Nocardia (N. asteroides, N. brasiliensis, N.
caviae), Actinomadura (A. madurae, A. pelletierii),
Streptomyces (S. somaliensis).
Key Points
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Important question
Write short notes on:
a. Actinomycosis
b. Laboratory diagnosis of actinomycosis
c. Nocardiosis
d. Laboratory diagnosis of nocardiosis
e. Mycetoma.
36
Chapter
Enterobacteriaceae: Escherichia,
Klebsiella, Proteus and Other Genera
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe general characters of the family Enter
obacteriaceae
Classify the family Enterobacteriaceae
Describe morphology, culture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of E. coli
Discuss pathogenicity of E. coli
INTRODUCTION
The family Enterobacteriaceae is the largest, most
heterogeneous collection of medically important
Gram-negative bacilli. Because of their normal
habitat in humans, these organisms are referred
to as the enteric bacilli or enterics
Chap-36.indd 256
CLASSIFICATION OF
ENTEROBACTERIACEAE
Lactose Fermentation
The oldest method was to classify these bacteria
into three groups based on their action on
lactose. Lactose fermenters (LF), Late lactose
fermenter and nonlactose-fermenting (NLF).
The specimen is plated on a medium containing
lactose and neutral red indicator. (MacConkey
agar). The organisms fermenting the lactose form
acid and in acidic pH, neutral red is red in colour,
therefore, the colonies of lactose-fermenting
bacteria are red or pink and those of nonlactosefermenting (NLF) bacteria are pale. All lactoseferm enting enterobacteria, e.g. Escherichia,
Klebsiell a, Enterobacter and Citrobacter are
popularly known as coliform bacilli as the
most common member of this group is the colon
bacillus or Escherichia coli. The major intestinal
pathogens, Salmonella and Shigella are nonIactose-fermenters (NLF). There remained a
small group which showed delayed fermentation
of lactose (28 days) and with the exception of
Shigella sonnei, they were all commensals. This
heterogenous group of late lactose fermenters was
called paracolon bacilli.
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Genus
i. Escherichiae
1. Escherichia
2. Shigella
ii. Edwardsiella
Edwardsiella
iii. Salmonellae
Salmonella
iv. Enterobacteriaceae
Citrobacter
v. Klebsiellae
1. Klebsiella
2. Enterobacter
3. Serratia
4. Hafnia
vi. Proteeae
1. Proteus
2. Morganella
3. Providencia
vii. Yersiniae
Yersinia
CLASSIFICATION OF
ENTEROBACTERIACEAE BY TRIBES
Three systems of nomenclature have been
proposed (Bergeys manual, Kauffmann, Edwards
-Ewing) have certain differences, the general
approach is the same.
The family is first classified into its major
subdivisiongroup or tribe. Each tribe consists
of one or more genera and each genus one or
more subgenera and species. The species are
class ified into typesbiotypes, serotypes,
bacteriophage types, colicin types. Table 36.1
lists the in the family Enterobacteriaceae and their
respective tribes and genera. Table 36.2 shows the
biochemical features that differentiate different
genera of Enterobacteriaceae.
ESCHERICHIA COLI
Introduction
This genus is named after the German pediatrician
Theodar Escherich who first identified Escherichia
coli (1885). The genus Escherichia consists of five
species of which E. coli is the most common and
clinically most important. Unlike other coliforms,
E. coli is a obligate parasite living only in the human
or animal intestine that cannot live free in nature.
Morphology
E. coli is a gram-negative, straight, rod measuring
13 0.40.7 m arranged singly or in pairs. It
is motile by peritrichate flagella, though some
strains may be nonmotile. It is nonsporing and
noncapsulated.
Cultural Characteristics
It is an aerobe and a facultative anaerobe. The
temperature range is 1040C (optimum 37C).
Chap-36.indd 257
|257
Biochemical Reactions
i.
E.coli ferments glucose, lactose, mannitol,
maltose and many other sugars with the
production of acid and gas. Typical strains do
not ferment sucrose.
ii. Indole and MR positive, and VP and citrate
negative (IMViC + + )
iii. It is negative for phenylalanine deaminase
test, urease test, H 2S production, gelatin
liquefication, growth in the presence of KCN,
and malonate utilization.
Antigenic Structure
Serotyping of E. coli is based on three antigens
the flagellar antigen H, somatic antigen O and the
capsular antigen K as detected in agglutination
assays with specific rabbit antibodies.
1. H antigens: These are thermolbile. So far 75
antigens have been identified. There are only a
few significant cross-reactions between them
and with the H antigens of other members of the
Enterobacteriaceae. Strains may need to be grown
in semi-solid agar to induce flagella expression.
2. Somatic antigen (O antigen): These are
heat-stable, lipopolysaccharide antigens of
cell walls. Over 173 different O antigens have
been described. Serotyping may detect crossreactions because of shared epitopes on the LPS
expressed by strains of E. coli and organisms
belonging to the genera Brucella, Citrobacter,
Providencia, Salmonella, Shigella and Yersinia.
The normal colon strains belong to the
early O groups (1, 2, 3, 4 etc.), while the
enteropathogenic strains belong to the later O
groups (26, 55, 86, 111, etc.).
3. Capsular antigen (K antigen): K antigen refers
to the acidic polysaccharide antigen located in
the envelope or microcapsule. (K for Kapsel,
German for capsule). It encloses the O antigen
and renders the strain in agglutinable by the O
antiserum. It may also contribute to virulence
by inhibiting phagocytosis.
In the past, these antigens were divided into
three classesL, A and B (the thermolabile
L antig ens, the thermostable A and B
antigens) according to the effect of heat on
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Chap-36.indd 258
Growth in KCN
Indole
MR
VP
Citrate
H2S
Urease
Phenylalanine
deaminase (PPA)
Arginine
dehydrolase
Lysine
decarboxylase
Ornithine
decarboxylase
Shigella1
Escherichia
Motility
Test
Edwardsiella
Klebsiella
Enteobacter
Serratia
Hafnia
Citrobacter
Salmonella2
Proteus
Morganella
Providencia
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|259
Properties
Group I
Group II
1. Molecular weight
>100 000
<50 000
B. Toxins
2. O groups
08.09
Many
Glucuronic acid,
phosphate,
KDO, NeuNAc
4. Electrophoretic
mobility
Low
High
5. Expressed at
17-20C
Yes
No
6. Chromosome site
His
SerA
Virulence Factors
Two types of virulence factors have been recognized
in E. colisurface antigens and toxins.
A. Surface Antigens
1. Somatic antigen (O antigen): The somatic
lipopolysaccharide surface O antigen, besides
exerting endotoxic activity, also protects the
bacillus from phagocytosis and the bactericidal
effects of complement.
2. K antigen: Most strains of E. coli responsible
for neonatal meningitis and septicemia carry
the KI envelope antigen which is a virulence
factor resembling the group B antigen of
meningococcci.
3. Fimbriae: Like many other members of the
Enterobacteriaceae, strains of E. coli exhibit
common fimbriae which are chromosomally
determined, present in large numbers and
causing mannose sensitive hemagglutination
and probably not relevant in pathogenesis.
Filamentous protein structures resembling
fimbriae cause mannose-resistant hemagglutin
ation and play an important part in the
pathogenesis of diarrheal disease and in
urinary tract infection. They include the
K88 antigen found in strains causing enteritis
of pigs, the K99 antigen found in strains
causing enteritis of calves and lambs, and the
Chap-36.indd 259
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VT1
VT2
VT2v1
SLT1
SLT2
SLT2v
Vero cells
HeLa cells
Genes phage-encoded
Synonyms
Cytotoxicity
iii.
Verocytotoxin or Verotoxin (VT): The
biological properties, physical char
acteristics and antigenicity of VT are
very similar to those of Shiga toxin (Stx),
produced by strains of Sh. dysenteriae
type 1 so it is also known as Shiga-like
toxin (SLT).
2. VT1 and VT2 form: Serological tests have
revealed two antigenically distinct forms,
termed VTl and VT2. Antibodies prepared to
VT1 neutralize Shiga toxin, while antibodies
specific for VT2 do not. Variant forms of VT2
(VT2v) have been described in strains of human
and porcine origin (Table 36.4).
VT1 and VT2, like Shiga toxin, are cytotoxic for
Vero and HeLa cells, although VT2 variant toxins
do not bind to HeLa cells. Enterotoxicity in ligated
rabbit gut loops and mouse paraliytic lethality can
also be used to detect VTs.
Clinical Infections
Four main types of clinical syndromes are caused
by E. coli.
1. Diarrhea
At least five different types of diarrheagenic E.
coli are now recognized, each associated with
specific serotypes and with different pathogenic
mechanisms.
Chap-36.indd 260
Pathogenesis
EIEC, like those of Shigella species, can penetrate
the epithelial cells of the large intestine and
multiply intracellularly, giving rise to blood and
mucus in the stool. Infection is by ingestion.
Clinically, EIEC infection resembles shigellosis,
ranging from mild diarrhea to frank dysentery, and
occurs, in children as well as adults.
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Chap-36.indd 261
|261
Etiology of UTI
1. Other members of family Enterobacteriaceae
that usually cause UTI are Kiebsiella, Proteus,
Citrobacter, and those which rarely produce UTI
are salmonellae, edwarosiellae and Enterobacter.
2. The gram-positive organisms, which can cause
UTI are Staphylococcus aureus, coagulasenegative staphylococci, Streptococcus faecalis,
S. pyog enes, S. agalactiae, S. milleri, other
streptococci and anaerobic streptococci.
3. Rarely, Gardnerella vaginalis may cause UTI.
4. Candida albicans may cause UTI in diabetic
and immunocompromised patients.
5. The hospital-associated infection following
instrumentation and catheterization is mostly
caused by Pseudomonas and Proteus.
3. Pyogenic Infections
E. coli form the most common cause of intraabdominal infections, such as peritonit is and
abscesses resulting from spillage of bowel contents.
They also cause pyogenic infections in the perianal
area. They are an important cause of neonatal
meningitis, but is much less so in older patients.
4. Septicemia
Bloodstream invasion by E. coli may lead to
fatal conditions like septic shock and systemic
inflammatory response syndrome (SIDS). As E.
coli commonly show multiple drug resistance,
antibiotic sensitivity testing of strains is important
in treatment.
Laboratory Diagnosis
a. Laboratory Diagnosis of EPEC
Fresh diarrheal feces is plated on blood agar and
MacConkey media. After overnight incubation,
E. coli colonies are emulsified in saline on a slide
and are examined by slide agglutination with
polyvalent antisera belonging to EPEC-associated
serogroups. Bacteria agglutinated by these sera
are then identified with monovalent antisera to
individual serogroups. At least ten colonies per
plate should be tested as many serotypes are
present in a single culture.
When the outbreak is caused by a strain with
some readily demonstrable feature such as failure
to ferment sorbitol, rapid identification is possible
by using appropriate culture media.
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LT
ST
Read at 6 hours
Read at 18 hours
ELISA
In vivo tests
Ligated rabbit ileal loop
In vitro tests
i. Tissue culture tests
ii. Rounding of Y1 mouse adrenal cells
iii. Elongation of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells
iv. Serological tests
v. Genetic tests
DNA probes
Chap-36.indd 262
B. Transport
Urine is a good medium for the growth of coliforms
and other urinary pathogens. If delay of more than
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INFECTIONS
Laboratory Diagnosis of Septicemia
Diagnosis depends on the isolation of the organism
by blood culture and its identification by colony
morphology, staining, motility and biochemical
reactions.
Chap-36.indd 263
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EDWARDSIELLA
Genus Edwardsiella is separated from Escherichia
by its ability to produce hydrogen sulfide in triple
sugar iron agar. The genus contains the species
Edwardsiella tarda. The name tarda refers to slow
or weak fermentation of sugars by the organism. It
is the only recognized human pathogen.
It is a gram-negative bacillus, motile, noncapsulated.
It ferments only glucose and maltose with weak
fermentative powers. It is indole and MR positive,
and VP and citrate negative (I MVi C + + ). It
produces H2S, decarboxylates lysine and ornithine.
Clinical infection: E. tarda is a normal intestinal
inhabitant of snakes and other cold-blooded animals.
It has been cultured from normal and diarrheaic
human feces. It mainly causes wound infection, but
meningitis and septicaemia have also been reported.
CITROBACTER
Members of the genus Citrobacter are motile
enterobacteria confused with both Escherichia
and Salmonella. They are motile, indole positive
or negative, MR positive, VP negative, citrate
positive (I, M Vi C + +), urease weak positive
and may or may not ferment lactose but they nearly
always produce -galactosidase (ONPG positive).
They do not decarboxylate lysine but most strains
decarboxylate ornithine.
Species: Three species are recognised, Citro. freundii
which gives typical reactions and Citro. koseri
(formerly Citro. diversus) and Citro. amalonaticus
which do not form H2S (Table 36.5).
Ballerup-Bethesda group: The genus Citrobacter
was first proposed for a group of lactose-negative or
late lactose-fermenting coliform bacteria that share
certain somatic antigens with salmonellae and
were also known as the BallerupBethesda group.
These organisms are now known as Citrobacter
freundii. They exhibit extensive antigenic sharing
with salmonellae and may cause confusion in the
diagnostic laboratory. Some strains (for exmaple,
the Bhatnagar strain) have a Vi antigen serologically
identical to the antigen of S. typhi and S. paratyphi
C. These may be used for the estimation of Vi
antibodies or for raising Vi antisera. However,
they can be distinguished by their negative lysine
decarboxylase and positive KCN reactions.
Clinical infection: Citrobacter may cause infections
of the urinary tract, gallbladder, middle ear and
meninges. C. koseri occasionally causes neonatal
meningitis.
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Introduction
Species
Classification
Their classification has undergone various
modifications. The name K. pneumoniae is used
for the species as a whole. It is further divided into
4 subspecies. The most frequently encountered,
biochemically typical form of it is known as K.
pneumoniae subsp. aerogenes, K. pneumoniae
subsp. ozaenae, K. pneumoniae subsp. pneumoniae
K. pneumoniae subsp. rhinoscleromatis (Table
36.6). Indole-producing strains that resemble
K. pneumoniae subsp. aerogenes biochemically are
classified in a separate species, K. oxytoca.
Morphology
They are short,plump, gram-negative, non-sporing,
capsulated, non-motile bacilli, 12 m long and
0.50.8 m wide with parallel or bulging sides and
slightly pointed or rounded ends.
Cultural Characteristics
Klebsiellae grow well on ordinary media at a
temperatures between 12C and 43C (optimum,
37C) in 1824 hours. On MacConkey agar, the
colonies typically appear large, mucoid and red in
colour. Mucoid nature of colonies is due to capsular
material produced by the organism.
Biochemical Reactions
They ferment sugars (glucose, lactose, sucrose,
mannitol) with production of acid and gas. They
are urease positive, indole negative, MR negative,
VP positive and citrate positive (IMViC ++).
These reactions are typical of K. pneumoniae subsp.
aerogenes.
Glucose
Lactose
Sucrose
Mannitol
+ (AG)
Urease
Indole
MR
VP
Citrate
Antigenic Structure
Klebsiella possess capsular (K) and somatic(O)
antigens.
Chap-36.indd 264
Test/substratea
ind mal H2S KCN adon arbtl mel
C. freundii
C. koseri
C.
amalonaticus
Typing Methods
1. Bacteriocin (Klebocin or pneumocin) typing;
2. Phage typing; 3. Biotyping; 4. Resistotyping; 5.
Molecular typing methods: Plasmid analysis,
DNA profiling by random amplified polymorphic
DNA (RAPD) and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis.
Pathogenicity: Klebsiella pneumoniae can cause
a primary community-acquired pnuemonia,
nosocomial infections, urinary tract infections,
wound infections, bacteremia and meningitis and
rarely diarrhea. In some hospital, K. pneumoniae
has replaced E. coli as the leading blood culture
isolate. As most strains are resistant to antibiotics,
treatment poses serious problems.
Pneumonia: Klebsiella pneumonia is a serious
disease with high case fatality. The typical patient
is a middle- or older-aged man who have medical
problems. Positive blood cultures can be obtained
in about 25% of the cases.
Diarrhea: Some strains of K. pneumoniae isolated
from cases of diarrhea have been shown to produce
an enterotoxin very similar to the heat stable toxin
of E. coli.
K. ozaenae is a bacillus associated with ozena,
an uncommon, chronic disease in which there is
atrophy of the nasal mucosa characterized by foul
smelling nasal discharge.
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K oxytoca
K. pneumoniae subspecies
aerogenes
pneumoniae
ozaenae
rhinoscleromatis
Urease
Citrate
Malonate
MR
VP
Lysine
decarboxylase
KCN
V, variable
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis is made by culturing appropriate spec
imens on blood agar and Mac Conkey agar and
identifying the isolate by biochemical reactions.
Antibiotic sensitivity should invariably be done.
Many strains carry plasmids determining multiple
drug resistance.
Treatment
They are normally susceptible to cephaloporins,
especially -lactamase stable derivatives
such as cefuroxime and cefotaxime, and to
fluoroquinolones. They are often sensitive to
gentamicin and other aminoglycosides., but
transferable enzymic resistance to aminoglycosides
and other antimicrobial agents has become
common in strains found in some hospitals.
Klebsiella infection of the urine often responds
to trimethoprim, nitrofurantoin, co-amoxiclav
or oral cephalosporins. Pneumonia and other
serious infections require vigorous treatment
with aminoglycoside or a cephalosporin, such as
cefotaxime.
ENTEROBACTER
Enterobacter is a motile, capsulated, lactose
fermenting bacillus which is indole and MR negative
and VP and citrate positive (IMViC - + +). These
characteristics are similar to those of Klebsiella but
can be differentiated from Klebsiella because it is
motile and ornithine positive. Two clinically relevant
species are E. cloacae and E. aerogenes.
Clinical Infections: They are normally found
in feces, sewage, soil and water and rarely in
Chap-36.indd 265
HAFNIA
These organisms are probably best regarded
as non-lactose fermenter (NLF) member of
genus Enterobacter. This is a motile, nonlactosefermenting bacillus which is indole and MR
negative and VP and citrate positive. Biochemical
reactions are evident best at 22C but at 37C they
may be negative or irregular. Hafnia alvei is the
only species.
Strains are isolated from feces of man and
other animals and are also found in sewage, soil,
water and dairy products. They are occasionally
encountered as opportunistic pathogens that has
been recovered from infected wounds, abscesses,
sputum urine, blood and other sites.
SERRATIA
S. marcescens is the one most commonly
encountered species in clinical specimens. It is
small, motile, gram-negative bacillus. This differs
from Hafnia in forming a pink, red or magenta,
nondiffusible pigment called prodigiosin which
is formed optimally at room temperature.
Pathogenesis
It is a saprophyte found in water, soil and food.
It may grow in sputum after collection and may
suggest hemoptysis because of the pigment formed
(pseudohemoptysis).Nosocomial infections due to
S. marcescens are being reported with increasing
frequency. The bacillus has been associated with
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Key Points
Escherichia coli
Gram-negative bacilli aerobe and a facultat ive
anaerobe. On MacConkeys medium, colonies are
red or pink due (lactose fermenter). Selective media
such as DCA or SS agar growth
B. Toxins: 1. Exotoxins: Hemolysins and enterotoxins.
Enterotoxins: (e.g. heat-stabile and heat-labile
enterotoxins, and Verotoxin (VT) also known as
Shiga-like toxin (SLT) Clinical infections: 1. Urinary tract infection; 2.
Diarrhea, 3. Pyogenic infections, 4. Bacteremia
Diagnosis: Organisms grow rapidly on most culture
media
Edwardsiella: Edwardsiella tarda mainly causes
wound infection, but meningitis and septicemia
have also been reported
Citrobacter: It may cause infections of the urinary
tract, gallbladder, middle ear and meninges. C. koseri
occasionally causes neonatal meningitis
Klebsiella: Members of the genus Klebsiella are
gram-negative, nonsporing, nonmotile bacilli that
grow well on ordinary media, produce pink mucoid
colonies on MacConkeys agar
The name K. pneumoniae is used for the species as a
whole. It is further divided into 4 subspecies
Klebsiella pneumoniae can cause a primary
communiy-acquired pnuemonia, nosocomial
infections, urinary tract infections, wound infections,
bacteremia and meningitis and rarely diarrhea
K. ozaenae- is associated with ozena
K. rhinoscleromatis causes rhinoscleroma, a chronic
granulomatous hypertrophy of the nose
K. oxytoca may be rarely isolated from clinical
specimens
Enterobacter: They may cause urinary tract
infections and hospital infections, occasionally
associated with meningitis and septicemia
Hafnia: They are has been recovered from infected
wounds, abscesses, sputum urine, blood and other
sites
Serratia: S. marcescens is associated with infections
of the urinary and respiratory tracts, meningitis,
wound infections, septicemia and endocarditis.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss various mechanisms by which Escherichia
coli produces diarrhea. Describe the laboratory
diagnosis of bacterial diarrheas.
2. Discuss the pathogenicity of Escherichia coli.
3. Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of various
infections caused by Escherichia coli.
4. Discuss the pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis
of urinary tract infections caused by Escherichia coli.
Chap-36.indd 266
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37
Chapter
Tribe Proteeae: Proteus,
Morganella and Providencia
Learning Objectives
List various differences among Proteus, Morganella
and Providentia.
Classification
Morphology
Proteus
Proteus Bacilli
Cultural Characteristics
Pr. vulgaris
+
Pr. mirabilis
+
Indole
Urease
H2S production
Ornithine decarboxylase
+
+
+
+
+
Fermentation of adonitol
Fermentation of trehalose
Biochemical Reactions
The distinctive characters of this genus are:
i. PPA testDeamination of phenyl alanine
to phenyl pyruvic acid (PPA test) is always
positive.
ii. Urea hydrolysisUrea hydrolysis by enzyme
urease is another characteristic of Proteus, but
is negative in some Providencia strains.
iii. All species of Proteus produce acid from
glucose.
iv. Lactose is not fermented.
v. They are malonate utilization negative.
vi. Indole is formed by Pr. vulgaris but is negative
in Pr. mirabilis.
vii. They are MR positive and VP negative.
viii. H2S is produced by Pr. vulgaris and Pr. mirabilis.
ix. Nitrate reduction positive.
Other biochemical characters of species of
Proteus are given in Table 37.1.
Antigenic Structure
Proteus bacilli possess somatic O and flagellar
H antigens, which are of considerable historical
Pathogenesis
Proteus bacilli are widely distributed in nature as
saprophytes, being found in decomposing animal
matter, in sewage, in manured soil and in human and
animal feces. They are frequently present on the moist
areas of the skin. They are opportunistic pathogens,
commonly responsible for urinary and septic infec
tions, often nosocomial.
P. mirabilis accounts for the majority of human
infections seen with this group of organisms. All
members of the tribe can cause urinary tract
infections (UTI), wound infections, pneumonia,
infection of the ear, respiratory tract infection,
septicemia and nosocomial infections. Strains of
Pr. mirabilis are a prominent cause of urinary tract
infection in children and in domiciliary practice.
UTI caused by Proteus tends to be more serious
than that caused by E. coli and other coliforms.
It produces urease which splits urea into carbon
dioxide and ammonia. Ammonia inactivates
complement, damages renal epithelium and
makes the urine alkaline.This increase in pH causes
precipitation of calcium and magnesium salts from
the urine and results in the formation of urinary
calculi.
Labortory Diagnosis
Culture: Laboratory diagnosis of the infections
caused by species Proteus can be carried out by
culture of the specimen on MacConkey agar or
DCA.
Identification: The isolate is identified by its
morphological, biochemical and agglutination
reactions.
Key Points
Treatment
Proteus bacilli are resistant to many of the common
antibiotics. An exception is P. mirabilis which is
sensitive to ampicillin and cephalosporins.
Morganella
Providencia
Five Providencia species include P. alcalifaciens,
P. rettgeri, P. rustigianii and P. stuartii and P.
heimbachae.All species may be recovered from
feces. However, only P. alcalifaciens may be
associated with diarrhea. P. rettgeri and P. stuartii
have been associated with hospital-acquired
urinary tract, wound and other infections,
particularly in immunocompromised patients.
P. stuartii may occasionally cause hospitalassociated urinary tract infection, infection of
burns and pneumonia and septicemia in elderly
and immunodeficient patients.
P. rettgeri is part of the normal fecal flora of
reptiles and amphibians, and sometimes causes
nosocomial infection of the urinary tract, wounds,
burns and blood.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Culture: Laboratory diagnosis of the infections
caused by species Proteus, Morganella and
Providencia can be carried out by culture of the
specimen on MacConkey agar or DCA.
Identification: The isolate is identified by its
morphological, biochemical and agglutination
reactions.
Erwinia
These are anaerogenic bacilli forming a yellowish
pigment, usually found in soil and causing plant
infections. E. herbicola has occasionally been
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Important question
Write short notes on:
a. Classification of tribe Proteeae
b. Pathogenicity of Proteus species
c. Swarming growth
d. Dienes phenomenon
e. Weil-Felix rection
f. Genus Morganella
g. Genus Providencia.
38
Chapter
Shigella
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology and various culture media
for the isolation of Shigella
INTRODUCTION
The genus Shigella is named after the Japanese
microbiologist Kiyoshi Shiga, who first isolated the
organism in 1896. It was then called S. shigae and is
now known as S. dysenteriae serotype 1. S. flexneri
by Flexner (1900), S. sonnei by Sonne (1915)and S.
boydii Boyd (1931) were subsequently described.
Morphology
Shigellae are nonsporing, noncapsulate, Gramnegative rods, 24 0.6 m, nonmotile and non
flagellate.
Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobes and facultative anaerobes, with a
growth temperature range of 1040 C and optima
of 37C and pH 7.4. They grow well on conventional
media.
1. Nutrient agar and blood agar: Colonies are
smooth, grayish or colorless, translucent,
often 23 mm in diameter, circular, convex,
resembling those of salmonellae.
2. MacConkey agar: Colonies are colorless,
i.e.pale and yellowish (non-lactose-fermenting)
due to the absence of lactose fermentation.
An exception is S. sonnei, a late fermenter
of lactose, become pink when incubation is
prolonged beyond 24 hours.
3. Deoxycholate citrate agar (DCA): Deoxycholate
citrate agar (DCA) is an excellent selective
plating medium. Colonies are pale and similar
to, though usually slightly smaller, and more
translucent than those of salmonellae.
4. Xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD): XLD is
probably the best selective medium for shigellae.
Colonies are red, without black centers.
Chap-38.indd 270
Resistance
Shigellae are killed by moist heat at 55C in 1 hour
and fairly readily by strong disinfectants, e.g. by
1% phenol in 15 min. S. sonnei is more resistant to
adverse environmental conditions as compared
to other species.
Biochemical Reactions
The shigellae are divided into four groups, or
species, by their biochemical reactions and
antigenic structure (Table 38.1 ). The groups A, B,
C and D correspond to the species S. dysenteriae,
S. flexneri, S. boydii and S. sonnei.
Glucose is fermented with the production
of acid, without gas, except for two serotypes, S.
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Antigenic Structure
The shigellae are divided into four major O antigenic
groups, designated A, B, C, and D. In addition to the
major O antigens, groups A, B and C contain minor
O antigens, which allow for subgrouping. Some
strains possess K or envelope antigens.
Classification
Shigellae are classified into four species or sub
groups (A,B,C,D) based on a combination of
biochemical and serological characteristics.
Serotypes are distinguished within the species.
S. sonnei is serologically homogeneous and is
classified by colicin typing (Table 38.1).
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Species
Sh. dysenteriae
Sh. flexneri
Sh. boydii
Sh. sonnei
Mannitol
Lactose
A (Late)
Sucrose
A (Late)
Dulcitol
Indole
Ornithine decarboxylase
Serotypes
10
6 + variants
15
Only one
A, acid; d, delayed
Chap-38.indd 271
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Mannitol
Boyd 88
Manchester
AG
AG
Newcastle
A or AG
Pathogenic Mechanisms
1. Surface properties: Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
has been implicated to entering intestinal cells.
2. Invasiveness: Invasive property is related to
the presence in the bacillus of large plasmids
coding for the outer membrane protein
responsible for cell penetration. These proteins
are called virulence marker antigens (VMA).
3. Toxins: S. dysenteriae type 1 forms a produces
a powerful exotoxin (Shiga toxin) (details see
under heading group A (S. dysenteriae).
Pathogenicity
Shigellae cause bacillary dysentery. Humans are
the only known reservoir of Shigella organisms
infection occurs by ingestion. The minimum
infective dose is low, as few as 10100 bacilli being
capable of initiating the disease.
Shigella cause disease by invading and
replicating in cells lining the colonic mucosa. After
reaching the large intestine, the shigellae multiply
in the gut lumen. The shigellae multiply within the
epithelial cells and spread laterally into adjacent
cells, where cell-to-cell passage occurs, and deep
into the lamina propria. The infected epithelial
cells are killed and the lamina propria and
submucosa develop an inflammatory reaction with
capillary thrombosis. Patches of nerotic epithelium
are sloughed and ulcer form. The cellular response
is mainly by polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
The ulcers of the bacillary dysentery are much
shallower than amoebic ulcers. Bacteremia may
occur in severe infections.
Bacillary dysentery has a short incubation
period (17 days, usually 48 hours). The main clinical
features are frequent passage of loose, scanty feces
containing blood and mucus, along with abdominal
cramps and tenesmus. Fever and vomiting may be
present. Infection is usually self-limited.
In dysentery caused by S. dysenteria type 1,
patients experience more severe symptoms. Severe
Chap-38.indd 272
Epidemiology
Bacillary dysentery has a global distribution. It is
mostly associated with the overcrowding and bad
hygienic conditions. Humans are the only known
reservoir of Shigella organisms. Transmission may
occur by direct person-to person contact, and spread
may take place via the fecal. oral route, with carriers
as the source. From the carries the organisms can
be spread by flies, fingers, food and feces. Young
children in daycare centers, people living in crowded
and less-than-adequate housing, and young male
homosexuals as part of the gay bowel syndrome who
participate in anal-oral sex are most likely affected.
Sh. sonnei is the predominant infecting agent.
S. sonnei is the main type in the north in the USA,
while S. flexneri is more common in the south. In
India, S. flexneri has been the predominant species,
having formed 5085% of isolates in different series.
S. dysenteriae (825%) and S. sonnei (224%) are the
next common species. S. boydii (08%) has been
isolated least frequently.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis depends on isolating the bacillus from
feces.
A. Specimens
i. Feces: A specimen of feces is always preferable
to a rectal swab
ii. Rectal swabs: A direct swab may be taken from
the ulcer by sigmoidoscopic examination.
B. Transport
Fresh feces should be inoculated without delay or
transported in a suitable medium such as Sachs
buffered glycerol saline. pH 7.07.4, which prevents
the dysentery bacilli from being destroyed by the
acid produced during the growth of other organisms.
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C. Microscopy
Make a wet film of a suspension of the feces in
saline. This will show numerous erythrocytes and
polymorphs and some macrophages.
D. Culture
For inoculation it is best to use mucus flakes if they
are present in the sample. The feces are inoculated
on MacC onkey agar and DCA. SS agar and
XLD medium can also be used. After overnight
incubation at 37C, the plates are inspected for pale
(non-lactose-fermenting) colonies on MacConkey
agar and DCA, and red and colorless colonies with
no blackening on XLD and SS agar, respectively.
Identification
i. Biochemical reactions: These are tested
for motility and biochemical reactions. Any
nonmotile bacillus that is urease, citrate,
H 2S and KCN negative should be further
investigated by biochemical tests (Table 38.1).
ii. Slide agglutination: Identification is confirmed
by slide agglutination with polyvalent and
monovalent sera and then with type-specific
sera (belonging to subgroups A, B, C) unless
the strain is S. sonnei.
E. Colicine Typing
Plasmid pattern analysis and colicine typing may
help elucidate patterns of spread of S.sonnei.
F. Serology
Demonstration of antibodies in sera is not useful
have no place in diagnosis of the disease.
Treatment
Most of the cases of bacillary dysentery especially
those due to S. sonnei, are mild and self-limiting
and do not require antibiotic therapy. Replacement
of fluids and electrolytes by oral rehydration salt
solution is all that is required.
Routine antibacterial treatment is not indicated
in dysentery. Treatment with a suitable antibiotic
is necessary in the very young, the aged or the
debilitated, and in severe infections. Ampicillin,
cotrimoxazole, tetracycline, the quinolone anti
biotics, such as nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin are
appropriate choices.
Multiple drug resistance plasmids are widely
prevalent in shigellae. The choice of antibiotic should
be based on the sensitivity of the prevailing strain.
Control
Control consists essentially improving personal an
environmental sanitation. Antibiotics have no place
in prophylaxis. No effective vaccine is available.
Chap-38.indd 273
|273
Key Points
The genus Shigella gram-negative bacilli, non-motile.
They are facultative anaerobe and grow well on
conventional media
The shigellae are divided into four groups, or
species. The groups A, B, C and D correspond to
the species S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii and
S. sonnei
Shigella causes bacillary dysentery. Bacteria are
acquired by fecal-oral spread. A severe form
of disease is caused by S. dysenteriae (bacterial
dysentery). Hemolytic colitis and hemolytic uremic
syndrome (HUS) associated with Shigella
Diagnosis: Culture of feces reveals nonmotile bacillus
that is urease, citrate, H2S and KCN negative and
should be further investigated by biochemical tests.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the antigenic structure and toxins of
Shigella.
2. Enumerate the various causes of bacillary dysentery.
Discuss laboratory diagnosis of Shigella dysentery.
3. Write short notes on:
Classification of shigella
Pathogenesis of shigella.
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39
Chapter
Enterobacteriaceae III: Salmonella
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology, culture charactrestics and
biochemical reactions of Salmonella sp
Describe the following: Antigenic structure of
INTRODUCTION
Genus Salmonella consists of bacilli that parasi
tise the intestines of a large number of vertebrate
species and infect human beings, leading to enteric
fever, gastroenteritis, septicemia with or without
focal suppuration, and the carrier state.
The most important member of the genus is
Salmonella Typhi, the causative agent of typhoid
fever. Eberth (1880) first observed the typhoid
bacillus. Salmon and Smith (1885) described a
bacillus which was believed to cause hog cholera.
SALMONELLA
For practical purposes, they may be divided into
two groups:
1. The enteric fever group: It consists of the typhoid
and paratyphoid bacilli that are exclusively or
primarily human parasites.
2. The food poisoning group: These are essentially
animal parasites but which can also infect
human beings, prod ucing gastroenteritis,
septicemia or localized infections.
Morphology
Salmonellae are gram-negative bacilli, 24 0.6 m in
size. They are motile with peritrichous flagella except
S. Gallinarum-Pullorum which is nonmotile. They
are non-acid-fast, noncapsulate and nonsporing
Cultural Characteristics
Salmonellae are aerobes and facultatively anaer
obes, growing readily over a range of pH 68 and
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|275
Biochemical Reactions
1. Salmonellae ferment glucose, mannitol, arabi
nose, maltose, dulcitol and sorbitol, forming
acid and gas except S. Typhi, Gallinarum and
rare anaerogenic variants in other serotypes form
only acid and no gas.
2. Lactose, sucrose, salicin or adonitol are not
fermented.
3. They are, indole positive, MR positive, VP
negative and citrate positive (IMViC + +)
except by S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi A which are
citrate negative as they need tryptophan as the
growth factor.
4. Hydrogen sulfide is produced except by S.
Paratyphi A, S. Choleraesuis, S. Typhisuis and
S. Sendai.
5. Urease is not hydrolyzed.
6. Salmonellae decarboxylate the amino acids
lysine, ornithine and arginine.
The enteric fever group may be separated
biochemically (Table 39.1).
Resistance
Salmonellae are readily killed by moist heat, at 55C
in 1 hour or at 60C in 15 minutes and most strong
disinfectants. Boiling or chlorination of water and
pasteurization of milk destroy the bacilli. They are
killed within five minutes by mercuric chloride (1:
500) or 5% phenol.
Antigenic Structure
Antigenic structure of salmonellae is shown in
Figure 39.1. Salmonellae possess the following
antigens based on which they are classified and
identified:
1. Flagellar antigen H.
2. Somatic antigen O.
3. Surface antigen Vi, found in some species.
S. Paratyphi A
AG
S. Paratyphi B
AG
AG
AG
S. Paratyphi C
AG
AG
AG
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Antigenic Variations
The antigens of salmonellae undergo phenotypic
and genotypic variations.
1. HO variation: This variation is associated
with the loss of flagella. When salmonellae
are grown on agar containing phenol (1 : 800),
flagella are inhibited. This change is phenotypic
and temporary. Flagella reapp ear when
the strain is subcultured on media without
phenol. Salmonellae may rarely lose flagella by
mutation resulting in the development of stable
or irreversible mutant. For example, a stable
nonmotile mutant of S. Typhi is the 901-O strain
which is widely employed for the preparation
of O-agglutinable bacterial suspensions.
Craigies tube: Generally, the loss of flagella is
not total and there occurs only a diminution
in the number of flagella and the quantity of
the H antigen. Flagellated cells are found in
small numbers in such cultures. To obtain a
population of motile cells, rich in H antigen,
from such cultures, selection may be carried out
by using Craigies tube. This consists of a wide
tube containing soft agar (0.2%) at the center of
which is embedded a short, narrow tube open
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Chap-39.indd 277
|277
Subgenera
1
II
III
IV
Lactose fermentation
Malonate utilization
d-Tartrate
Salicin fermentation
Culture in KCN
Dulcitol
fermentation
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Oantigen
group
Serotype name
Paratyphi A
3,10
O antigens and Vi
Phase 1
Phase 2
1, 2, 12
[1, 5]
Paratyphi B
1, 4, [5], 12
1, 2
Stanley
1, 2
Typhimurium
1.4, [5], 12
1, 2
Heidelberg
1.4, [5], 12
1, 2
Choleraesuis
6, 7
1, 5
Paratyphi C
6, 7 [Vi]
1, 5
Typhisuis
6, 7
1, 5
Virchow
6, 7
1, 2
Muenchen
6, 8
1, 2
Newport
6, 8, 20
e, h
1, 2
Hadar
6, 8
z10
e, n, x
Miami
1, 9, 12
1, 5
Sendai
1, 9, 12
1, 5
D1
Typhi
9, 12 [Vi]
Enteritidis
1, 9, 12
g, m
[1, 7]
Dublin
1, 9, 12, [Vi]
g, p
Panama
1, 9, 12
I, v
1, 5
Gallinarum
1, 9, 12
Anatum
e, h
1, 6
C1
C2-C3
E1
Chap-39.indd 278
H antigens
Bacteriophage Typing
Strains within a particular serotype may be differen
tiated into a number of phage types by their patterns
of susceptibility to lysis by members of a series of
phages with different specificities. Intraspecies
classification of S. Typhi for epidemiolocal
purpose was made possible by bacteriophage
typing, first developed by Craige and Yen (1937).
They observed that a bacteriophage acting on the
Vi antigen of the typhoid bacillus (Vi phage II) is
highly adaptable. The parent phage is called phage
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Biotyping
Biotyping is a useful adjunct to phage typing for
it can subdivide a large group of untypale strains
or members of common phage types. Similarily,
strains of the same biotype may be subdivided into
different phage types.
Pathogenesis
Salmonellae are strict parasites of animals or
humans. All vertbrates appear capable of harboring
these bacteria in their gut and salmonellae can
colonize virtually all animals.
Host-adapted Serotypes
Some serotypes exhibit host specificity. S. Typhi,
S. Paratyphi A and usually,but not invariably S.
Paratyphi B are confined to human beings. Other
salmonellae are parasitic in various animals
domestic animals, rodents, reptiles and birds.
Clinical Syndromes
Salmonellae cause the following four major
syndromes:
1. Enteric fever.
2. Bacteremia with focal lesion.
3. Gastroenteritis or food poisoning.
4. Asymptomatic carrier state.
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a. Typhoid Fever
The infection is acquired by ingestion. On reaching
the gut, the bacilli attach themselves to the microvilli
of the ileal mucosa on the epithelium. They then
penetrate to the lamina propria and submucosa,
where they are phagocytized by neutrophils and
macrop hages. They resist intracellular killing
and multiply within these cells. They enter the
mesenteric lymph nodes, where after a period of
multiplication they invade the bloodstream via
the thoracic duct. During this period the bacilli
are seeded in the liver, gall bladder, spleen,
bone marrow, lymph nodes, lungs and kidneys,
where further multiplication takes place. After
multiplication in these organs, bacilli pass into the
blood, causing a second and heavier bacteremia,
the onset of which approximately coincides with
that of fever and other signs of clinical illness.
The salmonellae multiply abundantly in the
gall bladder as bile is a good culture medium for
the bacillus and are discharged continuously into
the intestine where Peyers patches and other
gut lymphoid tissues of ileum become involved.
These become inflamed and infiltration with
mononuclear cells, followed by necrosis, sloughing
and the formation of characteristic typhoid ulcers
occurs. Ulceration of the bowel leads to two
major complications of the diseaseintestinal
perforation and hemorrhage.
Clinical course: The incubation period is usually
714 days. The onset is usually gradual and early
symptoms are often vague: headache, malaise,
anorexia, a coated tongue and abdominal dis
comfort with either constipation or diarrhea.
In the untreated case the temperature shows
a step ladder rise over the first week of the illness,
remains high for 710 days and then falls by lysis
during the third or fourth week. Physical signs
include a relative bradycardia at the height of the
fever, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly and often a
rash of rose spots, found on the front of the chest
during the second or third week and fade on
pressure. The white blood cell count is normal or
low. Apparent recovery can be followed by relapse
in 510% of untreated cases. Classic typhoid fever
is a serious infection which, when untreated, has
a mortality approaching 20%.
Complications: The most important complications
are intestinal perforation, hemorrhage and
circulatory collapse. Some degree of bronchitis or
bronchopneumonia is always found.
1. Enteric Fever
b. Paratyphoid Fever
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Blood Culture
Blood cultures are positive in approximately 90%
cases in the first week of fever, in approximately
75% of cases in the second week, 60% in the third
week and 25% thereafter till the subsidence of
pyrexia (Fig. 39.3, Table 39.4).
With all aseptic precautions, about 510 mL of
blood is collected by venipuncture and inoculated
into a culture bottle containing 50100 mL of 0.5%
bile broth. Large quantity (510 mL) of blood is
required because the number of organisms are not
numerous and may be quite small. The blood is
Epidemiology
The typhoid and paratyphoid bacilli are essentially
human parasites. Man is the reservoir host and
most infections can be traced to a human source,
or at least to a source of human sewage. All other
salmonellae have animal hosts.
S. Paratyphi A is prevalent in India and other
Asian countries, Eastern Europe and South
America, S. Paratyphi B in Western Europe, Britain
and North America; and S. Paratyphi C in Eastern
Europe and Guyana. Enteric fever is endemic in all
parts of India. Paratyphoid B is rare and C very rare.
The disease occurs at all ages but is probably most
common in the 520 year age group.
The source of infection is a patient, or far more
frequently, a carrier. Food handlers or cooks who
become carriers are particularly dangerous. The
best known of such typhoid carriers was Mary
Mallon (Typhoid Mary), a New York cook who
caused at least seven outbreaks affecting over 200
persons over a period of 15 years.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Bactriological dignosis of enteric fever consists of:
A. Isolation and identification of the bacilli.
B. Demonstration of circulating antigen.
C. Demonstration of antibodies in patients serum.
D. Other laboratory tests.
Chap-39.indd 280
Specimen
% positivity
1st week
Blood culture
90
Feces culture
Widal test
Blood culture
75
Feces culture
50
Widal test
Low titer
Blood culture
60
Feces culture
80
Widal test
80100
2nd week
3rd week
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Clot Culture
An alternative to blood culture is the clot culture.
Here, with strict aseptic precautions, 5 mL of blood
is withdrawn from the patient into a sterile test
tube and allowed to clot. The serum is pipetted
off and used for Widal test. The clot is broken up
with a sterile glass rod and added to a bottle of bile
broth incorportating streptokinase (100 units/mL).
Streptokinase in the broth facilitates lysis of the clot
with release of bacteria trapped in the clot.
Advantage of clot culture: i. Clot cultures yields a
higher rate of isolation than blood cultures.
ii. A sample of serum also becomes available for
Widal test. Even though agglutinins may be absent
in the early stages of the disease, a Widal test
provides a baseline titer against which the results
of tests performed later may be evaluated.
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Urine Culture
Urine culture is less useful than the culture of
blood and feces because salmonellae are shed in
the urine irregularily and infrequently. Generally
cultures are positive only in the second and third
weeks and then only in about 25% of cases. The
rate of isolation is improved by repeated sampling.
Clean voided urine samples are centrifuged and
the deposit inoculated into enrichment and
selective media as for fecal culture.
Feces Culture
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C. Demonstration of Antibodies in
Patients Serum
i. Widal test.
ii. Other serological tests.
Chap-39.indd 282
i. Widal Test
Testing the patients serum for Salmonella antibodies
is useful only in the diagnosis of enteric fever (Widal
reaction). Tests for the presence of Salmonella
antibodies in the patients serum may be of value
in the diagnosis of enteric fever. This is a test for
measurement of H and O agglutinins for typhoid
and paratyphoid bacilli in the patients serum. The
patients serum is tested by tube agglutination for its
titers of antibodies against H, O and Vi suspensions
of the enteric fever bacteria likely to be encountered,
e.g. S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi A in India. Two types
of tubes are generally used for the test:
1. Dreyers agglutination tube (narrow tubes with
a conical bottom) for the H agglutination.
2. Felix tube (a short round bottomed tube) for
the O agglutination.
Equal volumes (0.4 mL) of serial dilutions of
the serum (from 1/10 to 1/640) and the H antigens
of S. Typhi (TH) and S. Paratyphi A (AH) and O
antigen of S. Typhi (TO) are mixed in Dreyers and
Felixs agglutination tubes respectively. Incubate H
agglutinations for 24 hours in water bath at 37C
and read after standing on the bench for half an
hour. Incubate O agglutinations for 46 hours at
37C and read after overnight refrigeration at 4C.
Controls tubes containing the antigen and normal
saline are set to check for autoagglutination. The
agglutination titers of the serum are read.
H agglutination leads to the formation of loose,
cotton woolly clumps, while O agglutination is
seen as a disc like pattern at the bottom of the
tube. Control (Felix) tube shows a compact
deposit. In both, the supernantant fluid is rendered
clear. The highest dilution of the serum showing
agglutination indicates the titer of the antibody.
The antigens used in the test are the H and O
antigens of S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi A and B. The
paratyphoid O antigens are not employed as they
cross react with the typhoid O antigen due to their
sharing of factor 12. Although suspensions may be
prepared from suitable stock laboratory cultures,
there is little need for that nowadays because
ready made Widal kits of stained antigens available
commertially are now widely used.
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Diazo Reagent
DIAGNOSIS OF CARRIERS
The detection of carriers is important for
epidemilogical and public health purposes. It is
also useful in screening food handlers and cooks.
Chap-39.indd 283
|283
PROPHYLAXIS
Control depends essentially on safe water
supply, proper sewage disposal, handling of food
hygienically, and periodic examination of food
handlers to ascertain that they are not carriers.
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SALMONELLA GASTROENTERITIS
Salmonella gastroenteritis (more appropriately
enterocolitis) or food poisoning is generally a
zoonotic disease. The source of infection being ani
mal products. It may be caused by any salmonella
except S. Typhi. In most parts of the world, S.
Typhimurium is the commonest (3040%) species.
Some other common species have been S. Enteri
tidis, S. Haldar, S. Heidelberg, S. Agona, S. Virchow,
S. Seftenberg, S. Indiana, S. Newport and S. Anatum
S. Dublin.
Source of Infection
The most frequent sources of Salmonella food
poisoning are poultry, meat, milk and milk products.
Of great concern are eggs and egg products.
Food contamination may also result from the
droppings of rats, lizards or other small animals.
Human carriers do occur but their role is minimal.
Clinical Features
Clinically, the disease develops after a short
incubation period of 24 hours or less, with diarrhea,
vomiting, abdominal pain and fever. It usually
subsides in 24 days but in some cases a more
prolonged enteritis develops.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The laboratory diagnosis depends on the isolation
of the causal organism from samples of feces or
suspected foodstuffs.
DRUG RESISTANCE
Treatment
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SALMONELLA SEPTICEMIA
S. Cholerae-suis, in particular may cause septicemic
disease with focal suppurative lesions, such as
osteomyelitis, deep abscesses, endocarditis,
pneumonia and meningitis. Focal lesions may
develop in any tissue.
Salmonella septicemia is prolonged and
characterized by fever, chills, anorexia, and anemia.
Gastroenteritis is minor or even absent, and the
organism is rarely cultured from feces. Infection
occurs by oral route and the incubation period is
short. The case fataliy may be as high as 25%.
Salmonelle may be isolated from the blood
or from the pus from the suppurative lesions.
Feces culture may sometimes may be positive.
Septicemic samonellosis should be treated with
chroramphenicol or other appropriate antibiotics
as determined by sensitivity tests.
MULTIRESISTANT SALMONELLAE
In India, several hospital outbreaks of neonatal
septicemia caused by multiresistant salmonellae
have occurred in recent years. Mortality in
neonates is very high unless early treatment is
started with antibiotics to which the infecting strain
is sensitive.
Key Points
Salmonella
Gram-negative bacilli, nonsporing, and noncapsu
lated, motile bacilli
Aerobic and facultative anaerobic grow easily on
a variety of nonselective media (e.g. nutrient agar)
and selective (e.g. Wilson and Blairs bismuth sulfite
medium, xylose, lysine deoxycholate agar, etc)..
Selenite F and tetrathionate broth are enrichment
media
Salmonellae possess the (1) Flagellar antigen H, (2)
Somatic antigen O (3) Surface antigen Vi, found in
some species
Salmonella are classified by KauffmanWhite scheme
based on structural formulae of the O and H antigens
of the strains
S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi are strict human pathogens
(no alternative reservoir)
Diseases: Asymptomatic colonization; enteric fever;
enteritis; bacteremia
Diagnosis: Isolation of the S. Typhi or S. Paratyphi
from blood, feces, urine, bone marrow, duodenal
drainage rose spots, etc.
Blood culture is positive in 90% cases in first week
of fever
Widal test is the traditional serologic test used for
the diagnosis of typhoid fever
Chap-39.indd 285
|285
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Name the salmonellae causing enteric fever.
Describe in detail the laboratory diagnosis of
enteric fever.
2. Describe the pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis
of enteric fever.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Antigenic structure of Salmonella
b.
Vi-antigen or surface antigen
c. Kauffmann-White scheme
d.
Clot culture
e. Widal test
f. Vaccination against enteric fever
g.
Salmonella gastroenteritis
h.
Salmonella septicemia.
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40
Chapter
Vibrio, Aeromonas and Plesiomonas
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology, cuture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of Vibrio cholerae
Discuss antigenic structure of Vibrio cholerae
Describe the following: pathogenesis of cholera;
mechanism of action of cholera toxin
INTRODUCTION
The second major group of gram-negative,
facultatively anaerobic, fermentative bacilli are the
genera Vibrio, Aeromonas, and Plesiomonas. Vibrio
and Aeromonas are now classified in the families
Vibrionaceae and Aeromonadaceae, respectively.
Plesiomonas is closely related to Proteus and has now
been placed in the Enterobacteriaceae family.
VIBRIO
Of the 35 Vibrio species recognized,12 have been
implicated in gastrointestinal and extraintestinal
infections in man. The genus can be divided into
nonhalophilic vibrios, including V. cholerae and
other species and halophilic species. The species
most frequently isolated from clinical specimens
are strains of V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, V.
vulnificus, V. mimicus and V. alginolyticus.
Cultural Characteristics
The cholera vibrio is strongly aerobic, growth being
scanty and slow anaerobically. It grows within a
temperature range of 1640C (optimum 37C).
Growth is better in an alkaline medium and it
occurs freely between pH 7.4 and 9.6 (optimum pH
8.2). V. cholerae is a nonhalophilic vibrio. It grows
well on ordinary media.
VIBRIO CHOLERAE
Morphology
These are gram-negative, short, curved, cylindrical
rods, about 1.5 m 0.20.4 m in size. The cell
is typically comma-shaped. S-shaped or spiral
forms may be seen due to two or more cells lying
end-to-end. In old cultures, they are frequently
highly pleomorphic. The vibrios are seen arranged
in parallel rows, described by Koch as the fish in
stream appearance in stained films of mucous
flakes from acute cholera cases.
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C. Plating Media
B. Special Media
Biochemical Reactions
b. Enrichment Media
The rapid growth and tolerance of vibrios for alkaline
conditions is exploited in the formulation of media
used for their isolation.
1. Alkaline peptone water: Alkaline peptone water
at pH 8.6 is useful for preliminary enrichment
of vibrios from feces or other contaminated
materials.
2. Monsurs taurocholate tellurite peptone
water at pH 9.2.
Both these are good transport as well as enrich
ment media.
Chap-40.indd 288
RESISTANCE
Cholera vibrios are susceptible to heat, drying and
acids, but resist high alkalinity. Vibrios are killed
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Serological Classification
Indole
+
Lysine
+
Catalase Oxidase
NO3
+
reduction +
+
MR
VP*
Sheep
RBCs
hemo
lysis*
+
|289
Antigenic Structure
1. Flagellar antigen (H antigen): Many vibrios
share a single heat-labile flagellar antigen.
2. O antigen (LPS, endotoxin): V. cholerae has
O lipopolysaccharides (LPS, endotoxin) that
confer serologic specificity.
There are at least more than 200 O antigen
groups. V. cholerae strains of O group 1 and O group
139 cause classic cholera. Occasionally, non-Ol/
non0139 V cholerae causes cholera-like disease.
Biotypes of V. cholerae 01
There are two biotypes of V. cholerae 01: classical
and El Tor biotypes. The differe nces between
classical and El Tor biotypes V. cholerae are
shown in Table 40.3. El Tor biotype produces
acetoin in the Voges-Proskauer test, agglutinates
fowl erythrocytes, lyses sheep erythrocytes in a
heart infusion broth with glycerol, grows in the
presence of polymyxin (50 unit disk), is resistant
to Mukerjees group IV phage and sensitive to the
group V phage of Basu and Mukerjee. The classical
biotype has the opposite properties.
1. Chick red cell agglutination test: A loopful
of the organisms from an agar cultures is
emulsified in a drop of saline on a slide and
a drop of 2.5% chick erythrocyte suspension
is added. Clumping of erythrocytes within a
minute indicates a positive test. The test is
positive with all EI Tor strains but classical
cholera vibrios are negative.
Classification
In the past, many oxidase positive, motile, curved
rods were rather loosely grouped as vibrios. Precise
criteria have been laid down for differentiating
vibrios from related genera (Table 40.1).
Vibrios were classified by Heiberg (1934) into
six groups based on the fermentation of mannose,
sucrose and arabinose. Two more groups were
added later. Cholera vibrios belong to Group I
(Table 40.2).
OxidationFermentation
(Hugh-Leifson Test)
Oxidation
Lysine
Fermentation
Arginine
String test
Ornithine
Vibrio
+1
Aeromonas
+2
Pseudomonas
Plesiomonas
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Fermentation Sucrose
of mannose
Arabinose
Serotype
O antigens
Ogawa
AB
Inaba
AC
II
Hikojima
ABC
III
IV
VI
VII
VIII
Classical cholera
El. Tor
Hemolysis
+*
Voges-Proskauer
+*
Chick erythrocyte
agglutination
Polymyxin B sensitivity
Group IV phage
susceptibility
El Tor phage 5
susceptibility
50 i. u. disk.
Chap-40.indd 290
Subtypes of V. cholerae 01
Strains of V. cholerae 01 may be further subdivided
on the basis of their 0 antigens into three subtypes,
Ogawa, Inaba and Hikojima. This is on the basis
of differences in minor 0 antigens (A, B and C).
Antigen A is present in all the three subtypes. 0
antigens present in Ogawa, Inaba and Hikojima
are A and B, A and C, and A, Band C respectively
(Table 40.4).
Nonagglutinating (NAG) vibrios: Though NAG
vibrios are not agglutinable by the O1 antiserum,
they are readily agglutinated by their own antisera.
The nonOl vibrios (the so called NAG vibrios) have
been classified into many serogroups, currently up
to more than 200. V. cholerae O1 and O139 are
responsible for causing classic cholera, which
can occur in epidemics or worldwide pandemics.
Occasionally, non-O1/non O139 V. cholerae causes
cholera-like disease.
V. cholerae 0139
In 1992 cases of cholera indistinguishable from that
caused by V. cholerae 01 were reported in Madras
(Chennai), India. By mid-January 1993 similar
isolates were found in neighboring Bangladesh,
and these rapidly spread north, following the
course of the major rivers and raising fears of a new
pandemic.
V. cholerae 0139 may have evolved from V.
cholerae 01, but with modified lipopolysaccharide
structure. V. cholerae 0139 makes a polysaccharide
capsule like other non-O 1 V. cholerae strains, while
V. cholerae 01 does not make a capsule. In the
affected areas, this strain replaced the El Tor vibrios
as the epidemic and environmental serovar. It also
showed a tendency to be more invasive, causing
bacteremic illness in some. Both O-1 El Tor and
O-139 strains began to coexist in endemic areas.
Phage Typing
Phage typing schemes have been standardized
for classical and El Tor biotypes. New molecular
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Phage type
I
II
III
IV
II
III
IV
+
+
|291
Mechanism of Action
The toxin molecule, of approximately 84,000 MW
consists of one A and 5 B subunits. The B (binding)
subunit of cholera toxin binds to the ganglioside
GM1 receptors on the intestinal epithelial cells,
which promotes entry of subunit A into the cell.
The A (active) subunit, on being transported into
the enterocyte dissociates into two fragments A1
and A2. The A2 fragment only links the biologically
active A1 to the B subunit. The active portion (A1) of
the A subunit enters the cell and activates adenyl
cyclase. The cholera enterotoxin causes the transfer
of adenosine diphosphoribose (ADP ribose) from
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) to a
regulatory protein, which is part of the adenylate
cyclase enzyme responsible for the generation of
intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate
(cAMP). The result is irreversible activation of
adenylate cyclase and overproduction of cAMP.
This in turn causes inhibition of uptake of Na+
Cholera
Epidemiology
Pathogenesis
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Chap-40.indd 292
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimen
Watery stool
Rectal swabs.
B. Collection of Specimen
a. Stool: A fresh specimen of stool should be
collected for laboratory examination. Sample
should be collected before the person is treated
with antibiotics. Collection may be made
generally in one of the following ways:
i. Rubber catheter: Fecal specimens from early
acute cases should be collected into a sterile
container, preferably through a soft sterile
rubber catheter inserted into the rectum.
ii. Rectal swab: Rectal swabs are useful in
collecting specimens from convalescents.
Collection from a bedpan should be avoided
because of the risk of contamination or the
presence of disinfectant.
C. Transportation
If possible, specimens should be processed without
delay but, if there is to be a delay of more than 6
hours in their reaching the laboratory, feces or
rectal swabs should be placed in a liquid alkaline
transport medium. Stool samples may be preserved
in VR fluid or CaryBlair medium for long periods.
If the specimen can reach the laboratory in a
few hours, it may be transported in enrichment
media, such as alkaline peptone water or Monsurs
medium.
Strips of blotting paper may be soaked in the
watery stool and sent to the laboratory packed
in plastic envelopes if transport media are not
available.
Whenever possible, specimens should be
plated at the bedside and the inoculated plates sent
to the laboratory.
D. Microscopy
Direct microscopic examination of feces is not rec
ommended. For rapid diagnosis, the characteristic
motility of the vibrio and its inhibition by antiserum
can be demonstrated under the dark field or phase
contrast microscope.
E. Culture
The specimens sent in enrichment media should
be incubated for 68 hours, including transit time.
The specimens sent in holding media should be
inoculated into enrichment media, to be incubated
for 68 hours before being streaked on a selective
and a nonselective medium.
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Selective Media
The plating media employed usually are bile salt
agar (BSA), MacConkey agar for nonselective and
GTTA and TCBS agar for selective plates. Generally,
the plates are examined after overnight incubation
at 37C.
Colony morphology: On MacConkey medium,
they form translucent colonies, on GTTA medium
they form translucent colonies with grayish-black
center and a turbid halo and on TCBS, they form
yellow colonies.
Identification: Do the Gram staining from the
suspected colonies and look for gram-negative
curved or comma-shaped rods. Perform motility
and oxidase tests. Cholera vibrios show characteristic
motility and are oxidase positive.
Slide agglutination: Pick up oxidase-positive
colonies with a straight wire and test by slide
agglutination with V. cholerae 0 1 antiserum. If
positive, agglutination may be repeated using
specific Ogawa and Inaba antisera. Hikojima
strains will agglutinate well with both Ogawa and
Inaba antisera. If agglutination is negative with
one colony, repeat the test with at least five more
colonies as 01 and non-01 vibrios may co-exist in
the same specimen.
If slide agglutination is positive, the isolate
is tested for chick red cell agglutination. This is
employed for presumptive differentiation between
El Tor and classical cholera vibrios. If no vibrios are
isolated, a second cycle of enrichment and plating
may succeed in some cases.
Biochemical Reactions
The identity of the organism should be confirmed
biochemically in a set of conventional tests. The use
of a Hugh and Leifson O/F test, Mollers arginine
dihydrolase, lysine and ornithine decarboxylases,
arabinose, inositol, mannose and sucrose peptone
water sugars and a test for growth in the absence
of NaCI by inoculating either a 1% tryptone water
with no added NaCl or a CLED plate.
For further characterization of the biotype of
the V. cholerae 01 isolate, do VP test, agglutination
of fowl RBCs, haemolysis of sheep RBCs, and
sensitivity to polymyxin B, Mukerjee phages IV
and V (Table 40.3). The strain may be sent to
the International Reference Centre for vibrio
phage typing at the National Institute of Cholera
and Enteric Disease (NICED) at Kolkata for
confirmation of identity and for O-serotyping.
When the isolated strain is not agglutinated
by V. cholerae 01 antiserum, it should be tested
for agglutination with V. cholerae H antiserum.
Any vibrio which is agglutinated by H antiserum
and not by 01antiserum is considered to be to be
Chap-40.indd 293
|293
F. Serological Diagnosis
In patients who have not been immunized, a retro
spective diagnosis of infection can be made by the
demonstration of a rising titer of agglutinins or
vibriocidal antibodies in paired sera; or antibody
against cholera toxin (CT) may be detected in an
ELISA test.
Detection of Carriers
For isolation of vibrios from carriers, essentially
the same techniques are to be followed, except
that more than one cycle of enrichment may be
necessary. As vibrio excretion is intermittent,
repeated stool examination will yield better results.
Serological examination is of little use in the
diagnosis of cases though it may be helpful in
assessing the prevalence of cholera in an area. The
tests available are agglutination using live or killed
vibrio suspensions, indirect hemagglutination,
vibriocidal test and antitoxin assay. Of these, the
complement dependent vibriocidal antibody test
is the most useful.
Treatment
1. Oral rehydration therapy (ORT): In cholera,
absolute priority must be given to the lifesaving
replacement of fluid and electrolytes. Oral
rehydration therapy (ORT) is often sufficient,
but severe cases may require intravenous
rehydration.
2. Antibacterial therapy: Oral tetracycline was
recommended for reducing the period of vibrio
excretion and the need for parenteral fluids. This
dramatically reduces infectivity. Alternatively,
the long-acting tetracycline (doxycycline) may
be used for chemoprophylaxis, if the prevailing
strains are not resistant.
15-03-2016 11:17:34
Prophylaxis
1. General Measures
Most important are the provision of safe drinking
water supplies and the proper disposal of human
feces. Control rests on education and on improvement
of sanitation, particularly of food and water.
2. Specific MeasuresVaccines
a. Killed whole organism vaccine
It is killed suspension containing 8000 million V.
cholerae per mL, composed of equal numbers of
Ogawa and Inaba serotypes. The concentration of
the vaccine has been increased to 12,000 million
per mL, in order to improve the antigenic stimulus.
Primary immunization consists of 2 equal doses,
injected subcutaneously, at an interval of 46 weeks.
This vaccine offers about 60% protection for 36
months. A single dose of vaccine is ineffective in
children below five years of age while two doses at
14 week intervals are protective. However, it confers
protection in adults due to its action as a booster
because of prior natural infection.
Cell free somatic antigen preparations are as
effective as whole cell vaccine.
b. Oral vaccine: Two types of oral cholera vaccines
are available in some countries.
i. Nonliving oral B subunit-whole cell (BS-WC)
vaccine:
This vaccine consists of killed whole-cell V. cholerae
01 in combination with a recombinant B-subunit
of cholera toxin (WC/rBS).
It is given orally in two dose schedule, 1014
days apart. On an average, the vaccine confers
5060% protection for at least 3 years.
Chap-40.indd 294
HALOPHILIC VIBRIOS
Vibrios that have a high requirement of sodium
chloride are known as halophilic vibrios. Their
natural habitat is sea water and marine life. Some
halophilic vibrios have been shown to cause human
diseaseV. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus and
V. vulnificus.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Morphologically, it resembles V. cholerae except
that it is capsulated, shows bipolar staining and
has a tendency to pleomorphism, especially when
grown on 3% salt agar and in old cultures. However,
being a halophilic species, it grows well in peptone
water with 8% (but not 10%) sodium chloride.
It grows well on blood agar. On MacConkey agar
it forms pale, nonIactosefermenting colonies and
on sheep blood agar it produces -hemolysis. On
TCBS agar, the colonies are green (non-sucrosefermenting). Unlike other vibrios, it produces
peritrichous flagella when grown on solid media.
Polar flagella are formed in liquid cultures.
Biochemical Reactions
It is oxidase, catalase, indole and citrate positive.
It reduces nitrate to nitrite. It ferments glucose,
maltose, mannitol, mannose and arabinose with
the production of acid only. Lactose, sucrose
salicin, dulcitol or inositol are not fermented.
It is VP positive and decarboxylates lysine and
ornithine but not arginine.
Pathogenesis
Not all strains of V. parahaemolyticus are patho
genic for human beings. Strains isolated from
environmental sources (such as water, fish,
crabs or oysters) are nearly always nonhemolytic
when grown on a special high salt blood agar
(Wagatsumas agar), while strains from human
patients are alm ost always hemolytic. This
hemolysis is known as the Kanagawa phenomenon
and is due to a heat stable hemolysin.
Kanagawa positive strains being considered
pathogenic for human beings and negative strains
nonpathogenic.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus causes acute gastro
enteritis following ingestion of contam inated
seafood, such as raw fish or shellfish. After an
incubation period of 1224 hours, nausea and
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Laboratory Diagnosis
The feces of patients with a history of recent
consumption of seafood may be examined by the
methods used for V. cholerae. In the examination of
seafood and sea or estuarine waters for halophilic
species, including V. parahaemolyticus, enrichment
culture in alkaline peptone water containing 1%
sodium chloride is used.
Vibrio Vulnificus
V. vulnificus, previously known as L+ vibrio or
Beneckea vulnifica, is a marine Vibrio of medical
importance.
This halophilic vibrio resembles V. para
haemolyticus in forming green, nonsucrose-fer
menting colonies on TCBS medium. It is VP
negative and ferments lactose but not sucrose. It has
a salt tolerance of less than eight percent. The ability
of. V. vulnificus to ferment lactose (lactose positive
vibrios) a key identifying characteristic.It can grow
in the presence of a 300 unit disk of polymyxin.
Vibrio vulnificus can cause severe wound
infections, bacteremia, and probably gastroenteritis.
It is responsible for rapidly progressive wound
infections after exposure to contaminated seawater.
Following ingestion of the Vibrio, usually in oysters,
it penetrates the gut mucosa without causing
gastrointestinal manifestations and enters the
bloodstream, rapidly leading to septicemia with
high mortality.
Vibrio alginolyticus
Vibrio alginolyticus is a halophilic organism formerly
regarded as biotype 2 of V. parahaemolyticus. It
resembles V. parahaemolyticus in many respects
and. It has a higher salt tolerance, is VP positive
and ferments sucrose (Table 40.7). It forms large,
yellow (sucrose fermenting) colonies on TCBS.
There is pronounced swarming on nonselective
solid media. It has been associated with infections
of eyes, ears and wounds in human beings exposed
to sea water.
Chap-40.indd 295
|295
V.
parahaemolyticus
V. alginolyticus
VP
Nitrate
reduction
Urease
Sucrose
fermentation
Swarming
Growth in 0%
NaCl
7% NaCl
10% NaCl
Indole
AEROMONAS
Until recently, Aeromonas was classified in the
family Vibrionaceae. The genus has been placed in
the new family Aeromonadaceae from the family
Vibrionaceae.
Aeromonas is a gram-negative, facultative
anaerobic bacillus that morphologically resembles
members of the Enterobacteriaceae. The most
important pathogens are Aeromonas hydrophila,
Aeromonas caviae, and Aeromonas veran; biovar
soma. The organisms are ubiquitous in fresh and
brackish water.
The two major diseases associated with Aero
monas are gastroenteritis and wound infections
(with or without bacteremia).
Gastroenteritis typically occurs after the ingestion
of contaminated water or food, whereas wound
infections result from exposure to contaminated
water. They are opportunistic pathogens.
Aeromonas strains are susceptible to tetra
cyclines, aminoglycosides, and cephalosporins.
PLESIOMONAS
Plesiomonas are closely related to Proteus and
have now been placed in the Enterobacteriaceae
family. It has only one species, P. shigelloides which
is taxonomically related to Proteus species and
serologically related to Shigella sonnei.
They are oxidase positive, motile, have multiple
polar flagella gram-negative bacilli and may be
mistaken for vibrios. The organism is found in
fresh water and estuarine waters and is acquired
through contact with fresh water, the consumption
of seafood, or exposure to amphibians or reptiles.
P. shigelloides is ubiquitous in surface waters
and in soil. It has also been isolated from a variety
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Key Points
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of cholera.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Classification of vibrios
b. Noncholera vibrios
c. Differences between classical and El Tor vibrios
d. Pathogenesis of cholera
e. Cholera toxin
f. Prophylaxis against cholera
g. Halophilic vibrios
Chap-40.indd 296
h. Kanagawa phenomenon
i. Aeromonas
j. Plesiomonas.
15-03-2016 11:17:34
41
41
Chapter
Campylobacter and Helicobacter
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology, culture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of Campylobacter
Campylobacter
Introduction: Campylobacter and arcobacter are
grouped into the family Campylobacteriaceae.
A total of 18 species and subspecies are now
recognized; 13 have been associated with human
disease. Campylobacter jejuni is the prototype
organism in the group and is very common cause
of diarrhea in humans.
Morphology
The genus Campylobacter (Greek, meaning curved
rod) consists of small, comma-shaped, gramnegative bacilli that microscopically resemble
vibrios. They are motile by means of a single polar
flagellum. Old cultures are coccoid and pleomorphic.
They are nonsporing.
Cultural Characteristics
Most species are microaerobic, requiring an
atmosphere with decreased oxygen (5% oxygen)
and increased hydrogen and carbon dioxide (CO2)
level for aerobic growth. Many pathogenic species
are thermophilic, growing well at 42C.
Selective media for isolation of C. jejuni are But
zlers selective medium, Skirrows Campylobacter
selective medium, Preston Campylobacter selective
medium and Blasers medium (Campy-BAP). Plates
are incubated for 48 hours. Colonies are circular and
convex but those of thermophilic group, particularly
C. jejuni, are flat and tend to swarm on moist agar.
Biochemical Reactions
Campylobacters do not ferment carbohydrates and
utilize a respiratory (oxidative) pathway. They are
strongly oxidase positive. They are catalase positive
Pathogenesis
Infection is acquired by ingestion. The jejunum and
ileum are the first sites to become colonized, but the
infection extends distally to affect the terminal ileum
and usually the colon and rectum. The organisms are
invasive and may involve mesenteric lymph nodes
and cause bacteremia. Heat-labile enterotoxin
along with the invasive property of this organism
may contribute to the production of the damage.
Epidemiology
C. fetus is a major cause of abortion in sheep
and cattle worldwide. Campylobacter infections
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory diagnosis depends on isolation of the
Campylobacter from feces.
A. Specimens
Other Campylobacters
B. Microscopy
C. Culture
Feces or rectal swabs are plated on selective media.
A transport medium has to be employed in case of
delay in culturing. Campylobacters survive for 12
weeks at 4C in CaryBlair transport medium but
glycerol-saline is not satisfactory. Selective media
for isolation of C. jejuni are Butzlers selective
medium, Skirrows Campylobacter selective
medium, Preston Campylobacter selective medium
and Blasers medium (Campy-BAP). Skirrows
medium contains vancomycin, polymyxin B, and
trimethoprim to inhibit growth of other bacteria.
Inoculated plates are incubated at 42C to favor
growth of the thermophilic Campylobacters (C.
jejuni, C. coli, C. lari and C. hyointestinalis) over that
of other faecal bacteria. If, however, the presence of
C. fetus (nonthermophile) is suspected, additional
plates should be incubated at 37C to allow growth
of this nonthermophile. Incubation must be done
in an atmosphere of 5% O2 10% CO2 and 85% N2.
Plates are incubated for 48 hours.
Colonies are typically flat and effuse, with a
tendency to spread on moist agar. They are nonhe
molytic, gray or colorless, moist, and flat or convex.
D. Identification
Suggestive colonies are screened by Gram staining,
motility and oxidase tests. Confirmation is by
further biochemical tests, including positive
catalase and nitrate reduction tests.
E. Serology
Complement fixation test and enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) are group-specific
tests that can detect recent infection with C. jejuni
or C. coli.
1. Campylobacter fetus
Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus is a very
important veterinary pathogen. It causes infective
abortion in cattle and sheep.It is an opportunistic
pathogen that causes systemic infections in
man in immunocompromized patients. It may
occasionally cause diarrhea.
2. C. concisus
It has been isolated from cases of gingivitis and
periodontal disease. It has also been isolated from
faeces.
C. fetus subsp. venerealis: It causes enzootic
sterility (infectious infertility) of cattle but has not
been associated with human infection.
4. C. coli
It causes an infection clinically indistinguishable from
that of C. jejuni. It is commonly found in healthy pigs.
5. C. lari
C. lari (formerly known as e. laridis). It causes
enteritis simulating C. jejuni infections in humans.
Helicobacter
Treatment
Helicobacter pylori
Warren and Marshall in Australia in 1983 observed
spiral, Campylobacter-like bacteria in close
apposition to the gastric mucosa in several cases of
gastritis and peptic ulcer. They were originally named
Campylobacter pyloridis then C. pylori and now
redesignated as Helicobacter pylori. Features that
distinguish this organism from Campylobacters are
its multiple sheathed flagella, its strong hydrolysis of
urea and its unique fatty acid profile.
Morphology
H. pylori is a gram-negative spirally shaped
bacterium, 0.50.9 mm wide by 24 mm long. It is
motile by means of a tuft of sheathed unipolar flagella,
unlike the unsheathed flagella of campylobacters. It
is non-sporing.
Cultural Characteristics
Like campylobacters, H. pylori is microaerophic.
The optimum temperature for its growth is 3537C,
some grow poorly at 42C but none grows at 25C. It
can grow in an atmosphere of 5% O2, 10% CO2 and
85% N2. It does not grow anaerobically or in air. It
can be grown on moist freshly prepared chocolate
agar and Skirrows Campylobacter selective
medium. H. pylori produce circular, convex and
translucent colonies after incubation at 3537C in
a microaerophilic atmosphere for 35 days.
Biochemical Reactions
H. pylori givs the following reactions.
i.
Abundant urease production: A distinctive
feature is the production of abundant urease,
and this property has been used as a rapid
diagnostic test in gastric biopsy samples. The
urease enzyme produced by H. pylori is almost
100 times more active than that of Proteus
vulgaris.
ii. It produces oxidase, catalase, phosphatase
and H2S.
iii. It does not metabolize carbohydrates or
reduce nitrate.
Virulence Factors
1. H. pylori produce a cytotoxin causing
vacuolation of gastric mucosa. Its production
is determined by Cag A Gene. Virulence has
been associated with certain alleles in genes,
such as cag (cytotoxin associated gene) and
vac (vacuolating cytotoxin gene).
2. Urease released by H. pylori produces ammonia
ions that neutralize stomach acid in the
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Pathogenesis
H. pylori colonize the surface of the gastric
mucosa, especially of the antrum but any part of
the stomach may be colonized. Colonization often
extends into gastric glands, but the mucosa is not
invaded by the bacteria.
Although gastric acid is potentially destructive
to H. pylori, protection is provided by its powerful
urease. H. pylori produce potent urease activity,
which yields production of ammonia and further
buffering of acid and neutralizes acid around the
bacteria. Where they are numerous, the underlying
mucosa usually shows a superficial gastritis of the
type known as chronic active or type B gastritis.
H. pylori are associated with antral gastritis,
duodenal (peptic) ulcer disease, gastric ulcers.
It is also recognized as a risk factor for gastric
malignancies, namely, adenocarcinoma and
mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
lymphomas.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnostic tests are of two kinds:
A. Noninvasive tests
In practice, noninvasive tests are used for initial
screening.
1. Serology: Antibodies to H. pylori or its products
can be detected in the patient serum by ELISA
test.
2. Urea breath test: Urea tagged with an isotope
of carbon (carbon-14 or -13) is fed to the
patient. If the patients stomach is colonized
with H. pylori, urea is converted into ammonia
and tagged CO2. The latter appears in the breath
where it can be measured. Patients infected
with H. pylori give high readings of the isotope.
3. Fecal antigen test: In this polyclonal antibodies
are used to detect H. pylori antigens in feces.
4. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): Various
DNA probes have been developed for the direct
detection of H. pylori by PCR in gastric juice,
feces, dental plaque and water supplies.
B. Invasive Tests
Specimens: Endoscopic biopsy of gastric mucosa
for examination by microscopy, culture and urease
tests.
Treatment
The standard treatment is a combination of
bismuth subsalicylate, tetracycline (or amoxicillin)
and metronidazole for two weeks. An alternative
schedule employs a proton pump inhibitor like
omeprazole and clarithromycin.
Prevention and control: Prophylactic treatment
of colonized individuals has not been useful
and potentially has adverse effects, such as
predisposing patients to adenocarcinomas of
the lower esophagus. Human vaccines are not
currently available.
Helicobacter cinaedi
H. cinaedi (formerly known as Campylobacter
cinaedi) has been associated with proctitis in
homosexual men.
Helicobacter fennelliae
H.fennelliae (formerly known as Campylobacter
fennelliae) like H. cinaedi has been associated with
proctitis in homosexual men.
Key Points
Campylobacters are thin, curved gram-negative
bacilli. They are are microa erobic and strongly
oxidase positive
Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli have
emerged as common human pathogens
DiseasessZoonotic infection; improperly prepared
poultry is a common source of human infections
DiagnosisMicroscopy is insensitive. Culture
requires use of specialized media incubated
Important questions
1. Discuss pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of
diarrhea caused by Campylobacter.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Campylobaeter infections
b.
Helicobacter pylori
c.
Helicobacter pylori infections.
d. Laboratory diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori infections
e. Urea breath test.
42
Chapter
Pseudomonas,
Stenotrophomonas, Burkholderia
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology, cultural characteristics,
biochemical reactions and laboratory diagnosis of
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Introduction
The term Pseudomonads describes a large group
of aerobic, nonfermentative, nonsporing gramnegative bacilli, motile by polar flagella. They
belong to over 100 species that were originally
contained within the genus Pseudomonas. Most
are saprophytes found widely in soil, water and
other moist environments.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most common
pseudomonad and this is the species most com
monly associated with human disease. Burkholderia
(previously Pseudomonas) pseudomallei is an
important pathogen in tropical areas of the
world. Burkholderia (previously Pseudomonas)
cepacia, which is now encompassed within the
B. cepacia complex, has emerged as an important
pathogen in immunocomp romised patients,
particularly in individuals with cystic fibrosis or
chronic granulomatous disease. Stenotrophomonas
maltophilia also infects immunocompromised
patients.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Morphology
It is a slender gram-negative bacillus, 1.53 m
0.5 m, actively motile usually with a single polar
flagellum. Occasional strains have two or three
flagella. It is nonsporing, noncapsulated but many
strains have a mucoid slime layer.
Cultural Characteristics
It is a strict aerobe but can grow anaerobically if
nitrate is available. Growth occurs at a wide range
Pigment Production
P. aeruginosa produces at least 4 distinct pigments:
i. Pyocyanin: It is a bluish-green phenazine
pigment soluble in chloroform and water. This
pigment is not produced by other species of
this genus. Demonstration of the presence
of the blue phenazine pigment pyocyanin
is absolute confirmation of a strain as P.
aeruginosa.
ii. Pyoverdin (fluorescein): The yellow/green
pigment pyoverdin (fluorescein) is also
produced by most strains, giving the charac
teristic blue-green appearance of infected pus
or cultures. It is insoluble in chloroform but
soluble in water.
iii. Pyorubrin: It is a bright red water soluble
pigment and is insoluble in chloroform.
iv. Pyomelanin: It is a brown to black pigment
and its production is uncommon.
Virulence Factors
Biochemical Reactions
Ps. aeruginosa derives energy from carbohy
drates by an oxidative rather than a fermentative
metabolism. Special media, such as the OF
medium of Hugh and Leifson must be used for
diagnostic tests.
It utilizes glucose oxidatively with the pro
duction of acid only. Lactose and maltose are not
utilized. Indole, MR, VP and H2S tests are negative.
However, all strains give a rapid positive
oxidase reaction (within 30 seconds) and utilize
citrate as sole source of carbon.
It reduces nitrates to nitrites and further to
gaseous nitrogen.
It is catalase, arginine dihydrolase and
gelatinase positive and lysine decarboxylase and
aesculin hydrolysis negative.
Antigenic Characteristics
O antigens: P. aeruginosa possesses 19 distinct,
group-specific 0 antigens. O antigens are heatstable.
H antigens: On the basis of slide agglutination, at
least two heat-labile H antigens have been recog
nized.
OF medium
of Hugh and
Leifson
Oxidative
Glucose
A
Lactose
Maltose
Citrate
+
Indole, MR,
VP
H2S
NO3
reduction
OF, oxidativefermentative
Mannitol
Sucrose
Resistance
The bacillus is not particularly heat resistant, being
killed at 55C in one hour but exhibits a high degree
of resistance to chemical agents. It is resistant to
the common antiseptics and disinfectants such
as quaternary ammonium compounds, chloroxy
lenol and hexachlorophene. It is sensitive to a
2% aqueous alkaline solution of glutaraldehyde
(cidex), acids, silver salts and strong phenolic
disinfectants.
Ps. aeruginosa possesses a considerable degree
of natural resistance to antibiotics.
Epidemiology
Pseudomonads are opportunistic pathogens.
Its ability to persist and multiply, particularly in
moist environments and on moist equipment
(e.g. humidifiers) in hospital wards, bathrooms
and kitchens, is of particular importance in crossinfection control. Pseudomonads are resistant to
many antibiotics and disinfectants.
Pathogenesis
P. aeruginosa has many virulence factors, including
structural components, toxins, and enzymes (See
under Virulence factors). P. aeruginosa produces
numerous toxins and extracellular products that
promote local invasion and dissemination of the
organism.
Individuals most at risk include those with
impaired immune defenses. A prior antibiotic
therapy that eliminate normal flora can also
provide P. aeruginosa with increased access for
colonizing tissue.
A. Community Infections
1. Otitis externa and varicose ulcers.
2. Corneal infections resulting from contaminated
contact lenses or other sourcesl.
3. Jacuzzi rash or whirlpool rash: Recreational
and occupational conditions associated with
pseudomonas infections include Jacuzzi
rash or whirlpool rash (an acute self-limiting
folliculitis).
4. Industrial eye injuries, which may lead to
panophthalmitis.
B. Hospital Infections
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens: Pus, wound swab, urine, sputum,
CSF or blood.
2. Microscopy: Gram-negative rods are often seen
in smears.
3. Culture: They grow easily on common isolation
media such as blood agar and MacConkey
agar. It may be necessary to use selective
media, such as cetrimide agar for isolation
of P. aeruginosa from feces or other samples
with mixed flora, such as wound swab. As Ps
aeruginosa is a frequent contaminant, isolation
of the bacillus from a specimen should not
always be taken as proof of its etiological
role. Repeated isolations help to confirm the
diagnosis.
4. Identification: The isolates are identified by
their colonial morphology and biochemical
characters. The colonial morphology (e.g.
colony size, hemolytic activity, pigmentation,
odor) combined with the results of selected
rapid biochemical tests (e.g. positive oxidase
reaction) is sufficient for the preliminary
identification of these isolates.
5. Typing method: Biochemical profiles, antibiotic
susceptibility patterns, phage typing, production
of pyocins, serologic typing, and the molecular
characterization of DNA or ribosomal RNA are
used for the specific classification of isolates for
epidemiologic purposes.
6. Antibiotic sensitivity tests: It is useful to select
out proper antibiotic as multiple reistance to
antibiotics is quite common in Ps. aeruginosa
Treatment
Control
Prevention of Ps. aeruginosa cross infection in
hospitals requires constant vigilance and strict
attention to asepsis. The inappropriate use of
broad-spectrum antibiotics should also be avoided.
Immunotherapy in human burns cases with
antiserum to Ps. aeruginosa may be useful. Vaccine
from appropriate types administered to high-risk
patients provides protection against Pseudomonas
sepsis.
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia
(Formerly Pseudomonas maltophilia)
It is responsible for infections in debilitated patients
with impaired host defense mechanisms. The
spectrum of nosocomial infections with S. maltophilia
includes bacteremia, pneumonia, meningitis,
wound infections, and urinary tract infections.
Culture
Treatment
B. cepacia is susceptible to trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole.
Morphology
Ps. mallei is a slender, nonmotile, gram-negative
bacillus, 25 m 0.5 m staining irregularly and
often giving a beaded appearance.
Culture
It is an aerobe and facultative anaerobe, growing
on ordinary media. Colonies which are small and
transluscent initially become yellowish and opaque
on aging. On potato, a characteristic amber, honeylike growth appears, becoming greenish yellow
resembling Ps. aeruginosa.
Biochemical Reactions
Biochemical Reactions
Pathogenicity
Like P. aeruginosa, B. cepacia can colonize a variety
of moist environmental surfaces and is commonly
associated with nosocomial infections.
Infections caused by this organism include the
following:
1. Respiratory tract infections in patients with
cystic fibrosis or chronic granulomatous disease.
2. Urinary tract infections in catheterized patients.
Animal Pathogenicity
Toxins
Human Pathogenicity
Pathogenesis
Laboratory Diagnosis
The diagnosis is based on:
1. Culture of the organism from local lesions of
humans or horses.
2. Rising agglutin titers.
Mallein Test
Animals suffering from glanders develop a delayed
hypersensitivity to the bacterial protein. This is
the basis of the mallein test used for diagnosing
glanders. This is analogous to the tuberculin test
and may be performed by the subcutaneous,
intracutaneous or conjunctival methods.
Burkholderia pseudomallei
Burkholderia pseudomallei (formerly Pseudomonas
pseudomallei, also known as W hitmores
bacillus, Actinobacillus whitmori, Malleomyces
pseudomallei, Loefflerella pseudomallei).
B. pseudomallei is a saprophyte found in soil,
water, and vegetation. It is endemic in Southeast
Asia, India, Africa, and Australia. This is the causative
agent of melioidosis, a glanders-like disease, (The
name is derived from melis, a disease of asses
glanders, and eidos, meaning resemblance). This
organism was isolated by Whitmore and Krish
naswami (1912) from a glanders-like disease of man
in Rangoon.
Morphology
It resembles Ps. mallei but differs in being motile.
Culture
B. pseudomallei is easily cultured and produces
characteristic wrinkled colonies after several days
of growth on nutrient agar. Fresh cultures emit a
characteristic pungent odor of putrefaction.
Biochemical Reactions
It resembles Ps. mallei but differs in liquefying
gelatin and forming acid from several sugars.
|305
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Microscopy: A Gram stain of an appropriate
specimen will show small gram-negative bacilli;
bipolar staining (safety pin appearance) is
seen with Wright stain or methylene blue stain.
2. Culture: The organism may be observed may
be cultured from sputum, urine, pus or blood
on selective media. The organism is highly
infectious.
3. Serology: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay (ELlSA) for detection of bacterial antigen,
specific IgG and IgM antibody to B. pseudomallei,
as well as an indirect hemagglutination test.
4. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Glucose Nonfermenters
The heterogeneous group of aerobic gram-negative
bacilli commonly referred to as glucose nonfermenters
is taxonomically distinct from the carbohydrate
fermenting Enterobacteriaceae and the oxidative
pseudomonads. They grow easily on common
culture media, but unequivocal identification may
be difficult as most species are relatively inert in the
biochemical tests used in identification of gramnegative bacteria. Their clinical relevance is based
on their role as opportunistic pathogens in hospitalacquired infections and their intrinsic resistance
to many antimicrobial agents. Susceptibility
Oxidase Habitat
test
Pathogenicity
Acinetobacter spp.
Alcaligenes spp.
Human feces
Achromobacter spp.
Flavobacterium spp.
Eikenella spp.
Key Points
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Small gram-negative bacilli. Nonfermenter
It is a strict aerobe. It grows well on ordinary media
and in the laboratory. Cetrimide agar is selective
medium for Ps. aeruginosa
P. aeruginosa produces at least 4 distinct pigments: (i)
Pyocyanin, (ii) Pyoverdin (fluorescein), (iii) Pyorubrin,
(iv) Pyomelanin
Diseases: Burn wound infections and other skin
and soft tissue infections tract infections pulmonary
infections external otitis eye infections, etc.
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. The spectrum of
nosocomial infections with S. maltophilia includes
bacteremia, pneumonia, meningitis, wound
infections, and urinary tract infections
Burkholderia cepacia: Diseases caused are respiratory
tract infections, particularly in patients with cystic
fibrosis; urinary tract infections; septic arthritis;
peritonitis; septicemia; opportunistic infections
Burkholderia pseudomallei: It causes asymptomatic
colonization; cutaneous infection with regional
lymphadenitis, fever, and malaise; pulmonary disease
ranging from bronchitis to necrotizing pneumonia
Burkholderia mallei: Diseases caused is glanders in
livestock.
Important questions
1. Describe the morphology, cultural characteristics,
pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
2. Write short notes on:
a.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
b. Pigments of Pseudomonas.
c. Pathogenicity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
d. Enzymes and toxins of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
e. Bacteriocins produced by Pseudomonas
aeruginosa
f. Burkholderia mallei
g. Pyocin typing
h. Burkholderia pseudomallei
i.
Stenotrophomonas maltophilia.
43
43
Chapter
Legionella
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology, culture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of Legionella
Introduction
Culture
LEGIONELLA PNEUMOPHILA
Morphology
Legionellae are thin, noncapsulated bacilli, 25 mm
0.30.1 mm coccobacillary in clinical material
and assuming longer forms in culture. Most are
motile with polar or subpolar flagella. They are
gram-negative but stain poorly, particularly in
smears from clinical specimens. They stain better
by silver impregnation, but are best visualized by
direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) staining with
monoclonal or polyclonal sera.
Biochemical Reactions
The organisms are nonfermentative. Most species
are motile and catalase-positive, liquefy gelatin,
and do not reduce nitrate or hydrolyze urea.
Epidemiology
The bacteria are commonly present in natural
bodies of water, such as lakes and streams, as well
as in air conditioning cooling towers and condens
ers and in water systems (e.g. showers, hot tubs).
Legionellae survive and multiply inside free-living
amebae and other protozoa. They also multiply in
some artificial aquatic environments, which serve
as amplifiers.
Human infection is typically by inhalation of
aerosols produced by cooling towers, air conditioners
and shower heads which act as disseminators. Manto-man transmission does not occur.
Pathogenesis
Respiratory tract disease caused by Legionella
species develops in susceptible people who inhale
infectious aerosols.
Treatment
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Microscopy
Legionellae in clinical specimens stain poorly
with Gram stain. Nonspecific staining methods,
such as those using Dieterles silver or Gimenezs
stain, can be used to visualize the organisms.
The most sensitive way of detecting legionellae
microscopically in clinical specimens is to use the
direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) test, in which
fluorescein-labeled monoclonal or polyclonal
antibodies directed against Legionella species are
used.
2. Culture
The medium most commonly used for the isolation
of legionellae is buffered charcoal-yeast extract
(BCYE) agar. Antibiotics can be added to suppress
the growth of rapidly growing contaminating
bacteria. Legionellae grow in air or 3% to 5% carbon
dioxide at 35C after 35 days. Their small (13 mm)
colonies have a groundglass appearance.
Prevention
Prevention of legionellosis requires identification of
the environmental source of the organism and reduc
tion of the microbial burden. Hyperchlorination of
the water supply and the maintenance of elevated
water temperatures have proved moderately
successful. Howe ver, complete elimination of
Legionella organisms from a water supply is often
difficult or impossible. Because the organism
has a low potential for causing disease, reducing
the number of organisms in the water supply is
frequently an adequate control measure. Hospitals
with patients at high risk for disease should monitor
their water supply on a regular basis for the presence
of Legionella and their hospital population for
disease.
Key Points
Important questions
1. Discuss pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of
Legionnaires disease.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Legionella pneumophilia
b. Legionnaires disease
c. Pontiac fever.
4. Serology
Answers (MCQs)
1. a; 2. a; 3. a
3. Antigen Detection
Enzyme-linked immunoassays, radioimmuno
assays, the agglutination of antibody-coated latex
particles, and nucleic acid analysis studies have
all been used to detect legionellae in respiratory
specimens and urine.
44
Chapter
Yersinia, Pasteurella, Francisella
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology, culture characteristics and
biochemical reactions of Yersinia pestis
Introduction
The organisms within these three genera (Yersinia,
Pasteurella, Francisella) are animal pathogens
that, under certain conditions, are transmissible to
man either directly, or indirectly through food and
water or via insect vectors. They are gram-negative
coccobacilli, formerly contained within one genus,
Pasteurella. Molecular genetics has indicated
a comp letely separate identity for the three
generaYersinia, Pasteurella and Francisella.
Genus Yersinia: It was so named after Alexandre
Yersin, who had isolated the plague bacillus in 1894.
Yersinia belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae
and the tribe Yersinieae The genus Yersinia
currently consists of 11 named species.
Medically important species are:
Y. pestis (the causative agent of plague);
Y. pseudotuberculosis (a primary pathogen of
rodents);
Y. enterocolitica (which causes enteric and
systemic disease in animals and human beings).
Cultural Characteristics
The plague bacillus is aerobe and facultative
anaerobe. Growth occurs over a wide range of pH
59.6 (optimum pH 7.2). Optimum temperature
for primary culture is 27C (range 1437C). Several
phenotypic characteristics are best expressed at room
temperature but the envelope develops at 37o C.
1. Nutrient agar: Colonies are small (as small as
0.10.2 mm), delicate, transparent disks and
become opaque on continued incubation.
2. Blood agar: Colonies are dark brown due to
absorption of the haemin pigment.
3. DCA and MacConkey agar: On DCA and
MacConkey agar it grows poorly, producing pinpoint, reddish colonies after 24 hours incubation.
4. In broth, a flocculent growth occurs at the
bottom and along the sides of the tube, with little
or no turbidity. A delicate pellicle may form later.
5. Ghee broth: If grown in a flask of broth with
sterile oil or ghee (clarified butter) floated
on top (ghee broth) a characteristic growth
occurs which hangs down into the broth from
the surface, resembling stalactites (stalactite
growth) (Fig. 44.2).
Biochemical Reactions
It ferments glucose, mannitol and maltose with the
production of acid but no gas. Lactose and sucrose
or rhamnose are not fermented.
It is catalase positive, indole negative, MR
positive, VP and citrate negative (IMViC + ),
nitrate reduction positive, aesculin positive and
oxidase and urease negative. Gelatin is not liquefied.
Physiological varieties of Y. pestis: Devignat has
distinguished three physiological varieties of Y.
pestis based on the fermentation of glycerol and
reduction of nitrate. These biotypes have been
designated orientalis, medieval and antigua, and
are characterized by differences in their geo
graphic distribution. This typing appears to be of
epidemiological significance because of the different
geographical distribution of the types (Table 44.1).
Resistance
The plague bacillus is easily destroyed by exposure
to heat, sunlight, drying and chemical disin
fectants. It is killed by moist heat at 55C in 5
min and by 0.5% phenol in 15 minutes. It is very
susceptible to drying. It remains viable for long
periods in cold, moist environments.
Glycerol
Nitrate
Geographical distribution
fermentation reduction
Southeast Russia
Plague
Plague is one of the oldest recorded infectious
diseases and is an ancient scourge of mankind.
Central Asia is believed to have been the original
home of plague. More than 150 epidemics, most of
them associated with three main pandemics, have
been reponed.
The second pandemic, known as the Black
Death started in the fourteenth century. The third
pandemic originated in Burma, spread to China
in 1894, and from Hong Kong was carried to other
continents. India was one of the countries worst hit
by this pandemic. Plague reached Bombay in 1896
and spread all over the country during the next few
years, causing more than 10 million deaths by 1918.
It gradually receded thereafter, though occasional
cases continued to occur in endemic foci till 1967.
No further plague cases were seen in India till 1994,
when in August a nonfatal outbreak of bubonic
plague was rep orted from Maharashtra (Beed
district). In September pneumonic plague was
reported in Surat and adjoining areas of Gujarat
and Maharashtra. More recently as of 19th Feb.
2002, the Ministry of Health reported a total of 16
cases of pneumonic plague (including 4 deaths) in
Hat Koti village, Shimla Dist. Himachal Pradesh.
Pathogenesis
Plague is a zoonotic disease. The plague bacillus
is naturally parasitic in rodents. Infect ion is
transmitted among them by rat fleas. When a rat
flea, commonly X cheopsis, bites a diseased rat,
it sucks blood. In the flea, the bacilli multiply in
the stomach to such an extent that they block the
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1. Bubonic Plague
Incubation period is 25 days. As the plague
bacillus usually enters through the bite of infected
flea on the legs, the inguinal lymph nodes are invol
ved, hence the name bubonic plague (bubo means
enlarged gland in groin). The glands become enlar
ged and suppurate. The bubo may be preceded
by prodromata of chills, fever, malaise, confusion,
nausea, and pains in the limbs and back. The bacilli
enter the bloodstream and produce septicemia.
The case fatality in unteated cases may be 3090%.
2. Pneumonic Plague
This can develop in patients presenting with
bubonic or septicaemic plague. It may also be
acquired as a primary infection by inhalation
of droplets infected with Y. pestis. The bacilli
spread through the lungs producing hemorrhagic
pneumonia. The sputum becomes thin and bloodstained.
This type of plague is highly contagious and
is almost invariably fatal unless treated very early
almost 100% and with treatment it is 530%.
3. Septicemic Plague
This may occur as a primary infection or as a
complication of bubonic or pneumonic plague.
Purpura may develop in the skin, giving the skin
a blackish coloration which, in the past, led to the
name black death. Disseminated
intravascular coagulation is usually present.
Meningitic involvement may occur rarely.
Epidemiology
Several species of fleas may act as vectors, the
most important being Xenopsylla cheopis. X.
astia and Ceratophyllus fasciatus. X. cheopis, the
predominant species in north India is a more
efficient vector than the south Indian species X.
astia.
Plague is perpetuated by three cycles: (i) natural
foci among commensal rodents with transmission
by fleas (sylvatic plague, wild plague), (ii) urban
rat plague, which is transmitted by the rat flea
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
2. Microscopy
Smears of exudate or sputum are stained with
methylene blue or Giemsa stain. Characteristic
gram-negative coccobacilli and bacilli showing
bipolar staining with methylene blue suggest
plague bacilli. The smears are also stained by
Grams method and observed for Gram negative,
ovoid coccobacilli with bipolar bodies. The
fluorescent antibody technique may be of use in
identifying plaguqe bacilli.
3. Culture
Culture the samples on blood agar plates,
MacConkey agar, nutrient agar and ghee broth
and incubated at 27C. Colonies on blood agar
are dark brown. Colonies on MacConkey agar are
colorless. In ghee broth, a characteristic stalactite
growth is produced. The growth is identified by
biochemical tests and slide agglutination tests.
Demonstration of the FI capsular antigen by
immunospecific staining will confirm the presence
of Y. pestis.
4. Animal Inoculation
If exudate is inoculated subcutaneously into
guinea-pigs or white rats, or on to their nasal
mucosa, infection follows and the animals die
within 25 days. The bacilli may then be isolated
from the blood or from smears of spleen tissue
taken postmortem.
5. Antigen Detection
6. Serology
The antibodies to F-I antigen can be demonstrated
in patients serum by complement fixation test
(CFT), hemagglutination test and enzyme linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
Prophylaxis
Plague is one of the internationally quarantinable
diseases, and reporting of cases is mandatory.
Prophylaxis can be carried out by:
A. General Measures
B. Vaccination
Two types of vaccine have been in use-killed and
live attenuated vaccines.
1. Killed vaccine: The k illed vaccine used in India
(prepared at the Haffkine Institute, Bombay) is
a whole culture antigen. A virulent strain of the
plague bacillus is grown in casein hydrolysate
broth for 24 weeks at 32C and killed by 0.05%
formaldehyde and preserved with phenyl
mercuric nitrate (Sokheys modification of
Haffkines vaccine). In Asia, Haffkine Institute,
Mumbai is the only vaccine producing center.
Vaccine dose schedule: The vaccine is given
subcutaneously, two doses at an interval of 13
months, followed by a third six months later.
Vaccination can confer significant protection
against bubonic but not pneumonic plague. The
protection does not last for more than six months.
Side effects: Fever, headache, malaise, lym
phadenopathy, and erythema and induration at
the site of inoculation. It may cause fetal damage
and abortion in pregnant women. Vaccination
is not very effective, therefore, even vaccinated
individuals should also be given chemoprophylaxis
when exposed to plague.
2. Live attenuated vaccines: Live vaccines are
prepared from two avirulent strains of Y. pestis,
Ottens Tjiwidej strain from Jawa and Girards
EV 76 strain from Malagasey. Killed vaccine
is recommended for general use because
live vaccines are difficult to prepare and may
provoke unacceptable reactions. Live vaccines
are not in use now.
Chemoprophylaxis
A person exposed to definite risk of infection,
whether vaccinated or not, should be given
chemoprophylaxis-cotrimoxazole or tetracycline
orally for at least five days. Close contacts of
patients with plague should be given a course
of tetracycline (500 mg 6 hourly for one week).
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Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
Y. pseudotuberculosis is a small, oval, Gramnegative,bipolar-stained bacillus. It is non-sporing,
non-capsulated and slightly acid-fast.
The organisms may be differentiated from
Y. pestis by: by its relatively poor growth on
MacConkey agar.
Motility when grown at 22C (but not at 37C)
Ability to produce urease
Fermentation of rhamnose and melibiose
Failure to be lysed by the antiplague bac
teriophage at 22C.
Lack of the FI antigen as shown by immunospecific
staining or PCR.
There are eight major O serotypes, several of
which can be separated into subtypes. The majority
of human cases of Y. pseudotuberculosis infection
are due to serotype 1.
Pathogenesis
Animal infection: It causes pseudotuberculosis
which is a zoonotic diseses. In animals, the natural
mode of infection is by gastrointestinal tract. In
infected guinea pigs, the liver, spleen and lungs
show multiple nodules resembling tuberculosis
lesions (hence the name pseudotuberculosis).
Yersiniosis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment
Ileitis and mesenteric lymphadenitis are usually
self-limiting but septicem ia may be treated
with parenteral ampicillin, chloramphenicol,
gentamicin or tetracycline.
Yesinia enterocolitica
It is a gram-negative coccobacillus showing
pleomorphism in older cultures. This bacillus
resembles Y. pseudotuberculosis in being motile at
22C but differs from it in fermenting sucrose and
cellobiose and decarboxylating ornithine. It does
not ferment rhamnose or melibiose. Many strains
are indole and VP positive.
Cultural Characters
It is aerobe and facultative anaerobe. Optimum
temperature for growth is 2229C. On blood
agar, it forms nonhemolytic, smooth, translucent
colonies, 23 mm in diameter in 48 hours. On
MacConkey medium, it forms pinpoint nonlactose fermenting (NLF) colonies.
Antigenic Structure
Morphology
They are gram-negative, nonmotile, nonsporing
coccobacilli which show bipolar staining. Some
strains are encapsulated.
Cultural Characteristics
Pathogenesis
Pathogenesis
Laboratory Diagnosis
The laboratory diagnosis of Y. enterocolitica
consists of isolation of the organism and indirectly
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Culture: Swabs from bite wounds, from blood,
from CSF in cases of meningitis and from
secretions in suppurative conditions of the
respiratory tract are cultured on blood agar
Francisella tularensis
(Pasteurella tularensis, Brucella
tularensis)
Francisella tularensis produces tularaemia in man
and certain small mammals, notably rabbits, hares,
beavers and various rodent species. Tularemia was
originally described in Tulare county, California. It
can be transmitted by direct contact, by biting flies,
mosquitoes and ticks, by contaminated water or
meat, or aerosols.
Prophylaxis
A vaccine based on the live-attenuated LVS strain
confers some protection. It can be administerd by
scarification to persons who are subject to high
risk of infection.
F. tularensis has been developed as a biological
warfare agent and has potential application in
bioterrorism.
Key Points
Morphology
Cultural Characters
F. tularensis is strictly aerobic. It will not grow on
ordinary nutrient media, but grows well on blood
agar containing 2.5% glucose and 0.1% cysteine
hydrochlor ide. Minute droplet-like colonies
develop in 72 hours.
Pathogenesis
The infection, which is a typical zoonosis, is mainly
spread by insects or ticks among lagomorphs and
rodents. It is transmitted to man through handling
of infected animals.
In human beings, tularemia may present as a
local ulceration with lymphadenitis, a typhoid like
fever with glandular enlargement or an influenza
like respiratory infection.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis may be made by culture or by inoculation
into guinea pigs or mice. A PCR has been
described, but is not widely available. Serology is
most likely to be positive after 3 weeks. Rising titers
of agglutinins to F. tularensis or individual titers
of 160 are diagnostic. An intradermal delayed
hypersensitivity test has been used in the past but
the antigen is not readily available.
Treatment
Streptomycin or gentamicin are the antibiotics of
choice in tularemia and are usually curative.
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Yesinia enterocolitica
It produces in humans-gastroenteritis or enterocol
itis, mesenteric lymphadenitis and terminal ileitis
in older children, septicemia, pneumonia and
meningitis, erythema nodosum, polyarthritis, Reiters
syndrome and thyroiditis
Pasteurella multocida
Pasteurella infections are considered zoonoses
Francisella tularensis
Francisella tularensis produces tularemia in man and
certain small mammals. The infection, is a typical
zoonosis.
Important questions
1. Describe the pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis
of plague.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Prophylaxis against plague
b.
Yersinia pseudouberculosis
c.
Yersinia enterocolitica
d. Pasteurellosis
e. Pasteurella multocida
f. Francisella tularensis
g. Tularemia
45
Chapter
Haemophilus
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology and culture characteristics
of Haemophilus influenzae
Describe the following: X and V factors; Satellitism;
Antigenic structure of Haemophilus influenzae
Describe pathogenicity of H. influenzae
Introduction
The genus Hemophilus comprises a group of
small, nonmotile, nonsporing, non-acid-fast,
gram-negative coccobacilli or rods, often markedly
pleomorphic and sometimes filamentous that are
parasitic on human beings or animals. They are
characterized by their requirement of one or both
of two accessory growth factors (X and V) present
in blood. The name of the genus comes from the
requirement by these organisms for accessory
growth factors found in blood, that is, haemo
(Greek for blood) and philos (Greek for loving).
Species: Haemophilus influenzae-most commonly
associated with disease
Haemophilus ducreyi
Haemophilus aphrophilus: The other members
of the genus are commonly isolated in clinical
specimens but are rarely pathogenic, being
responsible primarily for opportunistic infections
(Table 45.1).
Haemophilus influenzae
Morphology
H. influenzae is a small, gram-negative rods or
coccobacilli (0.30.5 12 mm size), exhibiting
considerable pleomorphism. Cells from young
cultures (1824 hours) are usually coccobacillary,
while older cultures are distinctly pleomor
phic. Virulent strains are often capsulated. It is
nonmotile, nonsporing and non-acid-fast.
Growth
requirements
X
CO2
Hemolysis on
horse blood
agar
H. influenzae
H. aegyptius
H. ducreyi
Variable
Variable
H. parainfluenzae
Species
H. haemolyticus
H. parahaemolyticus
H. aphrophilus
H. paraphrophilus
Cultural Characteristics
H.influenzae is an aerobe and facultative anaerobe.
Growth is enhanced by a moist atmosphere
supplemented with 510% CO2. The optimum
temperature is 37C. The accessory growth factors;
named X and V, present in blood are essential for
growth.
X factor: X factor (hemin) is a heat-stable protopor
phyrin IX, haemin or some other iron-containing
porphyrin. It is required for the synthesis of the
iron-containing respiratory enzymes cytochrome
c, cytochrome oxidase, peroxidase and catalase.
The X factor is not required for anaerobic growth.
Biochemical Reactions
H. influenzae ferments glucose and galactose but
does not ferment sucrose, lactose and mannitol.
Catalase and oxidase reactions are positive. It
reduces nitrates to nitrites. H. influenzae can
be divided into eight biotypes on the basis of
indole production, urease activity and ornithine
decarboxylase reactions (Table 45.2). Biotypes
I-III are the most common, and biotype I is most
frequently responsible for meningitis.
Antigenic Structure
There are three major surface antigens:
1. Capsular antigens: The major antigenic
determinant of capsulated strains is the capsular
polysaccharide based on which H. influenzae
strains have been classified by Pittman into six
capsular typestypes a to f. Typing was originally
done by agglutination but other methods such
as Quellung reaction (swelling of the capsule)
with type-specific antisera, precipitation,
coagglutination, counterimmunoelectrophoresis
(CIE) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA) may also be used. Diagnostic kits for the
identification of H. influenzae type b (Hib) are
commercially available.
The type b capsular polysaccharide has
a unique chemical structure, containing the
pentose sugars ribose and ribitol. The capsular
polyribosyl ribitol phosphate (PRP) antigen of
Hib induces IgG, IgM and IgA antibodies which
are bactericidal, opsonic and protective. Hib
PRP is, therefore, employed for immunization.
H. influenzae strains lacking a capsule cannot
be typed and are called nontypable strains.
2. Somatic antigen: The cell envelope of H. influenzae
consists of an outer and inner membrane
containing protein and lipooligosaccharide
(LOS) antigens. Outer membrane protein (OMP)
antigens of Hib have been classified into at least
13 subtypes. OMP and LOS subtyping may be of
epidemiological value.
Biotype
Character
II
III
IV
VI
Indole
production
Urease activity
Ornithine
decarboxylase
VII VIII
Resistance
H. influenzae is a delicate organism. It is readily
killed by moist heat (at 55C in 30 minutes), refrige
ration (4C), drying and disinfectants. It also dies
in 148 hours in dried secretions and airborne
droplet-nuclei. In culture, the cells die within two
or three days due to autolysis.
Variation
Colonies of H. influenzae show a smooth to rough
(SR) variation associated with loss of capsule and
virulence. As in case of Streptococcus pneumoniae,
genetic transformation has been demonstrated in
H. influenzae also. The characters transformed are
the capsular antigens and antibiotic resistance.
Virulence Factors
The virulence of H. influenzae is determined by the
following factors:
1. Capsular polysaccharide: This confers on the
bacterium ability to resist phagocytosis.
2. Adherence: Most noncapsulate strains are
adherent to human epithelial cells and may
explain the tendency of these strains to cause
more localized infections. Most serotype b strains
are not adherent and explain the tendency for
type b strains to cause systemic infections.
3. Outer membrane proteins: They also contribute
in adhesion and invasion of host tissues.
4. IgAl protease: Production of IgA1 protease
allows pathogens to inactivate the primary
antibody found on mucosal surfaces and
thereby eliminate protection of the host by the
antibody.
Pathogenesis
H. influenzae is exclusively a human parasite,
which resides principally in the upper respiratory
tract. Capsulate strains are present in 510%.
H. influenzae causes invasive and noninvasive infections.
A. Invasive Infections
1. Meningitis: The most serious of the diseases
produced by H. influenzae is an acute bacterial
meningitis. The bacilli reach the meninges
from the nasopharynx, apparently through the
bloodstream. The disease is more common in
children between two months and three years
of age. Case fatality rates are up to 90% in the
untreated. Majority of the cases are due to type b
strains.
2. Epiglottitis: This is an acute inflammation of
the epiglottis, with obstructive laryngitis, seen
in children above two years. This condition is
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B. Noninvasive Disease
1. Acute sinusitis and otitis media
2. Acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive
airway disease
3. Conjunctivitis
Epidemiology
Infection is transmitted by the respiratory route.
Carriage in the upper respiratory tract is common
particularly in young children. The frequency of
invasive infections is inversely related to age; only
a small percentage occurs in adults and older
children. Infections in the first 2 months of life are
rare, probably because of transplacental transfer
of maternal antibody.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
The following specimens may be collected
depending upon the type of lesion:
i. Blood culture; ii. cerebrospinal fluid; iii. throat
swabs; iv. sputum; v. pus; vi. aspirates from joints,
middle ears or sinuses, etc.
3. Direct Microscopy
i. Gram-stained smear
Gram-stained smear of clinical material showing
poorly stained gram-negative coccobacilli and
occasionally slender filamentous forms.
ii. Immunofluorescence and Quellung reaction
Immunofluorescence and Quellung reaction
can be employed for direct demonstration of
H. influenzae after mixing with specific rabbit
antiserum type b.
4. Culture
i. CSF culture: CSF should be plated promptly
on blood agar or chocolate agar. A strain of S.
aureus should be streaked across the blood
agar plate on which the specimen has already
been inoculated. Plate is then incubated
at 37C with 510% CO2 and high humidity
overnight. It may also be cultured on Levinthal
and Fildes blood-digest agar The growth
is identified by colony morphology, Gram
staining, satellite phenomenon, biochemical
reactions and serotyping.
ii. Blood culture: Blood cultures are often
positive in cases of epiglottitis and pneumonia.
iii. Sputum culture: Sputum should be homo
genized by treatment with pancreatin or by
shaking with sterile water and glass beads
for 1530 minutes. The rate of isolation is
increased by culturing several samples of
sputum from the patient.
5. Identification
H. influenzae colonies have a characteristic seminal
odour. Confirmation of the identity depends on
demonstrating a requirement for one or both of the
growth factors, X and V H. influenzae requires both.
6. Molecular Techniques
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used to
identify Haemophilus species in clinical specimens
and as confirmatory tests on isolates.
Treatment
H. influenzae is susceptible to sulphonamides,
trimethoprim, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, tetra
cycline, coamoxiclav, ciprofloxacin, cefuroxime,
cefotaxime and ceftazidime. Ceftriaxone and
related cephalosporins such as cefotaxime are
the antibiotics of first choice for the treatment
of meningitis. Cefotaxime, cefu roxime and
ceftazidime are highly effective for the treatment of
H. influenzae infection. Ampicillin resistance is
Prophylaxis
Active Immunization
i. A purified type b capsular polysaccharide
vaccine
It is used in children of 1824 months. Vaccine
is administered in two doses at an interval of
two months.
ii. Conjugate vaccines: Hib PRP vaccine in which
the polysaccharide is covalently coupled
to various proteins (e.g. tetanus toxoid,
Neisseria meningit idis outer membrane
protein, and diphtheria toxoid) produce a
lasting anamnestic response. Such Hib PRP
are available for use in young children.
iii. Household contacts of patients
Rifampicin given for four days prev ents
secondary infection in contacts and also
eradicates carrier state.
Treatment
Ampicillin in combination with chlorampheni
col has been successful when treatment has been
started sufficiently early.
Haemophilus ducreyi
Ducreyi (1890) demonstrated this bacillus in
chancroid lesions.
Morphology
H. ducreyi is a gram-negative short, ovoid bacillus
(11.5 um 0.6 mm) with a tendency to occur in
end to end pairs or short chains and frequently
shows bipolar staining. The bacilli may be
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Cultural Characteristics
Treatment
Identification
Haemophilus haemolyticus
Pathogenicity
H. ducreyi is the etiologic agent of a highly com
municable sexually transmitted disease (STD)
chancroid or soft sore or soft chancre character
ized by tender nonindurated irregular ulcers on
the genitalia. The lesions are generally on the penis
in male and they may be present on the labia and
within the vagina in females. The infection remains
localized, spreading only to the inguinal lymph
nodes which are enlarged and painful.
There is no immunity following infection
but a hypersensitivity develops, which can be
demonstrated by the intradermal inoculation of
killed bacilli.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimens: Take specimens from the base of
an ulcer or aspirate material from bubo.
ii. Direct microscopy: Typical small gramnegative bacilli can be seen in material from
the ulcers or in pus from lymph node aspirates.
iii. Culture: Inoculate heated blood agar with 1%
Iso Vitalex. Vancomycin 3 mg/L may be added
to make the medium selective. Cultures should
be incubated for up to 5 days at 3537C in a
humid atmosphere with additional CO2 and
look for characteristic colonies.
Haemophilus parainfluenzae
It can be distinguished from H. influenzae by its
non-requirement of X factor, ability to ferment
sucrose but not D-xylose, and low pathogenicity.
H parainfluenzae is normally present as a com
mensal in the mouth and throat.
It may occasionally cause conjunctivitis, acute
pharyngitis, infective endocarditis, uretritis and
bronchopulmonary infections in patients with cystic
fibrosis.
Important questions
1. Discuss pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis of
infections caused by Haemophilus influenzae.
2. Write short notes on:
a.
Hemophilus influenzae
b. X and V factors
c. Satellitism.
d. Antigenic structure of Haemophilus influenzae
e. Virulence factors of Haemophilus influenzae
46
Chapter
Bordetella
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe various factors which determine the
virulence of Bordetella pertussis
Describe culture media for Bordetella pertussis
Introduction
Cultural Characteristics
Bordetella pertussis
Morphology
The bacteria are small, gram-negative coccobacilli
with slight pleomorphism measuring 0.20.3 m by
0.51.0 m. They appear singly, in pairs, and in small
clusters. It is nonmotile and nonsporing. Bipolar
metachromatic staining may be demonstrated
with toluidine blue. Capsules may be demonstrable
in young, freshly isolated cultures only by special
stains. In culture films, the bacilli tend to be arranged
in loose clumps, with clear spaces in between giving
a thumb print appearance. Freshly isolated strains
of Bord. pertussis have fimbriae.
Biochemical Reactions
It is biochemically inactive. It does not ferment
sugars, form indole, reduce nitrates, utilize citrate
or split urea (Table 46.1). It produces oxidase and
usually catalase also.
Resistance
B. pertussis is a delicate organism. It can be killed
by heating at 55C for 30 minutes, drying and dis
infectants. Outside the body it can survive for five days
on glass, three days on cloth and a few hours on paper.
Bord. pertussis
Bord. parapertussis
Bord. bronchiseptica
Bord. avium
1. Motility
Growth on Bordet36
Gengou medium (days)
12
2. Growth on:
Nutrient agar
MacConkey agar
3. Urease
4. Citrate utilization
5. Nitrate reduction
6. Toxins
Pertussis toxin
Tracheal cytotoxin
Lipopolysaccharide
7. Agglutinogens
17,13
710,14
713
Not known
Adhesins
1. Agglutinogens: Bordetellae possess genusspecific and species-specific surface 14
agglutinogens associated with the capsular K
antigens or fimbriae. Agglutinogens promote
virule nce by helping bacteria to attach to
respiratory epithelial cells. They are useful
in serotyping strains and in epidemiological
studies. Bordetellae are classified into various
types based on the agglutinogens they carry.
2. Pertussis toxin (PT): Pertussis toxin promotes
lymphocytosis, sensitization to histamine, and
enhanced insulin secretion.
It can be toxoided. Pertussis toxoid is the major
component of acellular pertussis vaccines.
3. Filamentous hemagglutinin adhesin (FHA):
It is a protein that acquired its name through its
ability to agglutinate erythrocytes. It mediates
adhesion to ciliated epithelial cells.
4. Adenylate cyclase (AC): At least two types of
AC are known, only one of which has the ability
to enter target cells and act as a toxin. This is
known as AC toxin (ACT).
5. Heat-labile toxin (HLT) or dermonecrotic
toxin: It is a heat-labile toxin its role in disease
is unknown.
6. Tracheal cytotoxin (TCT): Tracheal cytotoxin
has a specific affinity for ciliated epithelial cells.
It induces ciliary damage leading to severe
cough.
7. Lipopolysaccharide (Heat-stable toxin): Their
role in the disease process is unknown.
Pathogenesis
Whooping cough is predominantly a pediatric
disease. Whooping cough in 95% of cases is caused
by Bord. pertussis. Bord. parapertussis causes about
Complications
1. Subconjunctival hemorrhage, subcutaneous
emphysema, inguinal hernia or rectal prolapse
due to pressure effects during the violent bouts
of coughing
2. Respiratory (bronchopneumonia, lung collapse).
3. Neurological (convulsions, coma).
Epidemiology
Whooping cough is predominantly a pediatric
disease, the incidence and mortality being highest
in the first year of life. The source of infection is the
patient in the early stage of the disease. Infection is
transmitted by droplets and fomites contaminated
with oropharyngeal secretions. Natural infection
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Microscopy
Microscopic diagnosis depends on demonstration
of the bacilli in respiratory secretions by the
fluorescent antibody technique.
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7. Serology
Rise in antibody titer may be demonstrated in paired
serum samples by ELISA, agglutination, complement
fixation, immunoblotting, indirect hemagglutination,
and toxin neutralization. Demonstration of specific
secretory IgA antibody in nasopharyngeal secretions
by ELISA has been proposed as a diagnostic method
in culture negative cases.
Treatment
Bord. pertussis is susceptible to several antibiotics
(except penicillin). The drug of choice is erythro
mycin (or one of the newer macrolides such as
darithromycin). Chloramphenicol and cotrimoxazole
are also useful.
Prophylaxis
Vaccination
The swab is inoculated immediately on charcoalhorse blood agar and BordetGengou medium
both with and without methicillin or cephalexin
and incubated for at least seven days before being
discarded as nega tive. The specim en may be
transported in ReganLowe semisolid medium if
delay in transport is unavoidable.
Plates are incubated in high humidity at 3536C
and colonies appear in 4872 hours. Typical
bisected pearl colonies appearing after 35 days
must be investigated further.
4. Identification
3. Culture
Important questions
Key Points
47
Chapter
Brucella
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Discuss classification of Brucella
Describe culture characteristics and biochemical
reactions of Brucella sp.
Introduction
Biochemical Reactions
Morphology
Brucellae are coccobacilli or short rods 0.50.7 m
0.61.5 m. They are gram-negative nonacid
fast, nonmotile, noncapsulated and nonsporing.
Bipolar staining is usually not observed.
Cultural Characteristics
Brucellae are strict aerobes. Many strains of B.
abortus and nearly all of B. ovis are capnophilic,
requiring 510% CO2 for growth. The optimum
temperature is 37C (range 2040C) and pH 6.6
7.4. They may grow on simple media, though growth
tends to be slow and scanty. Growth is improved by
serum or blood. The media employed currently are
serum dextrose agar, serum potato infusion agar,
trypticase soy agar, or tryptose agar. The addition
of bacitracin, polymyxin and cycloheximide to the
above media makes them selective. On solid culture
media, colonies may take 23 days to develop. They
are small, smooth, transparent, low convex with an
entire margin. In liquid media, growth is uniform.
Resistance
Brucellae are destroyed by heat at 60C in 10
minutes; therefore, they are killed in milk by
pasteurization. They remain viable for 10 days in
refrigerated milk, one month in ice cream, four
months in butter and for varying periods in cheese
depending on its pH. They can be killed by 1.0%
phenol in 15 minutes.
They are sensitive to many disinfectants and
antibiotics, including ampicillin, co-amoxiclav,
cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines,
chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, sulfonamides and
cotrimoxazole.
Antigenic Structure
There are at least two antigenic determinantsA
(abortus) and M (melitensis)present on
the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) protein complex.
B. abortus contains about 20 times A as M, B.
Brucella Bacteriophage
The Tblisi (Tb) phage has been designated as the
reference phage and at routine test dose (RTD). It
lyses B. abortus at both RTD and 10,000 TTD. B.
suis is lysed at 10,000 RTD, while B. melitensis is
not lysed at all. They have been classified into six
groups based on their host specificity.
Classification of Brucellae
Brucellae may be categorized into species and
biovars by the following tests (Table 47.1):
CO2 requirement
H2S production
Sensitivity to dyes (basic fuchsin and thionin).
Agglutination with monospecific antisera.
Lysis by specific bacteriophage.
Biotypes
The three major species are B. melitensis, B.
abortus, B suis infecting primarily goats or sheep,
cattle and swine, respectively. Many biotypes have
been recognized in these species (Table 47.1).
i.
B. melitensis: three biotypes.
ii. B. abortus: 7 biotypes (1-6 and 9, biotypes 7
and 8 have been discarded as invalid).
iii. B. suis: 5 biotypes.
B. suis strains that produce H 2S are known
as American strains and those that do not as
Danish strains.
Pathogenesis
All three major species of brucellae are pathogenic
to human beings. B. melitensis is the most
pathogenic, B. abortus and B. suis of intermediate
pathogenicity.
Mode of infection: The modes of infection are
by ingestion, contact, inhalation or accidental
+
+
+
+
+
Thionin 1:50,000
Thionin 1:25,000
B. abortus
1
2
3
4
5
6
9
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Cattle
B. suis
1
2
3
4
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Pigs
Pigs, hare
Pigs
Reindeer
B. neotoma'e
Wood rat
B. ovis
Sheep
B. canis
Dogs
H2S production
1
2
3
Biotypes
B. melitensis
Species
CO2 requirement
+
+
+
RTD x 104
RTD
Lysis by phage
Sheep,
goats
Epidemiology
Brucella organisms are distributed throughout
the world. Human brucellosis is acquired from
animals, directly or indirectly. The animals that
commonly act as sources of human infection are
|329
Laboratory Diagnosis
The clinical manifestations of human brucellosis are
variable, so clinical diagnosis is almost impossible
and laboratory aid is therefore essential. Laboratory
methods include culture of brucellae, serology,
polymerse chain reaction and hypersensitivity type
skin tests.
1. Specimens
Blood culture is most important. Material from
bone marrow or liver biopsy, is also cultured, lymph
nodes, cerebrospinal fluid, urine and abscesses, and
on occasion, also from sputum, breast milk, vaginal
discharges and seminal fluid.
2. Culture
a. Blood culture
Blood culture is the most definitive method for
the diagnosis of brucellosis. When brucellosis is
suspected, blood culture should be attempted
repeatedly, not only during the febrile phase.
Because the organisms may be scanty, at least
10 mL of blood should be withdrawn on each
occasion, 5 mL being added to each of two blood
culture bottles containing serum dextrose (SD)
broth. One of these bottles should be incubated in
an atmosphere containing 10% carbon dioxide at
37C. Subcultures are made on solid media (serum
dextrose agar) every 35 days, beginning on the
fourth day. Growth may often be delayed and blood
cultures should be retained for 68 weeks before
being discarded as negative. Preliminary lysis and
centrifugation of the blood improves the isolation
rate. Automated blood culture systems may also
be used.
b. Castanedas method of blood culture (Fig.
47.1)
Advantages: The Castaneda method of blood
culture has several advantages and is recommended.
i. A two-phase Castaneda culture system, in
which the broth is periodically allowed to flow
over agar contained within the blood culture
bottle, may be used. The blood is inoculated
3. Serological Tests
In the absence of positive cultures, the diagnosis
of brucellosis usually depends on serological tests,
the results of which tend to vary with the stage of
the infection.
Antibodies appear within 710 days of onset
of the disease. IgM antibodies appear first which
are rapidly followed and superseded by IgG and
to lesser extent IgA antibodies. These antibodies
reach their maximum titers in the third or fourth
week of disease and then slowly decline but they
|331
Result
Positive test: The bacilli are agglutinated and rise
with the cream to form a blue ring at the top, leav
ing the milk unstained.
Negative: No colored ring is formed and the milk
remains uniformly blue.
Prophylaxis
1. Prevention consists of checking brucellosis in
dairy animals.
2. Control of this disease in cattle has been
achieved by serologic surveillance, vaccination
(B. abortus strain 19), and elimination of
reactor cattle.
3. Pasteurization of infected milk or milk products.
4. Vaccines have been developed for use in animals.
The live-attenuated B. abortus strain S19 vaccine
has been is now being replaced by the rough
strain B. abortus RB51, which gives comparable
protection, but does not induce interfering
antibodies and is less hazardous to man.
The live-attenuated smooth strain B. melitensis
Rev I is used to protect sheep and goats from B.
melitensis infection. Strain 2 has been used in
China.
5. Human vaccination is not recommended.
Treatment
Brucella infections respond to a combination of
streptomycin or gentamicin and tetracycline or to
rifampicin and doxycycline. Tetracycline alone is
often adequate in mild cases. Treatment should be
continued for at least 6 weeks. Cotrimoxazole and
rifampicin can be used in children.
Key Points
Important questions
1. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of brucellosis.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Castaneda method of blood culture
b. Serodiagnosis of brucellosis
c. Diagnosis of brucellosis in animals.
48
48
Chapter
Spirochetes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe diseses caused by different spirochetes
Name various pathogenic treponemes
Describe morphology of Treponema pallidum
Discuss pathogenesis of syphilis
Describe diseses caused by Treponema pallidum
their laboratory diagnosis
Explain serological tests for syphilis
Discuss standard tests for syphilis (STS)
INTRODUCTION
The spirochetes (from Speira, meaning coil and
chaite, meaning hair) are elongated, motile, slender,
helically coiled, flexible organisms with one or more
complete turns in the helix. Multiplication is by
transverse fission. Many are free-living saprophytes,
while some are obligate parasites. They may be
aerobic, anaerobic or facultative.
Spirochetes are slender unicellular helical
or spiral rods with a number of distinctive
ultrastructural features. They are gram-negative and
are 0.13.0 m wide and 5250 m in length. They
are structurally more complex than other bacteria.
The spirochetes have gram-negative type cell wall
composed of an outer membrane, a peptidoglycan
layer and a cytoplasmic membrane. They are
structurally more complex than other bacteria.
Their most distinctive morphologic property is
the presence of varying numbers of endoflagella.
These endoflagella are polar flagella wound along
the helical protoplasmic cylinder, and situated
between the outer membrane and cell wall.
The spiral shape and serpentine motility of the
spirochaetes depend upon the integrity of these
endoflagella. Motility is of three types: (i) flexion
and extension of cells, (ii) corkscrew-like rotatory
movement around the long axis, and (iii) translatory
motion, i.e. from one site to another. Some are very
actively motilewhile others are sluggish.
Chap-48.indd 333
Larger spirochetes like Borrelia are Gramnegative but other spirochetes cannot be stained
by routine methods. However, the spirochetes
can be seen by dark ground microscopy, silver
impregnation method and immunofluorescence.
CLASSIFICATION
Spirochetes belong to the order Spirochetales. It
has two families:
1. Spirochetaceae: Spirochaetes are anaerobic,
facultative anaerobic or microaerophilic. They
are not hooked.
Family Spirochaetaceae has genera: Borrelia,
Cristispira, Serpulina, Spirocheta and Trepo
nema;
2. Family Leptospiraceae: These spirochetes are
obligate aerobes and are hooked. It contains
three genera: Leptospira, Leptonema and
Tumeria. Only Leptospira spp. are considered
to be pathogenic for animals or man.
The spirochetes also fall into genera based
loosely on their morphology (Fig. 48.1). Treponema
are slender with tight coils; Borrelia are somewhat
thicker with fewer and looser coils; and Leptospira
resemble Borrelia except for their hooked ends.
Diseased caused by Treponema, Borrelia, and
Leptospira are given in Table 48.1.
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TREPONEMA
The name Treponena is derived from the Greek
words trepo :to turn and nema, meaning thread) are
relatively short slender spirochetes with fine spirals
and pointed or rounded ends. Some of them are
pathogenic, while others occur as commensals in
the mouth, intestines, and genitalia.
The two treponemal species that cause human
disease are Treponema pallidum (with three
subspecies) and Treponema carateum. The species
T. pallidum is now considered to include three
subspeciessubspecies pallidum, endemicum
and pertenue.
Cultivation
It is possible to maintain T. pallidum in motile and
virulent form for 1012 days in complex media
under anaerobic conditions. Virulent T. pallidum
strains have been maintained by serial testicular
Species
Diseases
Transmission
Teponema
T. pallidum
Syphilis
T. pertenue
Yaws
T. carateum
Pinta
T. endemicum
Endemic syphilis
B. recurrentis
Epidemic
Relapsing fever
Endemic Relapsing
fever
Body louse
Soft-shelled tick
B. vincentii
Vincents angina
B. burgdorferi
Lyme disease
L. interrogans
L. biflexa
Leptospirosis
Saprophytes
Borrelia
Leptospira
Chap-48.indd 334
Tick bites
15-03-2016 11:18:35
|335
Pathogenesis
i. Primary Disease
Antigenic Structure
Resistance
A. Nonspecific Antigen
The first is the reagin antibody in which a hapten
extracted from the beef heart is used as the antigen.
This lipid hapten is known as cardioliom and is
chemically a diphosphatidyl glycerol. This lipid
has been detected in T. pallidum but it is not
known whether the reagin antibody is induced
by cardiolipin that is present in the spirochete or
released from damaged host tissues.
B. Specific Antigens
1. Group-specific antigen: It is a protein anti
gen present in T. pallidum as well as in
Chap-48.indd 335
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Congenital Syphilis
In conngenital syphilis infection is transmitted
from mother to fetus transplacentally. The lesions
of congenital syphilis usually develop only after
the fourth month of gestation. Congenital syphilis
can be prevented if the mother is given adequate
treatment before the fourth month of pregnancy.
A. Demonstration of Treponemes
a. Demonstration of Treponemes in the
Exudate
1. Dark Ground Microscopy
Dark field microscopy: Diagnosis by microscopy
is applicable in primary and secondary stages and
in cases of congenital syphilis with superficial
lesions. This bacterium is too thin to be visualized
with a standard Gram stain so two techniques
to visualize it with a light microscope are dark
field microscopy and immunofluorescence. T.
pallidum is recognized by its slender structure,
regularity of its spirals and slightly pointed ends.
A treponemal concentration of 104 per mL in the
exudates is required for the test to be positive.
2. Direct Fluorescent-antibody Staining for
Treponema pallidum (DFA- Tp)
For direct fluorescent-antibody staining for T.
pallidum (DFA-TP) test whereby a smear of exudate
is made on a slide, fixed in acetone, and DFA-TP test
is done using fluorescent tagged anti T. pallidum
antiserum. The use of specific monoclonal
antibody has made the test more reliable. The
treponemes appear distinct, sharply outlined and
exhibit an apple green fluorescence. It is a better
and safer method for microscopic examination.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Chap-48.indd 336
B. Serological Tests
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|337
1. By immunofluorescence staining
2. Silver impregnation method ( Levaditis stain)
a. Non-treponemal tests
Nonspecific (reagin antibody) tests using the cardiolipin antigen
(standard tests for
syphilis or STS)
1. Wassermann CF reaction
2. Kahn flocculation test
3. Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) test
4. Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) test
5. Toluidine Red Unheated Serum Test (TRUST)
b. Treponemal tests
a. Group specific test using cultivable treponemal (Reiter strain) antigen
I. Reiter Protein CF (RPCF) test (1953)
b. Specific tests using pathogenic treponemes (T. paliidum)
I. Test using live T. pallidum
Treponema pallidum Immobilization (TPI) test
II. Tests using killed T. pallidum
a. Treponema pallidum agglutination (TPA) test
b. Treponema pallidum immune adherence(TPIA) test
c. Fluorescent Treponemal antibody absorption (FTA-ABS) test
III. Tests using T. pallidum extract
a. Treponema pallidum Hemagglutination Assay (TPHA)
Microhemagglutination test for Treponema pallidum (MHA-TP)
b. Treponema pallidum Enzyme Immunoassays (TP-EIA)
Method
1. The test is done in a specially prepared slide,
with depressions of 14 mm diameter each.
Chap-48.indd 337
Interpretation
The results of qualitative test are reported as
reactive, weak reactive or nonreactive.
Reactive means positive (large clumps of antigen
with marked background clearing are obtained.)
while nonreactive is negative.The reciprocal of
the end point is given as the titer for reporting
of quantitative test, e.g. reactive in 1:4 dilution is
reported as reactive 4 dilution or R4.
Sometimes VDRL test may give false-negative
reaction due to high titers of antibody in patients
serum (prozone phenomenon). The test is
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Disadvantage
It is not suitable for testing cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF).
Disadvantages of STS
Since cardiolipin antigen tests detect antibodies
against a nonspecific antigen a positive result
is sometimes obtained with sera from healthy
individuals or patients without clinical evidence
of syphilis. These reactions are termed biological
false-positives (BFP) rections. These are not
caused by technical faults. They represent
nontreponemal cardiolipin antibody responses.
BFP antibody is usually IgM, while reagin
antibody in syphilis is mainly IgG. Clinically, BFP
reactions may be classified as acute or chronic.
a. Acute BFP reactions: Acute BFP reactions last
only for a few weeks or months and are usually
associated with acute infections, injuries or
inflammatory conditions.
b. Chronic BFP reactions: Chronic BFP reactions
persist for longer than six months. These
may occur in a wide variety of infectious and
noninfectious conditions associated with tissue
Chap-48.indd 338
1. Group-specific Tests
Using Reiter Treponeme
Reiter Protein Complement Fixation (RPCF)
Test
The principle of this test is the same as that of
Wassermann test. These employed the cutivable
Reiter treponemes for prepation of antigen. Its
sensitivity and specificity were lower than those
of tests using T. pallidum. RPCF and other Reiter
treponeme tests are not now in general use.
15-03-2016 11:18:35
Chap-48.indd 339
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2. Response to Treatment
Reagin tests usually become negative 618 months
after effective treatment of syphilis, depending
on the stage at which treatment is given. Serial
quantitative VDRL testing provides the best means
of measuring response to treatment in most stages
of treponemal infection. Treatment in the primary
stage leads to seroreversal in about four months; in
the secondary and early latent stages, it takes 1218
months; in later stages, it may take five years or
more. In some cases low titer reactivity may persist
indefinitely, in spite of effective treatment. Specific
treponemal tests tend to remain positive in spite of
treatment so they are of little value as indicators of
clinical cure. TPHA titers may fall rapidly following
treatment in secondary syphilis but remain positive
for life in low titers.
VDR/RPR
FTA-ABS
TPHA
Primary
7080
85100
6585
Secondary
100
100
100
Latent/late
6070
95100
95100
Chap-48.indd 340
Epidemiology
Syphilis is found worldwide in distribution.
Natural syphilis is exclusive to humans and has
no other known natural hosts. The most common
route of spread is by direct sexual contact. The
disease can also be acquired congenitally or by
transfusion with contaminated blood. Syphilis is
not highly contagious. High-risk sexual behavior
and coinfection with HIV continue to complicate
syphilis control efforts.
Immunity
The immune mechanisms in syphilis are not
adequately understood. Humoral immune
response against the treponeme does not appear
to be effective but Cell-mediated immunity may
be more relevant.
In a person already having active infection
reinfections do not appear to occur. It was believed
that premunition or infection immunity, as seen
in some parasitic infections, holds good in syphilis
also and that a patient becomes susceptible to
reinfection only when his original infection is cured.
Prophylaxis
1. As transmission is by direct contact, it is possible
to protect against syphilis.
2. When this is not complied with, the use of
physical barriers (such as condoms), antiseptics
(potassium permanganate) or antibiotics may
minimize the risk.
3. Educating people about sexually transmitted
diseases.
4. Protective vaccines are not available.
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Treatment
2. Yaws (Frambesia)
NONVENEREAL TREPONEMATOSES
Chap-48.indd 341
3. Pinta
Pinta (carate, mal del pinto) is a contagious
inoculable disease endemic in Central and South
America and the neighboring islands. It is caused
by T. carateum which is morphologically and
antigenically indistinguishable from T. pallidum
so cross immunity between pinta and syphilis is
only partial.
Spread of infection is by direct contact with
infectious lesions. Transmission appears to require
direct person to person contact. Incubation
ranges from 7 to 21 days.The primary lesion is
an extragenital papule, which does not ulcerate
but develops into a lichenoid or psoriaform.
Secondary skin lesions are characterized by
hyperpigmentation or hypopigmentation. The
laboratory diagnosis and treatment are similar
to those of venereal syphilis.
NONPATHOGENIC TREPONEMES
Several commensal treponemes occur on the
buccal and genital mucosa and may cause
confusion in the diagnosis of syphilis by dark field
examination. Best known among them is the oral
spirochete, T. dentium, which can be readily cul
tivated.
T. refringens and T.gracilis may be found as
normal commensal in genitalia. In experimental
work on T. pallidum in rabbits, T. paraluiscuniculi
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BORRELIA
Species of Borrelia
Borreliae of medical importance are:
1. B. recurrentis causing relapsing fever
2. B. vincenti sometimes causes fusospirochetosis
3. B. burgdorfericausative agent of Lyme
disease.
Morphology
Borrelia are helical organisms 0.20.5 mm wide
and 820 mm in length. They are gram-negative,
actively motile and possess 58 irregular spirals at
intervals of 2 mm with pointed ends (Fig. 48.3).
Spirals are coarser and more irregular than those of
the treponemes or leptospires and usually can be
seen with light microscopy in preparations stained
with aniline dyes, such as Wrights or Giemsa stains.
Cultural Characteristics
Borrelia are microaerophilic. Optimum temperature
for growth is 2830C. The organism can be grown
on Noguchis medium (ascitic fluid containing
rabbit kidney), chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) of
chick embryos and in mice or rats intraperitoneally.
Antigenic Properties
Antigenic variations: The most striking property
of relapsing fever is the capacity of Borrelia to
undergo several antigenically distinct variations
within a given host during the course of a single
infection. This is believed to be the reason for the
occurrence of relapses in the disease. Ultimate
recovery after a number of relapses may be due to
Pathogenicity
Relapsing Fever
Relapsing (RF) is an arthropod-borne infection,
and two types of which occur louse-borne and
tick-borne. The borreliae causing them are
indistinguishable in morphology and many other
features but differ in their arthropod hosts.
Pathogenicity
After an incubation period of 210 days relapsing
fever sets in as fever of sudden onset. During this
period, borreliae are abundant in the patients
blood. The fever subsides in 35 days. Another bout
of fever sets in after an afebrile period of 410 days
during which borreliae are not demonstrable in
blood. The borreliae reappear in blood during the
relapses of fever. The disease ultimately subsides
after 310 relapses. Subsequent relapses are usually
milder and of shorter duration.
Epidemiology
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Laboratory Diagnosis
Routine laboratory diagnosis of relapsing fever
depends on demonstrating the spirochetes in
peripheral blood samples, either in the living state
or after staining.
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Diagnosis
Prophylaxis
Prevention of louse-borne relapsing fever consists
of prevention of louse infestation along with the use
of insecticides whenever necessary.
Prevention of tick-borne disease is less easy and
consists of identification of tick infested places and
their avoidance, or eradication of the vectors. No
vaccine is available.
Treatment: Tetracyclines, chloramphenicol,
penicillin, and erythromycin are effective.
Chap-48.indd 343
Pathogenesis
The natural hosts for B. burgdorferi are wild and
domesticated animals, including mice and other
rodents, deer, sheep, cattle, horses and dogs. B.
burgdorferi is transmitted to man by ixodid ticks
that become infected while feeding on infected
animals. The bacterium grows primarily in the
midgut of the tick, and transmission to man occurs
during regurgitation of the gut contents during the
blood meal.
Stages of Lyme disease: Lyme disease may be a
progressive illness, and is divided into three stages:
Stage 1: The first stage of localised infection
appears as a small red macule or papule at the site
of bite (erythema migrans or EM) after an incu
bation period of 330 days.
Stage 2: The second stage of disseminated
infection develops with headache, fever, myalgia
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Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Isolation of the borrelia: The borrelia has been
isolated from ticks as well as from skin lesions,
CSF and the blood of patients, but culture is too
slow and difficult to be of use in diagnosis.
B. Serology: Serological tests such as ELISA and
immunofluorescence (IF) have been described
and immunob lotting recommended for
confirmation. Antibodies take 12 months to
appear.
False-positive syphilis serology may be seen,
with FTA-ABS being positive and VDRL test
negative.
Treatment
Penicillins, the newer macrolides, cephalosporins
and tetracyclines have all been used successfully in
Lyme disease.
LEPTOSPIRA
Introduction: Leptospires are actively motile,
delicate spirochetes, possessing a large number of
closely wound spirals and characteristic hooked
ends. They are too thin to be seen under the light
microscope (leptos, meaning fine or thin). They
may be visualized under dark ground illumination.
They do not stain readily.
Classification
The family Leptospiraceae belongs to the order
Spirochetales and can be subdivided into three
morphologically indistinguishable genera:
Morphology
Leptospires are delicate spirochetes about 620
mm long and 0.1 mm thick. They have numerous
closely wound primary coils, so closely set together
that they are difficult to demonstrate in stained
preparations although they are quite obvious in the
living state by darkfield microscopy or by electron
microscopy. Their ends are hooked and resemble
umbrella handles (Fig. 48.4). They are actively
motile, Gram-negative, but take up conventional
stains poorly. They can be visualized by Giemsa or
silver deposition methods or by use of fluorescent
antibody.
Cultural Characteristics
They are aerobic and microaerophilic. Optimum
temperature is 2530C and optimum pH 7.27.5.
Leprospires can be grown in media enriched with
rabbit serum.
Liquid medium consists of Stuarts or Korthofs
medium. Semisynthetic media, such as EMJH
(Ellinghausen, McCullough, Johnson, Harris)
medium are now commonly used. A simple
semisolid medium is Fletchers medium which
consists of nutrient agar and rabbit serum. In
semisolid media, growth occurs characteristically
a few millimeters below the surface.
Leptospires may be grown on the chorioallantoic
membrane (CAM) of chick embryos.
Resistance
Leptospires are susceptible to heat; 10 min at
50C or 10 seconds at 60C kills them. They are
also sensitive to acid and are destroyed by gastric
juice in 30 minutes. They are rapidly killed by bile
or trypsin.
They are also readily destroyed by chlorine and
most other antiseptics and disinfectants. Their
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Disease
Clinical picture
Icterohemorrhagiae
Canicola
Weil's disease
Canicola fever
Fever, jaundice,
Rat
hemorrhages influenza like, Dog
aseptic meningitis
Worldwide
Worldwide
Grippotyphosa
Swamp or marsh
fever
Field mice
Europe, Africa,
SE Asia, USA
Pomona
Swineherds disease
Fever
Pig
Hebdomadis
Fever, lymphadenopathy
Field mice
Fortbragg
Pretibial fever,
Fort Bragg fever
Not known
Japan, SE
Asia, USA
Pyrogenes
Febrile
spirochetosis
Fever
Pig
Bataviae
Indonesian Weils
disease
Fever
Rat
Hardjo
Fever
Cattle
Antigenic Properties
Leptospires exhibit considerable antigenic cross
reaction. A genus specific somatic antigen is
present in all members of the genus. Classification
into serogroups and serotypes (now referred to
as sero-varieties or serovars) is based on surface
antigens.
Pathogenesis
In natural reservoir hosts, leptospiral infection is
asymptomatic. It is transmitted to humans when
the leptospires in water contaminated by the urine
of carrier animals enters the body through cuts or
abrasions on the skin or through intact mucosa of
mouth, nose or conjuctiva. During the acute phase
of the disease, leptospires are seen in the blood but
can seldom be demonstrated after 810 days. They
persist in the internal organs, and most abundantly
in the kidneys, so that they may be demonstrated in
the urine in the later stages of the disease.
Diseases: Mild virus-like syndrome. The incubation
period is usually about 10 days (range 226 days).
The onset of clinical illness is usually abrupt,
with nonspecific, influenza-like constitutional
symptoms such as fever, chills, headache, severe
myalgia, and malaise.
Systemic leptospirosis with aseptic meningitis.
The patient may develop a more advanced diseaseincluding aseptic meningitis.
Severe systemic disease (Wells disease)
includes renal failure, hepatic failure, and intra
vascular disease, and may result in death.
Chap-48.indd 345
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis may be made by 1. Demonstration of
the leptospires microscopically in blood or urine;
2. Isolation in culture; 3. Animal inoculation; 4.
Serological tests.
2. Culture
Three or four drops of blood are inoculated into
each of several bijou bottles containing EMJH
or similar medium. The bottles are incubated
at 37C for two days and left thereafter at room
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3. Animal Inoculation
The blood or urine from the patient is inoculated
intraperitoneally into young guinea pigs. The
animals develop fever and die within 812 days
with jaundice and hemorrhage into the lungs
and serous cavities with virulent serotypes like
icterohemorrhagiae.
4. Serological Diagnosis
Tests for detection of leptospiral antibodies in sera
are of two kinds: i.Genus-specific tests; ii. Serogroupspecific tests
A. Genus-specific Tests
The antigens for these tests are prepared from the
nonpathogenic L. biflexa Patoc 1 strain. The tests
employed include sensitized erythrocyte lysis
(SEL), complement fixation, agglutination and
indirect immunofluorescence. ELISA has been
used to detect IgM and IgG antibodies separately,
in order to indicate the stage of infection. A simple
and rapid dip-stick assay has been developed for
the assay of leptospira-specific IgM antibody in
human sera.
B. Serogroup-specific Tests
Serogroup-specific tests are reactive mainly with
strains of the same serogroup as the infecting
strain. They comprise agglutination tests that
are either macroscopic, or microscopic. In
macroscopic agglutination tests, formalinized
suspensions of prevalent leptospira serovars are
tested for macroscopic agglutination with serial
dilutions of the test serum.
The micros copic agglutination test (MAT)
generally uses live cultures of different serotypes
and agglutination is observed under the low power
dark field microscope. This test is more specific and
is generally accepted as gold standard.
Chap-48.indd 346
Prophylaxis
General measures of prevention such as:
i. Rodent control
ii. Disinfection of water
iii. Wearing of protective clothing.
Vaccination: Vaccination has been attempted with
some success in dogs, cattle and pigs. Immunity
following vaccination or infection is serotype
specific. Vaccination has also been tried in persons
at high risk such as agricultural workers.
Treatment
Penicillin is given intravenously (IV), 12 million
units 6 hourly for 7 days in serious cases. For milder
infections a 710-day course of oral amoxicillin is
appropriate. Patients allergic to penicillins can be
treated with erythromycin. Doxycycline 200 mg
orally once a week is effective in prophylaxis.
Key Points
Spirochetes are slender unicellular, motile, helical or
spiral rods. They are motile because of endoflagella.
The members of genera Treponema, Borrelia and
Leptospira are pathogenic to man
Treponema pallidum
Treponema pallidum is the causative agent of syphilis.
T. pallidum is thin, coiled spirochete and is observed
by dark field or phase contrast microscopy
Diseases: Venereal syphilis. Syphilis is a sexually
transmitted disease
Lab diagnosis: Dark field microscopy is useful for
demonstration of treponemes in the clinical specimen.
Direct fluorescent antibody T. pallidum (DFA-TP) is a
sensitive method for direct detection of treponemal
antigen in the exudates for diagnosis of syphilis
Serological tests: Two major types of serologic tests
exist: nontreponemal tests and treponemal tests.
In nontreponemal tests or Standard tests for
syphilis (STS) cardiolipin or lipoidal antigen is
used. Nontreponemal tests are Venereal Diseases
Research Laboratory (VDRL) test and rapid plasma
reagin (RPR). These are flocculation tests
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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Classify spirochetes. Name different spirochetes
and diseases caused by them. Discuss the
laboratory diagnosis of syphilis.
2. Discuss pathogenesis of syphilis.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Standard tests for syphilis (STS)
b. VDRL test
c. Treponemal tests for serodiagnosis of syphilis
d. Biological false positive (BFP) reactions.
e. Fluorescent treponemal antibody-absorption
(FTA-ABS) test.
f. TPHA (or) T. pallidum hemagglutination test.
g. Nonvenereal treponematoses
h. Borrelia recurrentis
i. Lyme disease
j. Leptospirosis
k. Weils disease
Chap-48.indd 347
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49
49
Chapter
Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe the general characteristics of the
Mycoplasma spp. and how they differ from other
bacterial species
Describe morphology and characteristies of
Mycoplasma spp
Compare the clinical diseases caused by Mycoplasma
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION
General Characteristics
Chap-49.indd 348
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Morphology
Mycoplasmas are the smallest free living micro
organisms. They can pass through bacterial
filters. They lack cell wall but are bounded by a
trilaminar membrane 810 nm thick which is rich
in cholesterol and other lipids. They are very small
pleomorphic cells and range in size from 0.2 to 0.8
mm in diameter which may range from spherical
through coccoid, coccobacillary, ring and dumbbell forms, to short and long branching , beaded
or segmented filaments. The filaments are slender,
of varying lengths and show true branching. Myc
oplasmas are gram-negative but are better stained
by Giemsa stain. Replication is basically by binary
fission.
Mycoplasmas do not possess spores, flagella
or fimbria. Some mycoplasmas, including M.
pneumoniae, exhibit a gliding motility on liquidcovered surfaces.
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Biochemical Reactions
1. Mycoplasmas are mainly fermentative. Most
mycoplasmas use glucose (or other carbohy
drates) or arginine as a major source of energy.
2. Urea is not hydrolyzed, except by ureaplasmas.
3. They are generally not proteolytic.
Cultural Characteristics
Most mycoplasmas are facultatively anaerobic but,
since organisms from primary tissue specimens
frequently grow only under anaerobic conditions,
an atmosphere of 95% nitrogen and 5% carbon
dioxide is preferred for primary isolation. They
grow within a temperature range of 2241C, the
parasitic species growing optimally at 3537 C and
the saprophytes at lower temperatures.
Media for cultivating Mycoplasma are enriched
with 20% horse or human serum and yeast extract.
The high concentration of serum is necessary
Chap-49.indd 349
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Pathogenicity
Parasitic mycoplasmas exhibit host specificity. They
generally produce surface infections by adhering
to the mucosa of the respiratory, gastrointestinal
and genitourinary tracts. Mycoplasma causes
two types of diseases in humanspeumonia and
genital infections.
A. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Infection with M. pneumoniae typically produces
mild upper respiratory tract disease. More
severe disease with lower respir atory tract
symptoms occurs in less than 10% of patients.
Tracheobronchitis can occur. Pneumonia
(referred to as primary atypical pneumonia or
walking pneumonia) can also develop. School age
Chap-49.indd 350
Epidemiology
M. pneumoniae is worldwide in its distribu
tion and is found at all ages. Transmission is by
droplets of nasopharyngeal secretion. Disease is
most common in school aged children and young
adults (515 years). Close contact is necessary for
transmission, and the infection usually occurs
among classmates or family members. Spread is
favored by close contact, as in families and most
typically among military recruits. Mycoplasma may
remain in the throat for two or more months after
recovery from the disease.
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Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory diagnosis Mycoplasma pneumoniae
infections may be established either by isolation of
the Mycoplasma or by serological methods.
1. Specimens
M. pneumoniae may be recovered from throat
swabs, nasopharyngeal swabs, sputum, throat
washings, bronchoalveolar lavage, tracheal
aspirate and lung tissue specimens.
2. Culture
In the laboratory, if inoculation is not possible
immediately, then the specimen may be held up
to 24 hours at 4C. If delay more than 24 hours is
expected, then the specimen should be frozen at
70C. A widely used isolation medium contains
bovine heart infusion (PPLO broth) with fresh
yeast extract and horse serum supplemented with
penicillin (to inhibit other bacteria), thallium
acetate, glucose and with phenol red as a pH
indicator because mycoplasmas do not produce
turbidity in broth media. For genital Mycoplasma,
polymymin B and amphotericin B and lincomycin
are also added to mycoplamal broth.
Chap-49.indd 351
4. DNA Probes
DNA probes can be used to detect M. pneumoniae
RNA in sputum specimens.
5. Serological Tests
Serologic tests are available only for M. pneumoniae
Serological diagnosis may be made by:
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Chap-49.indd 352
Treatment
Tetracyclines and erythromycin are drugs of choice
for the treatment of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma
infections. Patients with NGU should receive one
of the tetracyclines and ureaplasmas resistant to
tetracyclines, patients should then be treated with
erythromycin, to which most tetracycline-resistant
ureaplasmas are sensitive.
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Atypical Pneumonia
Atypical pneumonia was defined as lower
respiratory infection that did not resemble classic
lesions that had been described. Around the
turn of century, any patient who presented with
a sudden onset of fever with shaking chills,
pleuritic pain and the production of rust-colored
sputum was thought to have typical pneumonia
attributable to Streptococcus pneumoniae. All
other patients who did not show this characteristic
picture were referred to as patients with atypical
pneumonia or walking pneumonia. The primary
pathogen responsible for atypical pneumonia
are Mycoplsasma pneumoniae, chlamydophia
pneumoniae and Legionella pneumophila.
Atypical pathogens do not respond to -lactam
antibiotics and their presence is often overlooked
until patients fail to respond to standard penicillin
or cephalosporin therapy.
Chap-49.indd 353
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B. Urogenital Infections
M. hominis, M. genitalium, M. fermentans, M.
penetrans, M. salivarium, M. spermatophilum and
ureaplasmas have been isolated from urogenital tract.
Genital infections are caused by U. urealyticum
and M. hominis. They are transmitted by sexual
contact, and may cause urethritis, proctitis,
balanoposthitis and Reiters syndrome in men,
and acute salphingitis, pelvic inflammatory
disease, cervicitis and vaginitis in women. They
have also been associated with infertility, abortion,
postpartum fever, chorioamnionitis and low birth
weight of infants.
Mycoplasma hominis
M. hominis is found in the lower genitourinary
tracts of approximately 50% of healthy adults and
has not been reported as a cause of nongonococcal
urethritis (NGU). The organism may, however,
invade the upper genitourinary tract and cause
salpingitis, pyelonephritis, pelvic inflammatory
disease (PID), or postpartum fevers.
Mycoplasma genitalium
M. genitalium has been associated with some
cases of non-gonococcal urethritis and pelvic infla
mmatory disease.
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Some strains of mycoplasma frequently isolated
from the urogenital tract of human beings and
animals form very tiny colonies, generally 1550
m in size. They were called T strain or T
form mycoplasmas (T for tiny) because of the
small colonies they produce. They are peculiar
in their ability to hydrolyze urea, with the
production of ammonia, which is an essential
growth factor in addition to cholesterol. Human
T strain mycoplasmas have been reclassified as
Ureaplasma urealyticum.
Clinical Manifetations
1. U. urealyticum may cause nonchlamydial,nongonococcal urethritis (NGU), epididymitis,
vaginitis and cervicitis.
2. They may cause chorioamnionitis, prematurity,
postpartum endometritis, chronic lung disease
of the premature infant and infection of wounds
and soft tissues.
3. Ureaplasmas are the most common organisms
isolated from the central nervous system (CNS)
or lower respiratory tract of sick premature or
newborn infants.
4. Ureaplasmas have also been blamed to cause
male and female infertility and low birth weight
but there are conflicting reports.
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Ureaplasma urealyticum
They were called T strain or T form mycoplasmas
(T for tiny) because of the small colonies, peculiar
in their ability to hydrolysis urea. Human T strain
mycoplasmas have been reclassified as Ureaplasma
urealyticum.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Classify mycoplasmas. Describe the morphology,
cultivation pathogenicity and Laboratory diagnosis
of Mycoplasma infections.
2. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of Mycoplasma and
Ureaplasma infections.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Morphology and general characters of Myco
plasma and Ureaplasma.
Chap-49.indd 354
b.
Mycoplasma pneumoniae or PPLO or Eatons
agent.
c.
Streptococcus MG agglutination test.
d. Cold agglutinin test for Mycoplasma infection
e.
Ureaplasma urealyticum.
f. Atypical pneumonia.
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50
Chapter
Miscellaneous Bacteria
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology and culture characteristics
of Listeria
Describe infections caused by Listeria monocytogenes
and their laboratory diagnosis
LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES
Biochemical Reactions
Morphology
Listeria monocytogenes is a small, coccoid, Grampositive bacillus measuring approximately 0.5
23 m. They occur singly or in pairs which
are often angled at the point of contact and may
resemble diphtheroids or diplococci. It exhibits a
characteristic, slow; tumbling motility when grown
at 25C but at 37C is nonmotile. This is because
peritrichous flagella are produced by the bacillus
optimally at 2030C but only scantily or not at all
at 37C. They are noncapsulate, nonsporing and
nonacid-fast.
Cultural Characters
Listeriae are aerobes and facultative anaerobes.
They can grow over a temperature range of
243C, the optimum temperature for the growth
is 3537C. They can grow on ordinary media
containing fermentable carbohydrate, but growth
is better on blood agar or tryptose phosphate agar.
After 24 hours incubation at 37C, colonies are
0.51.5 mm in diameter, smooth, translucent and
emulsifiable and non-pigmented.
On blood agar, L. monocytogenes develops
zones of slightly hazy -hemolysis.
Chap-50.indd 355
Various Species
On the basis of a few tests the genus Listeria can
be divided into 8 spec ies (Table 50.1). Many
serovars have been recognised. Two major tests of
differentiation of various species include D-xylose
fermentation and CAMP test with Staph. aureus and
Rhodococcus equi. L. monocytogenes gives a positive
CAMP test with Staph. aureus.
Pathogenicity
Listeria monocytogenes is commonly ingested
in food. L. ivanovii and L. seeligeri have been
associated with a very small number of human
infections.
Experimental inoculation in rabbits causes
a marked monoc ytosis (hence the name
monocytogenes). Monocytosis is a feature of human
listeriosis also. Instillation into the eyes of rabbits
produces keratoconjunctivitis (Anton test).
Human infection is believed to result from
contact with infected animals, inhalation of
contaminated dust or ingestion of contaminated
milk or food. Hospital acquired infections have
also been reported. L.monocytogenes produces
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Nitrate
reduction
L. monocytogenes
L. innocua
+/
L. ivanovii
++
L. seeligeri
+/
L. welshimeri
+/
L. grayi
+/
NK
+/
L. murayi
NK
L. denitrificans
NK
Clinical Features
1. Intrauterine and neonatal infection: Intra
uterine infection of the fetus may result in
abortion, stillbirth, premature delivery, or
acute-onset disseminated infection in the
newborn infant (including the form known as
granulomatosis infantiseptica). Asymptomatic
infection of the female genital tract may cause
infertility. Meningitis or septicemia may occur
in neonates.
2. Adult and juvenile infection: It may cause
meningitis or meningoencephalitis, particularly
in neonates and in the elderly.
3. Disease in healthy adults: Most Listeria infections
in healthy adults are asymptomatic or occur in the
form of a mild influenza-like illness. Several foodborne outbreaks of acute gastroenteritis with fever
have been described.
4. Other infections: Listeriosis may also present as
abscesses, conjunctivitis, pharyngitis, urethritis,
pneumonia, infectious mononucleosis like
syndrome, endocarditis or septicemia.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
Blood, CSF, amniotic fluid, placenta, pus and
biopsy material from the organs involved may be
collected. Specimens may also be collected from
neonate, stillbirth or products of conception.
2. Microscopy
If the Gram stain shows organisms, they are
intracellular and extracellular gram-positive cocco
bacilli.
Chap-50.indd 356
3. Culture
Specimens should be inoculated on blood agar,
chocolate agar and tryptose phosphate agar, and
incubated at 3537C for 13 days. Greater success
in isolation is achieved if the materials are stored
in tryptose phosphate or thioglycollate broth at 4C
and subcultures are done at weekly intervals for 16
months (cold enrichment ).
Blood agar shows small colonies surrounded
by a narrow zone of b-hemolysis. The bacteria are
actively motile when grown at 25C. The isolate is
identified by its morphology and biochemical tests
(Table 50.1).
Treatment
Currently, penicillin or ampicillin, either alone
or with gentamicin, is the treatment of choice for
infections with L. monocytogenes. Erythromycin
can be used in patients allergic to penicillin.
ERYSIPELOTHRIX RHUSIOPATHIAE
The genus Erysipelothrix contains two species, of
which Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is responsible
for human disease.
Morphology: E. rhusiopathiae is a slender, nonmotile, nonsporing, noncapsulated, straight or
slightly curved, gram-positive rod, measuring 12
0.2-0.4 mm with tendency towards formation of
long filaments.
Cultural Characteristics
It is microaerophilic on primary isolation but
on subculture, grows as an aerobe or facultative
anaerobe and growth is improved by 510% CO2.
It can grow on nutrient agar but the growth is
improved by added glucose, serum or blood. Black
colonies are developed in tellurite media.
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Biochemical Reactions
E. rhusiopathiae ferments glucose without gas pro
duction, and forms acid from fructose, galactose
and lactose. It is catalase negative, with negative
reactions for oxidase, indole production, urease,
nitrate reduction, Voges-Proskauer and methyl red
tests. H2S is produced in triple sugar-iron agar (TSI).
Pathogenicity
Erysipelothrix is a natural parasite of many animals.
Disease is common in swine but rare in humans. It
causes various diseases and syndromes in animals,
notably a form of erysipelas in pigs and arthritis in
pigs and sheep.
Human infection: Human infection is an occupat
ional hazard and usually occurs on the hand or
fingers of persons handling animals fish or animal
products.
Three forms of human infection with E. rhusi
opathiae have been described:
1. Localized skin infection (erysipeloid): Inocul
ation of the organism through the skin causes
erysipeloid.
2. Generalized cutaneous form
3. Septicemia: Septicemia and/or endocarditis
may occur.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimen: A full-thickness skin biopsy tissue
fluid from the periphery of the lesions.
2. Culture: Specimen is inoculated in for primary
culture in glucose or serum broth. Subcultures
care made on blood agar. Blood cultures
are diagnostic in cases of septicaemia or
endocarditis. E. rhusiopathiae is identified by
its microscopic and colonial appearances and
biochemical reactions confirm the diagnosis.
Treatment: Penicillin G is the drug of choice.
E. rhusiopathiae is also highly susceptible to
ampicillin, methicillin, piperacillin, cephalothin,
cefotaxime, ciprofloxacin and clindamycin.
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CHROMOBACTERIUM VIOLACEUM
Chromobacterium violaceum is a gram-negative,
nonsporing bacillus, motile by means of single
polar and scanty lateral flagella.
It is a facultative anaerobe. It grows readily
on simple nutrient agar at 3537C including
MacConkey agar producing violet pigment soluble
in ethanol and insoluble in water and chloroform.
It is catalase and oxidase positive and indole and
urease negative.
It occurs as a saprophyte in soil and water in
the tropical and subtropical regions. It causes rare
but dangerous infection and consist of skin lesions
with pyemia and multiple abscesses.
It is sensitive to aminoglycosides chloramphenicol
and tetracycline.
FLAVOBACTERIUM MENINGOSEPTICUM
Flavobacterium meningosepticum is a gramnegative nonmotile rod. It can grow on nutrient
agar. It forms a yellow nondiffusible pigment after
incubation at room temperature for 48 hours. It
is catalase- and oxidase-positive, proteolytic and
weakly fermentative.
F. meningosepticum is a saprophyte whose
natural habitat is soil and moist environments,
including nebulizers. It may cause opportunistic
nosocomial infections, particularly in infants. It
has been responsible for outbreaks of meningitis
in newborn infants. Infection in adults leads to a
mild febrile illness.
It is usually sensitive to cot rimoxazole,
novobiocin, rifampicin, clindamycin and cefoxitin.
ALCALIGENES FAECALIS
Morphology
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Pathogenesis
Pathogenicity
Donovanosis is a venereal disease, first described
by McLeod in India in 1882 and seen mainly in the
tropics. It can be transmitted after repeated exposure
through sexual intercourse or nonsexual trauma to
the genitalia. The incubation period ranges from
1 to 12 weeks. It begins as a painless papule on
the genitalia, which leads to a slowly progressive,
autoinoculable ulcers. The disease runs a chronic
course.It causes a chronic granulomatous disease
known as granuloma inguinale, granulomatous
venereum or donovanosis.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory confirmation of granuloma inguinale
is made by scraping the border of the lesion, by
spreading the collected tissue on a slide, and
by staining it with Giemsa or Wrights stain.
Pathognomonic Donovan bodies are observed
within mononuclear phagocytes.
Treatment
Cases of donovanosis respond well to tetracycline,
chloramphenicol, erythromycin, clindamycin,
cotrimoxazole, streptomycin and other aminogly
cosides.
A. baumannii
These form pinkish colonies on MacConkey medium.
Acid without gas is formed in glucose, arabinose,
xylose, and occasionally in rhamnose. A characteristic
reaction is the formation of acid in 10%, but not 1%
lactose. Several serotypes have been identified by
capsule swelling and immunofluorescence.
Treatment
Most strains are resistant to sulphonamides,
penicillins, erythromycin, the tetracyclines and
chloramphenicol. But empirical therapy for serious
infections should consist of a b-Iactam antibiotic (e.g.,
ceftazidime, imipenem) and an aminoglycoside.
Streptobacillus moniliformis
Morphology
S. moniliformis is a long, thin (0.10.5 15 m),
gram- negative bacillus that tends to stain poorly
and to be more pleomorphic in older cultures.
Granules and bulb ous swellings resembling a
string of beads may be seen hence the species
name moniliformis. It may lose its cell wall and
exists as L-form. In fact, L-forms were originally
discovered during the study of this bacillus.
Culture
S. moniliformis is a nutritionally exacting aerobe and
facultative anaerobe. Growth requires the presence
of blood or other body fluids. It grows well on moist
Loefflers serum slope or moist plate of nutrient
agar containing 20% horse serum and in 20% serum
broth. Colonies appear on the surface after 48 hours
incubation and are discrete granular and greyish
yellow. L phase variants show minute colonies
(0.10.2 mm diameter) with a fried egg appearance.
They consist mainly of small coccoid bodies.
Biochemical Reactions
It attacks sugars fermentatively and produces
acid without gas from glucose, galactose, dextrin,
raffinose and starch. It is catalase, oxidase, indole
production, urease and nitrate reduction negative.
A. lowffi
Pathogenesis
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Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Microscopic Examination
1. Specimens
i. Bloodduring acute phase of disease.
ii. Joint fluidwhen arthritis develops.
2. Culture: Specimen is inoculated on blood agar
or Loeffiers serum slope.
3. Animal pathogenicity test: Mice are highly
susceptible to intraperitoneal inoculation of
infected material. The animals develop a rapidly
fatal generalized condition or a more progressive
disease with swelling of feet and legs.
4. Serology: Diagnosis may also be established
by serological tests including agglutination,
complement fixation and fluorescent antibody tests.
Treatment
Penicillin is the antibiotic of choice for treating ratbite fever. S. moniliformis is also sensitive to cep
halosporins, erythromycin, clindamycin, tetracycline
and aminoglycosides. The L phase variant is peni
cillin-resistant but sensitive to tetracycline.
SPIRILLUM MINUS
The organism commonly known as Spirillum
minus, one of the causes of rat-bite fever in man
is of uncertain taxonomic position. It was once
regarded as a spirochaete but was later placed in
the genus Spirillum.
Morphology
S. minus is a short, spiral, gram-negative organism
about 35 m 0.20.5 m in size, with two or
three regular spirals and 17 amphitrichous
flagella. It is very actively motile, showing darting
movements like those of a vibrio.The organisms can
be demonstrated with the dark ground microscopy
or by staining with Leishman or Giemsa stain.
Culture
The organism has not been cultivated on artificial
media. S. minus is best isolated by intraperitoneal
inoculation of specimens (infected tissue or blood)
into mice and guinea pigs.
Pathogenesis
It was first observed in a rat by Carter (1888)
in India. Japanese workers identified it as the
causative agent of one type of RBF, called Sodoku.
Chap-50.indd 359
2. Animal Inoculation
S. minus can be isolated by intraperitoneal
inoculation of blood or material from lymph
node into mice and guinea pigs. Spirilla may be
demonstrated by dark field microscopy in blood
and peritoneal fluid of animal 13 weeks after the
intraperitoneal inoculation.
Treatment
Infections with S. minus respond to treatment with
penicillin and tetracyclines.
EIKENELLA CORRODENS
Morphology
E. corrodens is a fastidious , small, nonmotile,
non-spore-forming, facultatively anaerobic
Gram-negative bacillus. It lacks flagella and shows
twitching motility which is due to contractile
fimbria-like filamentous appendages
Culture
It is an aerobe and facultative anaerobe. A slowgrowing, fastidious organism, E. corrodens requires
510% carbon dioxide to grow. It can grow on blood
agar or chocolate agar. After 48 hours incubation on
blood agar or chocolate agar, the colonies are small
(0.51 mm in diameter) with characteristic pitting
or corroding of blood agar, hence the species name
corrodens. The organism also produces a charac
teristic bleach like odor.
Biochemical Characters
It is oxidase positive and catalase negative. It does
not produce acid from carbohydrates. It is indole
and urease negative but lysine and ornithine
decarboxylase positive.
Pathogenesis
Eikenella corrodens is normally present in the mouth,
upper respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract of
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Treatment
E. corrodens is susceptible to penicillin, ampicillin,
extended-spectrum cephalosporins, tetracyclines,
and fluoroquinolone.
CARDIOBACTERIUM HOMINIS
This gram-negative bacilli are nonmotile, char
acteristically small (1 12 mm) but sometimes
pleomorphic. The organism grows slowly in culture.
On blood agar the colonies are small, 12 mm in
diameter, smooth, glistening, circular and opaque
after 48 hours incubation at 35C. The organism
does not grow on MacConkey agar or other selective
media commonly used for gram-negative bacilli.
The bacteria are fermentative, indole- and oxidasepositive, and catalase and nitrate negative.
C. hominis occurs commonly as a commensal
in the human nose and throat may cause endo
carditis, particularly in those with pre-existing
cardiovascular disease.
It can be diagnosed by isolation of the causative
agent in blood culture.
C. hominis is susceptible to multiple antibiotics,
and most infections are successfully treated with
penicillin or ampicillin for 26 weeks.
CAPNOCYTOPHAGA
The Capnocytophaga species are gram-negative,
slow-growing, capnophilic, fusiform or filamentous
bacilli. They are fermentative and facultative
anaerobes that require CO2 for aerobic growth. They
may show gliding motility which can be seen as
outgrowths of colonies.
C. ochracea, C. gingivalis and C. sputigena are
members of the normal oral flora of humans. They
have been associated with severe periodontal disease
in juveniles. They occasionally cause bacteremia and
severe systemic disease in immunocompromised
patients, especially granulocytopenic patients with
oral ulcerations.
Most Capnocytophaga infections can be
treated with broad-spectrum cephalosporins,
fluoroquinolones, or penicillin.
GARDNERELLA VAGINALIS
Gardnerella vaginalis is a small, gram-negative,
nonmotile, pleomorphic rod which shows
metachromatic granules. It was formerly known as
Haemophilus vaginalis or Corynebacterium vaginale.
It grows on blood or chocolate agar aerobically under
5% CO2, minute colonies appear in 2448 hours and
Chap-50.indd 360
Key Points
Listeria monocytogenes is a small, coccoid, Grampositive bacillus and exhibits a characteristic, slow,
tumbling motility when grown at 25 C but at 37 C
is nonmotile
The disease chiefly affects pregnant women, unborn
or newly delivered infants, the immunosuppressed
and elderly. It is predominantly transmitted by the
consumption of contaminated food
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae: Disease is common in
swine but rare in humans. Three forms of human
infection-erysipeloid, generalized cutaneous form
and septicemia
Alcaligenes faecalis: It causes urinary tract infection,
infantile gastroenteritis, and typhoid-like fever in
humans
Chromobacterium violaceum: It is associated
with intestinal and genitourinary infections and
septicemic illnesses with pneumonia
Flavobacterium meningosepticum: causes oppor
tunistic infections, neonatal meningitis in premature
infants and pneumonia in immunocompromised
hosts
Calymmatobacterium (Donovania) granulomatis
is the causative agent of granuloma inguinale, a
sexually transmitted disease
Acinetobacter species Acinetobacter species may
cause nosocomial infections
Rat bite fever is caused by two different bacilli:
Streptobacillus moniliformis and Spirillum minus
Eikenella corrodens: Causes a human bite wound
or fist fight injury, endocarditis, sinusitis, meningitis,
brain abscesses, pneumonia, and lung abscesses
Cardiobacterium hominis: C. hominis may cause
endocarditis, particularly in those with preexisting
cardiovascular disease
Capnocytophaga species have been associated
with severe periodontal disease in juveniles,
bacteremia and severe systemic disease in immuno
compromised patients
Gardnerella vaginalis is considered responsible for
bacterial vaginosis, a mild but common condition
characterized by raised vaginal pH >4.5, foul
smelling discharge and the presence of clue cells.
Metronidazole is effective in treatment.
IMPORTANT QUESTION
Write short notes on:
a. Listeria monocytogenes
b. Elysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
c. Donovan bodies
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Rat-bite fever
Eikenella corrodens
Acinetbacter spp.
Alkaligenes faecalis
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51
Chapter
Rickettsiaceae, Bartonellaceae and Coxiella
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe diseases caused by different rickettsiae
Describe BrillZinsser disease
INTRODUCTION
Rickettsiae are small. Gram-negative bacilli
adapted to obligate intracelIular parasitism, and
transmitted by arthropod vectors.
The family Rickettsiaceae is named after
Howard Taylor Ricketts who discovered the spotted
fever rickettsia (1906) and died of typhus fever
contracted during his studies. These bacteria
were originally thought to be viruses because
they are small, stain poorly with the Gram stain,
and grow only in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells. Nevertheless, these organisms have the
characteristics of bacteria:
CLASSIFICATION
The family Rickettsiacae currently comprises two
genera Rickettsia and Orientia (Table 51.1).
Coxiella is now included in the family Coxiellaceae.
Ehrlichia and Anaplasma are included in family
Anaplasmataceae.
Chap-51.indd 362
Species
A. Rickettsia
R. prowazekii
R. typhi
R. rickettsii
R. conorii
R. australis
R. sibirica
R. akari
B. Orientia
O. tsutsugamushi
GENUS RICKETTSIA
Morphology
In smears from infected tissues, rickettsiae appear as
pleomorphic coccobacilli, 0.30.6 mm 0.82 mm
in size. They are nonmotile and noncapsulated.
They are gram-negative, though they do not take
the stain well. They stain bluish purple with Giemsa
and Castaneda stains and deep red with Machiavello
and Gimenez stains.
Cultivation
Rickettsiae are unable to grow in cellfree media.
The optimum temperature for growth is 3235C.
1. Yolk sac: They are readily cultivated in the yolk
sac of developing chick embryos.
2. Cell culture: They grow on mouse fibroblast,
HeLa, HEp-2, Detroit 6 and other continuous
cell lines but tissue cultures are not satisfactory
for primary isolation.
3. Laboratory animals, such as guinea pigs and
mice are useful for the isolation of rickettsiae
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Resistance
They are rapidly destroyed at 56C and at room
temperature when separated from host components,
unless preserved in skimmed milk or a suspending
medium containing sucrose, potassium phosphate
and glutamate (SPG medium). Rickettsiae are
susceptible to tetracycline, chloramphenicol and
ciprofloxacin.
Antigenic Structure
Rickettsiae possess at least three types of antigens:
1. Group specific soluble antigen: It is present
on the surface of rickettsiae.
2. Species specific antigen: It is associated
with the bodies of rickettsiae. In case of scrub
typhus, it is strain specific.
3. Alkali stable polysaccharide: It is an alkali
stable polysaccharide found in some rickettsiae
and in some strains of Proteus bacilli. This
sharing of antigens between rickettsiae and
proteus is the basis for the WeilFelix reaction
used for the diagnosis of rickettsial infections
by the demonstration of agglutinins to Proteus
strains OX 19, OK 2 and OK.
Pathogenesis
Rickettsiae normally enter the body through
the bite or feces of an infected arthropod vector.
On entry into the human body, the rickettsiae
multiply locally and enter the blood. They become
localized chiefly in the vascular endothelial cells,
which enlarge, degenerate and cause thrombus
formation, with partial or complete occlusion of
the vascular lumen.
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Tick Typhus
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Rocky mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is a potent
ially life-threatening infection. R. rickettsii is the
etiologic agent of Rocky Mountain spotted fever.
Vector: Ixodid (hard) ticks are the vectors. It is
transmitted by Dermacentor andersoni and related
species of ticks. The ecology and epidemiology of
spotted fever are directly related to the life cycle of
four species of ixodid (hard) ticks vectors. Humans
are only accidentally infected.
Clinical diseases: The incubation period is about
one week. Clinical picture is similar to that of
typhus fever but the rash appears earlier and is
more pronounced. It is prevalent in many parts of
North and South America.
Species
Diseases
Vector
Vertebrate
reservoir
Geographical
distribution
Typhus group
R. prowazekii
Epidemic typhus
Louse
Human beings
Worldwide group
Human beings
America, Europe
R. typhi
Endemic typhus
Rat flea
Rat
Worldwide
R. felis
Endemic typhus
Cat flea
Opossum
USA
Rocky mountain
spotted fever
Tick
Rabbit, dog
N. America
R. conorii
Boutonneuse fever
Tick
Dog, rodents
Mediterranean
Dog, rodents
S. Africa
Tick
Rodents
Kenya
Tick
? Rodents
India
R. australis
Queensland tick
typhus
Tick
Bush rodents
N. Australia
R. japonica
Oriental spotted
fever
Tick
Japan
R. akari
Rickettsial pox
Gamasid mite
Mouse
USA, Russia
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Rickettsial pox
Rickettsial pox is a relatively mild infection transmitted
by mites. Rickettsial pox is characterized by a local
eschar, a papulovesicular rash, and a benign clinical
course. It is also called vesicular or varicelliform
rickettsiosis.
The causative agent is R. akari (from akari,
meaning mite). The reservoir of infection is the
domestic mouse, Mus musculus. The vector is
the mite, Liponyssoides sanguineus, in which
transovarial transmission occurs.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Rickettsial diseases may be dia gnosed in the
laboratory either
1. Isolation of rickettsiae.
2. Direct detection of the organisms and their
antigens.
3. Serology.
1. Isolation of Rickettsiae
Isolation of the organism provides conclusive proof
of rickettsial infection. As rickettsiae are highly
Chap-51.indd 365
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3. Serology
Serological diagnosis may be by the heterophile
Weil-Felix reaction or by specific tests using rickett
sial antigens.
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Interpretation
Sera from epidemic and endemic typhus aggluti
nate OX 19 and sometimes OX 2 also. The test is
negative or only weakly positive in BrillZinsser
disease. In tick-borne spotted fever both OX 19 and
OX 2 are agglutinated. OX K agglutinins are found
only in scrub typhus. (Table 51.3).
The WeilFelix reaction is a simple and useful
test for the diagnosis of some rickettsial diseases.
The antibody appears rapidly during the course of
the disease, reaches peak titers of up to 1 : 1000 or
1 : 5000 by the second week and declines rapidly
during convalescence. False-positive reaction may
occur in some cases of urinary or other infections
by Proteus and at times in typhoid fever and liver
diseases. Hence it is desirable to demonstrate a rise
in titer of antibodies for the diagnosis of rickettsial
infection.
ii. Specific tests using rickettsial antigens
Serological methods using rickettsial antigens are
specific, which include complement fixation test,
latex agglutination test and enzyme immunoassay.
Treatment
Rickettsial infections may be treated with tetracyc
lines or chloramphenicol. Both these drugs are
rickettsiostatic.
Prophylaxis
1. General measures: General measures, such
as control of vectors and animal reservoirs are
useful to prevent rickettsial diseases.
2. Vaccination: Immunization is useful in special
situations. There is no safe, effective vaccine for
any of the rickettsial diseases.
i. Weigls vaccine: In earlier days, phenolized
intestinal contents of lice infected per
rectum with R. prowazekii (Weigls vaccine)
was developed. It was too complicated for
mass production.
ii. A live vaccine: Containing attenuated E.
strain of R. prowazekii grown in yolk sac have
been found to be effective but a proportion
of vaccines develop mild disease.
iii. Formalin inactivated R. rickettsii has
been used but does not prevent the disease
completely.
iv. Recombinant vaccines may be more
successful.
Species
The ehrlichiae that cause disease in humans have
been classified in a limited number of species
which are as follows: (i) Ehrlichia chaffeensis,
causes human monocyte ehrlichiosis (HME); (ii)
Ehrlichia ewingii causes E ewingii ehrlichiosis;
(iii) Anaplasma phagocytophilum causes human
granulocyte anaplasmosis (HGE) (Table 51.4). The
same genera contain additional species that infect
animals but apparently not humans. The human
pathogens in the group have animal reservoirs and
can cause disease in animals as well.
1. Ehrlichia chaffeensis
OX 19
OX2
OXK
+++
or
weak
positive
3. Endemic typhus
+++
+/-
4. Tickborne spotted
fever
++
++
2. Ehrlichia ewingii
5. Scrub typhus
+++
1. Epidemic typhus
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|367
Table 51.4 Ehrlichia, Anaplasmaa and Neorickettsia species responsible for human disease
Species
Disesase
Vector or Source
E. chaffeensis
E. ewingii
Ewingii ehrlichiosis
Amblyomma americnum
Anaplasma.
phagocytophilum
Neorickettsia sennetu
Sennestu fever
3. Anaplasma phagocytophilum
It infects human granulocytic cells. Anaplasma
phagocytophilum, causes human granulocyte
anaplasmosis (HGE). The human pathogens in
the group have animal reservoirs and can cause
disease in animals as well
4. Neorickettsia sennestu
It was previously called Ehrlichia sennestu, an
intraleukocytic bacterium. It causes sennestu
ehrlichiosis, an illness resebling glandular fever
(sennetsu being the Japanese name for glandular
fever). No insect vector has yet been implicated in its
transmission. It is associated with ingestion of raw fish
infested with infected flukes. Similar cases have been
reported in Malaysia and Philippines.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Identification of characteristic morulae: Typical
morulae in white blood cells is diagnostic in
Giemsa stained peripheral blood smear.
2. Specific antibodies can be demonstrated by
indirect immunofluorescence methods.
3. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for ehrlichial
DNA.
Morphology
Cox. burnetii is pleomorphic, occurring as small
rods 0.20.4 m 0.41.0 m or as spheres 0.30.4
m in diameter. It is filterable. Generally regarded
as gram-negative. It is better stained with Giminez
and other rickettsiae stains.
Resistance
C. burnetii may be the most infectious of all
bacteria. In dried feces or wool it survives for a
Chap-51.indd 367
Antigenic Variation
An important characteristic of Coxiella infections
is the ability to undergo antigenic variation in
expression of the cell wall LPS antigen. Cox. bumetii
shows phase variation. Fresh isolates are in Phase I.
It becomes Phase II on repeated passage in yolk sac,
but reverts to Phase I by passaging in guinea pigs.
Pathogenesis
Coxiella burnetii causes Q fever which has a world
wide distribution, as a zoonosis solidly established
in domestic livestock.
Cycles of infection: In nature there are two cycles
of infection of C. burnetii. One involves arthropods
(especially ticks) and a variety of vertebrates. The
other cycle is maintained among domestic animals
(cattle, sheep and goats).
Reservoirs of the disease: The primary reservoirs
of the disease are wild and domestic ungulates,
including cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits, cats and dogs.
It is transmitted among them and to cattle, sheep
and poultry by ixodid ticks.
Animal infection: Domestic animals have
inapparent infections but may shed large quantities
of infectious organisms in their urine, milk, feces,
and especially, their placental products.
Human infection: Human infection may occur
occupationally through consumption of infected
milk, handling of contaminated wool or hides,
soil contaminated by infected animal feces,
infected straw, and even to dusty clothing. Coxiella
proliferate in the respiratory tract and then
disseminate to other organs. Person-to-person
transmission is a rarity. Ticks do not seem to be
important in human infection.
Incubation period is 24 weeks. Acute diseases
include influenza-like syndrome, atypical
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Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Isolation: Isolation of C. burnetii from patient
specimens is a specialized procedure and is
not generally recommended because of the
extremely infectious nature of the organism.
2. Serology: Using complement fixation test
(CFT) or indirect immunofluorescence assay.
Treatment: Tetracyclines are the drugs of choice
for acute infections. Rifampin combined with either
doxycycline or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is
used to treat chronic infections.
Prophylaxis
Prevention of disease is by observing basic hygienic
precautions while dealing with infected animals.
Pasteurization of raw milk helps prevent milkborne transmission. Vaccines have been developed
from formalin killed whole cells.
BARTONELLA
Family Bartonellaceae contains two genera:
Bartonella and Grahamella.
Members of genus Bartonella are very small
gram-negative bacilli. The genus Bartonella, which
now consists of 11 species, including 5 that cause
human disease (Table 51.5). Members of the
genus Grahamella preferentially grow within the
erythrocytes of vertebrates, but do not infect humans.
1. Bartonella bacilliformis
It is a pleomorphic gram-negative rod, which is
motile by a tuft of polar flagella. It can be cultivated in
semisolid agar with rabbit or human blood. Growth
is slow and becomes visible after 10 days incubation.
Diseases
1. B. bacilliformis
2. B. qintana
3. B. henselae
4. B. clarridgeiae
5. B. elizabethae
Endocarditis (rare)
Chap-51.indd 368
Pathogenesis
Oroya fever: Bartonella bacilliformis is responsible
for bartonellosis, an acute febrile illness consisting
of severe anemia (Oroya fever) followed by a
chronic cutaneous form (verruga). Oroya fever
presents as fever and progressive anemia due to
bacterial invasion of erythrocytes. Mortality is high
in untreated cases.
Verruga peruana: Some of the survivors developed
nodular ulcerating skin lesions, called verruga
peruana. It is a late sequel in survivors or in those
with asymptomatic infection.
Carrions disease: Oroya fever and verruga
peruana are also known as Carrions disease.
Etiology: It is spread by the sandfly vector Phlebo
tomus.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i.
B. bacilliformis can be demonstrated in blood
smears stained by Giemsa. Organisms are
seen in the cytoplasm as well as adhering to
the cell surfaces.
ii. Organisms may be isolated from the blood,
in semi-solid medium containing rabbit
serum and hemoglobin. Identification can be
achieved by PCR or by cultural and serological
tests.
iii. Guinea pig inoculation leads to verruga
peruana but not Oroya fever.
iv. Other tests
a.
Polymers chain reaction (PCR)
b. Serology: Indirect hemagg lutination,
indirect immunofluorescence and ELISA.
Treatment: B. bacilliformis is susceptible to
penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline and chloram
phenicol.
Prophylaxis: Insecticides such as DDT should be
used to eliminate the sandfly inside and outside
the houses.
2. Bartonella quintana
B. quintana is a small, gram-negative bacillus. It
does not possess flagella, although it may exhibit
twitching movement caused by fimbriae. It grows
slowly on rabbit or sheep blood agar at 35C in
5% CO2 in air. Colonies appear after two weeks
in primary culture and 35 days in subsequent
passages.
Pathogenesis
Trench fever or five-day fever: B. quintana
causes trench fever or five-day fever occurred
among soldiers fighting in the trenches in Europe
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Laboratory Diagnosis
i. B. quintana can be isolated by allowing
healthy lice to feed upon the patient and
the bartonellae may be detected in the gut
of these lice. It can also be cultivated from
patients blood on rabbit or sheep blood agar.
ii. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): B.
quintana has been detected in the tissues by
PCR.
3. Bartonella henselae
Bart. henselae is responsible for catscratch disease.
It is small, slightly curved gram-negative bacillus.
It shows twitching motility. It can be grown on
chocolate agar, Columbia agar with 5% blood
and trypticase agar. The optimum temperature
for growth is 3537C in 5% CO2, Growth is slow
and takes 515 days. Colonies are white, dry,
cauliflower-like and embedded in the agar.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. It can be demonstrated in lymph node biopsy
smears and sections by WarthinStarry staining
show clusters of bacilli.
2. B. henselae has been isolated from the blood
of patients, in blood media after prolonged
incubation and is now considered as its
etiological agent.
Treatment: Cat scratch disease is usually self
limiting disease and does not appear to respond
to antimicrobial therapy.
Key Points
Pathogenesis
1. Cat scratch disease: The disease is acquired
after exposure to cats (e.g. scratches, bites, and
contact with cat fleas). Catscratch disease is a
severe condition of regional lymphadenopathy
and fever resulting from the scratch or bite of
an infected cat. Bart. clarridgeiae, can cause
an identical syndrome. An organism known as
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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Write short notes on:
a. Typhus fevers
b. Brill-zinsser disease (Recrudescent typhus)
c. Rocky mountain spotted fever
d. Scrub typhus
e. Trench fever
f.
Coxiella burnettii or Q fever
g. Weil-Felix reaction
h. Cat scratch disease
i. NeilMooser reaction or Tunica reaction
j. Ehrlichia
k. Oroya fever
2. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of rickettsial infections.
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52
Chapter
Chlamydia and Chlamydophila
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe differences between chlamydiae and viruses
Describe serotypes of various chlamydiae and
diseases produced by them
Associate each of the major diseases with the three
most important human species of Chlamydia and
Chlamydophila
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION
Chap-52.indd 371
Chlamydia Species
Chlamydia trachomatis: C. trachomatis is divi
ded into two biovarsthose causing trachoma,
inclusion conjunctivitis (the so-called TRIC agents)
and oculogenital infection.
Chlamydophila Species
1. Chlamydophila psittaci: It may lead to severe
and sometimes fatal pneumonia in man (psittacosis
or ornithosis).
Genus Chlamydia
Genus Chlamydophila
C. trachomatis
C. muridarum
C. suis
C. pneumoniae
C. psittaci
C. pecorum
C. abortus
C. caviae
C. felis
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Morphology
Chlamydiae are small, nonmotile bacteria. Although
they stain poorly with grams stain they have the
typical LPS of gram-negative bacteria. There are
two morphologically distinct forms of chlamydiae:
elementary body (EB) and reticulate body (RB).
There are two morphologically distinct forms of
chlamydiae: elementary body (EB) and reticulate
body (RB).
Elementary body: It is a spherical particle, 200300
nm in diameter, with a rigid trilaminar cell wall.
Serotype*
Disease
C. trachomatis
A, B, Ba, C
Endemic blinding
trachoma
C. trachomatis
D, E, F, G, H, I, J,
K (D to K)
Inclusion
conjunctivitis
(neonatal and adult)
Genital chlamydiasis
C. trachomatis
Lymphogranuloma
venereum
C. psittaci
Many
serotypes
Psittacosis
Chlamydophila
pneumoniae
Only one
serotype
Acute respiratory
disease
Infant pneumonia
Growth Cycle
The Chlamydia growth cycle is initiated by the
attachment of an infectious elementary body to
the surface of a susceptible epithelial cell, followed
by its endocytosis (Fig. 52.1). Inside the host cell,
the elementary body lies within the endosome,
being separated from the host cell cytoplasm by
the endosomal membrane throughout its active
growth cycle.
By about eight hours, the elementary body
within the endosome undergoes spheroplastlike transformation to the large reticulate body,
which begins to divide by binary fission and are
converted to elementary bodies.The developing
chlamydial microcolony within the host cell is
called the inclusion body. The mature inclusion
body contains 100500 elementary bodies which
are ultimately released from the host cell. The
host cell is severely damaged and release of the
elementary bodies occurs within 48 hours by host
cell lysis in C. psittaci infections (Fig. 52.1).
Laboratory Propagation
Chlamydiae can be propagated in the mouse,
chick embryo or in cell culture though they
show individual variations in susceptibility. The
presence of chlamydial inclusions is determined by
microscopy in conjunction with a suitable staining
method, preferably fluorescence microscopy with
labeled monoclonal antibody.
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Antigenic Structure
Chlamydiae possess three major groups of antigens:
genus-specific antigens, species-specific antigens,
and serotype-specific antigens.
1. Genus-specific antigens: The heat-stable genusspecific antigen common to all Chlamydia is LPS,
with an acidic polysaccharide as the antigenic
determinant. The antigen, can be detected by the
complement fixation test, SDS polyacrylamide
gel electrophoresis, and by polyclonal or epitope
specific monoclonal antibodies.
2. Species-specific antigens: Several speciesspecific antigens have been detected on or near
the envelope surface.They help in classifying
chlamydiae into the speciestrachomatis,
psittaci, pneumoniae and pecorum.
3. Serotype-specific antigens: Serotype-specific
determinants are common only to cert ain
isolates within a species and help in intraspecies
typing. They are located on the major outer
membrane proteins (MOMP) and can be
demonstrated by microimmunofluorescence. By
micro-IF, chlamydiae have been classified into
many serological variants (serovars, serotypes).
C. trachomatis: Chlamydia trachomatis has been
divided into three biovars (biological variants)
which cause trachoma, inclusion conjunctivitis
(the so-called TRIC agents) and lymphogranuloma
venereum (LGV), and mouse pneumonitis
(renamed C. muridarum). Both the trachoma and
the LGV biovars can be divided into serotypes
(serovars) on the basis of epitopes carried on their
major outer membrane protein (MOMP).
Trachoma biovar: There are 15 serovars in the
trachoma biovar (with variants within them) which
are given the letters serovars A through K (A, B, Ba,
C, D, Da, E, F, G, Ga, H, I, la, J, and K). Serovars A,
B, Ba and C cause blinding trachoma in endemic
areas, and serovars D to K associated with the less
serious ocular infection, inclusion conjunctivitis
and with various genital infections.
LGV biovar: Four serovars L1, L2 and L3, in the
LGV biovar. Serovars L1 L2, L2a and L3 are associated
with LGV, an invasive urogenital tract disease and
hemorrhagic proctitis.
C. psittaci: The serological classification of C. psittaci
is complex, many serotypes having been identified.
C. pneumoniae: C. pneumoniae has not been
subclassified yet (Table 52.2).
Chlamydia trachomatis
C. trachomatis is a leading cause of ocular and
genital infections worldwide.
Chap-52.indd 373
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1. Ocular Infections
i. Trachoma
Trachoma is a chronic keratoconjunctivitis. It is
characterized by follicular hypertrophy, papillary
hyperplasia, pannus formation and in the late
stages, cicatrisation. caused by C. trachomatis
serotypes A, B, or C. Trachoma is transmitted eyeto-eye by droplet, hands, contaminated clothing,
and eye-seeking flies. The pathogen may also be
transmitted by respiratory droplet or through fecal
contamination. Trachoma generally is endemic
in communities where the living conditions are
crowded, sanitation is poor, and the personal
hygiene of the people is poor.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Direct Cytopathologic Examination
The characteristic inclusion (HalberstaedterProwazek or HP bodies) may be demonstrated in
conjunctival scrapings, after staining by Giemsa,
Castaneda or Macchiavello methods. They may
be stained with iodine solution also because they
possess a glycogen matrix. The fluorescent antibody
method enhances the sensitivity of smear diagnosis.
2. Culture
i. Embryonated egg: The chlamydia may be
grown in the yolk sac of 68 days old eggs.
ii. Cell culture: Tissue culture using stationary
phase cells (nonreplicating cells) is the method
of choice for isolation.The bacteria infect a
restricted range of cell lines in vitro (e.g. HeLa229, McCoy BHK-21, Buffalo green monkey
kidney cells), similar to the narrow range of
cells they infect in vivo. McCoy cells rendered
nonreplicating by irradiation or antimetabolites
are used. HeLa or HL cells treated with DEAE
dextran may also be used. The inoculum has to
be driven into the cells by centrifugation up to
15,000 g to get a good growth.
Treatment and control: Local application and oral
administration of erythromycin and tetracycline or
other suitable antibiotics should be continued for
several weeks. Single-dose azitromycin treatment
has been used with good results.
Vaccines that are efficacious and safe are not
available Basic. however, to the ultimate control
of trachoma, are good standards of hygiene that
accompany improvement in standards of living.
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2. Genital Infections
C. trachomatis infections of the genital tract are of
two types and are sexually transmitted:
1. Those caused by the oculogenital serotypes
D through K collectively referred to as genital
chlamydiasis
2. LGV caused by serotypes L1, L2, L2a and L3.
I. Genital chlamydiasis
Ch. trachomatis D to K are called genital chlamy
diasis.
i. Infection in men: In men, they cause urethritis
(nongonococcal urethritis), epididymitis,
proctitis, conjunctivitis and Reiters syndrome.
Reiters syndrome is a triad of recurrent
conjunctivitis, polyarthritis and urethritis
or cervicitis. Anal intercourse may cause
chlamydial proctitis in either sex. Associated
symptoms include rectal pain and bleeding,
mucopurulent discharge and diarrhea.
ii. Infection in women: Most genital tract
infections in women are asymptomatic (as
many as 80%) but can nevertheless become
symptomatic. The clinical manifestations
include acute urethral syndrome, bartholinitis,
mucopurulent cervicitis, endometritis,
salpingitis, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID),
conjunctivitis, perihepatitis (FitzHugh
Curtis syndrome) and Reiters syndrome.
Genital chlamydiasis may cause infertility,
ectopic pregnangy, premature deliveries,
perinatal morbidity and postpartum fever.
Chap-52.indd 374
Clinical Manifestations
The usual incubation period of LGV is 14 weeks.
1. Primary lesion: The primary lesion is
painless, small, inconspicuous, and vesicular
and often escapes notice. Characteristically the
presenting complaint concerns the enlarged
matted inguinal and femoral lymph nodes
which are moderately painful and firm and may
become fluctuant.
2. Secondary stage: The secondary stage results
from lymphatic spread to the draining lymph
nodes. In men the inguinal lymph nodes
are involved most often and in women the
intrapelvic and pararectal nodes. Women and
homosexual men may develop hemorrhagic
proctitis with regional lymphadenitis. The
nodes enlarge, suppurate, become adherent
to the skin and breakdown to form sinuses
discharging pus. Metastatic complications may
sometimes occur, with involvement of joints,
eyes, and meninges.
3. Tertiary stage: The tertiary stage is chronic,
lasting for several years, representing the
sequelae of scarring and lymphatic blockage.
Rectal stricture and rectal perforation are
recognized late sequelae to LGV proctitis. The
course of the disease is variable. Late sequelae
are more distressing in women and lymphatic
obstruction in women can lead to elephantiasis
of the vulva, called esthiomene.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The primary lesion usually goes unnoticed and
the disease is seen commonly first in the stage of
inguinal adenitis (bubo).
A. Microscopy
Smears of material aspirated from the bubos
may show the elementary bodies (Miyagawas
granulocorpuscles). The sensitivity of microscopic
diagnosis is very low.
B. Culture
Isolation of the Chlamydia by intracerebral
inoculation into mice and into yolk sac of eggs has
been replaced by cell cultures.
C. Serology
LGV patients develop high titers of circulating
antibodies, with titers of 1:64 or more in CF test
and 1:512 or more in micro-IF.
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Treatment
Treatment is with tetracycline, which should be
given for at least three weeks.
Chlamydophila psittaci
Chlamydophila psittaci is the cause of psittacosis
(psittacos means parrot) among psittacine birds,
also known as ornithosis (derived from the Greek
word ornithos for bird) or parrot fever. Human
infections are mostly occupational. The respiratory
tract is the main portal of entry, and infection
usually is acquired by inhalation of organisms from
infected birds and their droppings. The incubation
period is about 10 days. The illness ranges from an
influenza-like syndrome, to a severe illness with
delirium and pneumonia. Psittacosis is a septicemia
and there may be meningoencephalitis, arthritis,
pericarditis or myocarditis, or a predominantly
typhoidal state with enlarged liver and spleen.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Culture
Chlamydia can be isolated from blood during the
early stages of the disease and from sputum later
on. Infected cells, including alveolar macrophages
from patients, and mouse brain, yolk sac and cell
cultures show inclusion bodies (Levinthal-ColeLillie or LCL bodies).
B. Antigen Detection
Antigen detection is done by direct fluorescent
antibody staining or by immunoassay or molecular
diagnosis by polymerase chain reaction.
C. Serology
A four-fold increase in titer, shown by the group
specific CF testing of paired acute and convalescent
phase sera, is suggestive of C. psittaci infection, but
the species-specific MIF (micro-IF) test must be
performed to confirm the diagnosis.
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Chlamydophila pneumoniae
Chlamydophila pneumoniae was formerly known
as Chlamydia sp., strain TWAR, and it was originally
identified in 1965 from a conjunctival culture of a
child (TW) enrolled in a Taiwan trachoma vaccine
study. In 1983 at the University of Washington, a
similar organism was isolated in HeLa cells from
a pharyngeal specimen of a college student (AR).
Grayston and colleagues (1986) isolated a chlamydial
strain from acute respiratory disease in adults in Tai
wan and designated it as C. psittaci strain TWAR
{from Taiwan Acute Respiratory). It possessed the
group-specific antigen in common with. C. psittaci
and C. trachomatis but could be distinguished from
both of them by species-specific antigens, DNA
hybridisation and restriction endonuclease analysis.
This new organism was initially called TWAR, then
classified as Chlamydia pneumoniae, and finally
placed in the new genus Chlamydophila. Infection
is transmitted by respiratory secretions; no animal
reservoir has been identified.
Spectrum of Disease
1. C. pneumoniae has been associated with
pneumonia, bronchitis, pharyngitis, sinusitis,
and a flu-like illness.
2. It has been implicated in other chronic afflictions
such as asthma and cardiovascular diseases.
3. It has also been linked to chronic illnesses such
as atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, and
stroke.
4. Infection with C. pneumoniae has been established
as a risk factor for Guillain-Barr syndrome
CGBS) and also appears to be a relationship
between sarcoidosis and C. pneumoniae
Laboratory diagnosis
Diagnosis of C. pneumoniae infections is difficult.
1. Cultivation
C. pneumoniae will grow in the HEp-2 cell line.
C. pneumoniae species-specific monoclonal
antibodies can detect the organism in cell culture.
2. Serology
Complement fixation (CF) or microimmuno
fluorescence (MIF) tests can be used to make a
serologic diagnosis. More recently, some partially
automated enzymelinked immunosorbent assays
(ELISAs) have become commercially available.
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Treatment
Macrolides (erythromycin, azithromycin, clarithro
mycin), tetracyclines (tetracycline, doxycycline), or
levofloxacin administered for 1014 days has been
used to treat infections.
Control of exposure to C. pneumoniae is likely
to be difficult because the bacterium is ubiquitous.
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5. Skin Test
The Frei test is an intradermal skin test that detects
a delayed hypersensitivity response to chlamydial
antigen was widely used formerly for diagnosis of
LGV but has been given up because false-positive
results are very frequent.
Key Points
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|377
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of chlamydial infec
tions.
2. Discuss the pathogenicity of chlamydiae.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Developmental cycle of chlamydiae
b. Antigenic structure of chlamydiae
c. TRIC agents
d. Inclusion conjunctivitis
e. Freis test
f. Lymphogranuloma venereum
g.
Chlamydia pneumonia.
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Section 4: Virology
53
53
Chapter
Introduction
Morphology of viruses
Size
Viruses are much smaller than bact eria. The
extracellular infectious virus particle is called the
virion. It was their small size and filterability
(ability to pass through filters that can hold back
bacteria) that led to their recognition as a separate
class of infectious agents. Hence they were for
a time known as filterable viruses. They were
called ultramicroscopic as they were too small
to be seen under the light microscope. Some of
the larger viruses, such as poxviruses can be seen
under the light microscope when suitably stained.
The virus particles seen in this manner are known
as elementary bodies.
The unit for measurement of virion size is
nanometers (nm). Viruses vary widely in size from
20 nm to 300 nm. The largest among them is pox
virus (300 nm) and is as large as the smallest bacteria
(mycoplasma). The smallest virus is the parvovirus
(about 20 nm) and are nearly as small as the largest
protein molecules such as hemocyanin.
Bacteria
Cellular
Growth on
organization inanimate
media
Binary
fission
Both DNA
and RNA
Ribosome s
Sensitivity to
antibacterial
antibiotics
Sensitivity
to interferon
Mycoplasmas
Rickettsiae
Chlamydiae
Viruses
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|379
Functions of Capsid
B. Virus Symmetry
Viral architecture can be grouped into three
types based on the arrangement of morphologic
subunits: (1) Icosahedral symmetry (2) helical
symmetry (3) complex structures.
1. Icosahedral Symmetry
An icosahedral ( icosa, meaning 20 in Greek) is a
polygon with 12 vertices or corners and 20 facets
or sides. Each facet is in the shape of an equilateral
triang le. There are always 12 pentons but the
number of hexons varies with the virus group, e.g.
adenoviruses (Fig. 53.2).
2. Helical Symmetry
The nucleic acid and the capsomers are wound
together in the form of a helix or spiral.
Examples: Single-stranded RNA viruses such as
influenza (Fig. 53.2), the parainfluenza viruses,
and rabies.
3. Complex Symmetry
Viruses (e.g. poxviruses) which do not show either
icosahedral or helical symmetry due to complexity
of their structure are referred to have complex
symmetry.
A
Chap-53.indd 379
C. Viral Envelope
Virions may be enveloped or nonenveloped
(naked). Enveloped Virus: The envelope or
outer covering of virus containing lipid is derived
from the plasma membrane of the host cell during
their release by budding from the cell surface. The
envelope is glycoprotein in nature. The lipid is largely
of host cell origin while the protein is virus-encoded.
Peplomers: In mature virus particle, the glyco
proteins often appear as projecting spikes on the
outer surface of the envelope. These are known as
peplomers. A virus may have more than one type
of peplomers, e.g. the influenza virus carries two
kinds of peplomers, the hemagglutinin which is
a triangular spike and the neuraminidase which
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Fig. 53.2: Shapes and relative sizes of animal viruses of families that infect vertebrates
Functions of Peplomers
i. Mediate attachment of the virus to the hostcell receptors.
ii. Attach to receptors on red blood cells.
iii. Enzymatic activity
iv. Major antigens: For protective immunity.
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2. pH
Viruses are usually stable between pH values of
5.0 and 9.0.
4. Radiation
Ultraviolet, X-ray, and high-energy particles
inactivate viruses.
5. Disinfectants
i. Bacteria are killed in 50% glycerol saline but
this acts as a preservative for many viruses (for
example, vaccinia, rabies).
ii. Phenolic disinfectants are only weakly
virucidal.
iii. Oxidizing agents: The most active antiviral
disinfectants are oxidizing agents, such as
hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate
and hypochlorites. Chlorination of drinking
water kills most viruses. Some viruses (such as
hepatitis virus, polio viruses) are relatively
resistant to chlorination. Formaldehyde and
beta-propiolactone are actively virucidal and
are commonly employed for the preparation
of killed viral vaccines.
6. Lipid Solvents
Enveloped viruses which possess lipid-containing
envelope are sensitive to lipid solvents, such as
ether, chloroform and bile salts and the naked
viruses are resistant to them.
7. Antibiotics
Antibiotics active against bacteria are completely
ineffective against viruses.
|381
Viral replication
The genetic information necessary for viral replica
tion is contained in the viral nucleic acid but lacking
biosynthetic enzymes, the virus depends on the
Viral hemagglutination
A large number of viruses contain hemagglutinin
spikes (peplomers) on the capsid or envelope
which can agglutinate red cells of different
species. Hemagglutinin of influenza virus is due
to the presence of hemagglutinin spikes on the
surface of the virus. When RBCs are added to
serial dilutions of viral suspension, the RBCs and
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2. Penetration
After binding, the virus particle is taken up inside
the cell.This is accomplished by receptor-medi
ated endocytosis (viropexis), with uptake of
the ingested virus particles within endosomes.
Enveloped viruses fuse their membranes with
cellular membranes to deliver the nucleocapsid
or genome directly into the cytoplasm.
3. Uncoating
This is the process of stripping the virus of its
outer layers and capsid so that the nucleic acid is
released into the cell. With most viruses, uncoating
is affected by the action of lysosomal enzymes of
the host cell.
4. Biosynthesis
This phase includes synthesis not merely of the
viral nucleic acid and capsid protein but also of
enzymes necessary in the various stages of viral
synthesis, assembly and release. In addition,
certain regulator proteins are also synthesized
which serve to shut down the normal cellular
metabolism and direct the sequential production
of viral components. In general, most DNA viruses
synthesize their nucleic acid in the host cell
nucleus. The exceptions are the poxviruses. Most
RNA viruses synthesize all their components in
the cytoplasm, except for orthomyxoviruses, some
paramyxoviruses and retroviruses. Viral protein is
synthesized only in the cytoplasm.
Steps of Biosynthesis
i.
Transcription of messenger RNA (mRNA)
from the viral nucleic acid.
Chap-53.indd 382
5. Maturation
Newly synthesized viral genomes and capsid
polypeptides assemble together to form progeny
viruses. Assembly of the various viral components
into virions occurs shortly after the replication
of the viral nucleic acid and may take place in
either the nucleus (herpes and adenoviruses) or
cytoplasm (picorna and poxviruses). In case of
enveloped viruses, the envelopes are derived from
2.
3.
4.
5.
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6. Release
Viruses can be released from cells after lysis of
the cell, by exocytosis, or by budding from the
plasma membrane. Viruses that exist as naked
nucleocapsids may be released by the lysis of the
host cell (polioviruses) or they may be extruded by
a process which may be called reverse phagocyto
sis. Release of many enveloped viruses occurs
after budding from the plasma membrane without
killing the cell.
Eclipse phase
The virus cannot be demo nstrated inside the
host cell from the stage of penetration till the
appearance of mature daughter virions. This period
is known as the eclipse phase. The time taken for
a single cycle of replication is about 1530 minutes
for bacteriophages and about 1530 hours for
animal viruses.
2. Abortive Infections
Abortive infections fail to produce infectious
progeny, either because the cell may be
nonpermissive and unable to support the expression
of all viral genes or because the infecting virus may
be defective, lacking some functional viral gene.
3. Latent Infection
A latent infection may ensue, with the persistence
of viral genomes, the expression of none or a few
viral genes, and the survival of the infected cell.
4. Defective Viruses
Viruses which are genetically deficient and
therefore incapable of producing infectious
daughter virions without the helper activity of
another virus are known asdefective viruses.
Some viruses are genetically defective and they
are unable to give rise to fully formed progeny.
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|383
Cultivation of viruses
Because viruses are obligate intracellular
parasites,their growth requires susceptible host
cells capable of replicating them. They cannot be
grown on any inanimate culture medium. Three
methods are employed for the cultivation of viruses:
A. Animal inoculation
B. Embyronated eggs
C. Cell culture.
A. Animal Inoculation
Uses of Animal Inoculation
i. Primary isolation of certain viruses
ii. For the study of pathogenesis, immune
response and epidemiology of viral diseases
iii. For the study of oncogenesis.
Animals
1. Monkeys: Monkeys find only limited appli
cation in virology.
2. Mice: Infant (suckling) mice are very suscep
tible to coxsackie and arboviruses. Mice may
be inoculated by several routesintracerebral,
subcutaneous, intraperitoneal or intranasal.
The growth of the virus in inoculated animals
may be indicated by death, disease or visible
lesions. The viruses are identified by testing
for neutralization of their pathogenicity for
animals, by standard antiviral sera.
B. Embyronated Eggs
The embryonated hens egg was first used for the
cultivation of viruses by Goodpasture (1931) and
the method was further developed by Burnet. The
embryonated eggs (811 days old) are inoculation
by several routes for the cultivation of viruses such
as chorioallantoic membrane (CAM), allantoic
cavity, amniotic cavity and yolk sac (Fig. 53.4). After
inoculation, eggs are incubated for 29 days.
1. Chorioallantoic membrane (CAM): Inocul
ation on the chorioallantoic membrane
(CAM) produces visible lesions (pocks). Each
infectious virus particle can form one pock.
Pock counting, therefore, can be used for
the assay of pock-forming viruses. Different
viruses have different pock morphology, e.g.
herpesvirus, smallpox virus (variola), vaccinia.
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C. Tissue Culture
Three types of tissue cultures are available:
1. Organ culture: Small bits of organs can be
maintained in vitro, preserving their original
architecture and function. Organ cultures are
useful for the isolation of some viruses which
appear to be highly specialized parasites of
certain organs. For example, the tracheal ring
organ culture for the isolation of coronavirus,
a respiratory pathogen.
2. Explant culture: Fragments of minced tissue
can be grown as explant embedded in plasma
clots. This method is now seldom employed in
virology.
3. Cell cultures: This is the type of culture
routinely employed for growing viruses. Tissues
are dissociated into the component cells by the
action of proteolytic enzymes, such as trypsin
and mechanical shaking. The cells are washed,
counted and suspended in a growth medium.
The cell suspension is dispensed to the glass
surface and on incubation, divide to form a
confluent monolayer sheet of cells covering the
surface within about a week.
Growth medium: The essential constituents of
the growth medium are physiologic amounts of
essential amino acids and vitamins, salts, glucose,
Chap-53.indd 384
A. Primary cell
cultures
B. Diploid cell
strains
C. Continuous cell
lines
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1. Cytopathic Effect
Many viruses cause morphologic al changes
in cultured cells in which they grow. These
changes can be readily observed by microscopic
examination of the cultures. These changes are
known as cytopathic effects (CPE) and the
viruses causing CPE are called cytopathogenic
viruses. Most viruses produce some obvious
cytopathic effect in infected cells that is generally
characteristic of the viral group (Figs 53.5A to D).
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2. Metabolic Inhibition
When viruses grow in cell cultures, cell metabolism
is inhibited and there is no acid production. This
can be made out by the color of the indicator
(phenol red) incorporated in the medium.
3. Hemadsorption
When hemagglutinating viruses (such as influenza
and parainfluenza viruses) grow in cell cultures,
their presence can be indicated by the addition
of guinea pig erythrocytes to the cultures. The
D
Figs 53.5A to D: A. Normal vero cell monolayer. B. Vero cell monolayer infected with Coxsackie B virus C. HeLa cell
monolayer. D. HeLa cell monolayer infected with Coxsackie virus B3, stained after 48 hours
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4. Interference
The growth of a noncytopathogenic virus in cell
culture can be tested by the subsequent challenge
with a known cytopathogenic virus. The growth of
the first will inhibit infection by the second virus
by interference.
Example: Rubella virus does not produce cytopathic
changes, although they multiply within the cell.
A known cytopathogenic challenge virus is then
introduced into the cells. No CPE will be seen in the
cell culture as replication of challenge virus will be
prevented because of interference by rubella virus.
5. Transformation
Tumor forming (oncogenic) viruses induce cell
transformation and loss of contact inhibition,
so that growth appears in a piled-up fashion
producing microtumors. Some herpes viruses,
adenoviruses, hepadnaviruses, papovaviruses and
retroviruses (human T cell lymphotropic virus type
I) can transform cells.
6. Immunofluorescence
Cells from virus infected cultures can be stained by
fluorescent conjugated antiserum and examined
under the UV microscope for the presence of
virus antigen. This gives positive results earlier
than other methods and, therefore, finds wide
application in diagnostic virology.
8. Detection of Enzymes
The virus isolate can be identified by detection
of viral enzymes, such as reverse transcriptase in
retroviruses, in the culture fluid.
9. Electron Microscopy
Viruses have distinctive appearances and can be
detected by electron microscopy of ultra thin sections
of infected cells.
Viral assay
The virus content of a specimen can be assayed in
two ways: Either with reference to the total virus
particles or with reference to infectious virion only.
Chap-53.indd 386
B. Hemagglutination
A convenient method of quantitation is the
determination of hemagglutination titers with
hemagglutinating viruses. Hemagglutination is not
a very sensitive indicator of the presence of small
amount of virus particles. Thus, approximately
10 7 influenza virions are required to produce
macroscopic agglutination.
A. Quantal Assays
Quantal assays only indicate the prese nce or
absence of infectious viruses. Quantal assays of
infectivity can be carried out in animals, eggs
or tissue culture for those viruses that do not
form plaques, and the effects of the virus can
be observed. Examples of endpoints used for
infectivity titration are the death of the animal,
production of hemagglutinin in allantoic fluid or
the appearance of CPE in cell cultures. The titer is
usually expressed as the 50 percent infectious dose
(1D50) per mL, which indicates the highest dilution
of the inoculum that would produce an effect in
50% of animals, eggs or cell cultures inoculated.
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B. Recombination
Fig. 53.6: Plaque formation in monkey kidney cells by
poliovirus
Viral genetics
Viruses obey the laws of genetics like all other living
beings. Several properties of viruses, such as virulence
and antigenicity are under genetic control. Main
mechanisms for genetic modification in viruses are:
A. Mutation.
B. Recombination.
C. Nonheritable variations: In addition, viruses
may exhibit many nonheritable variations due
to gene product interactions.
A. Mutation
It is a random, undirected and heritable variation.
The frequency of mutation in viruses is about 10-4
to 10-8, approximately the same as in bacteria.
Mutations, therefore, occur during every viral
infection. Many mutations are lethal, because
the mutated virus is unable to replicate. A mutant
becomes evident only if the mutation confers some
readily observable property or affords the mutant
virus some selection or survival advantage. Mutation
may occur spontaneously or may be induced by
mutagens, physical agents, such as UV light or
irradiation or chemical agents such as 5-fluorouracil.
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C. Nongenetic interactions
1. Phenotypic Mixing
When two different viruses infect the same cell, some
mix up may take place during assembly so that
progeny genome of one virus may be surrounded by
the capsid belonging entirely or partly to the other
virus. This is known as phenotypic mixing. This is
not a stable variation. On subsequent passage, the
capsid will be found to be of the original type only. If
the genome is encased in a completely heterologous
protein coat, this extreme example of phenotypic
mixing may be called phenotypic masking or
transcapsidation.
3. Complementation
The basis for complementation is that one virus
provides a gene product in which the second is
defective, allowing the second virus to grow. The
genotypes of the two viruses remain unchanged.
If both mutants are defective in the same gene
product, they will not be able to complement each
others growth.
4. Interference
Infection of either cell cultures or whole animals
with two viruses often leads to an inhibition of
multiplication of one of the viruses, an effect called
interference.
Viral interference has been applied in the field in
controlling poliomyelitis outbreaks by introducing
into the population, the live attenuated poliovirus
vaccine. The vaccine virus interferes with the spread
of wild poliovirus and halts the outbreak.
5. Enhancement
Mixed infection of cells may sometimes lead to
increased virus yield or greater CPE. This is known
as enhancement.
Chap-53.indd 388
Classification of viruses
Main Criteria Used for the Classification
of Viruses
1. Type of nucleic acid: Viruses are classified
into two main divisions depending on the type
of nucleic acid they possess: Riboviruses are
those containing RNA and deoxyriboviruses
are those containing DNA.
2. Number of strands of nucleic acid: Single-or
double-stranded, linear, circular, circular with
breaks, segmented;
3. Polarity of the viral genome: RNA viruses in
which the viral genome can be used directly
as messenger RNA are by convention termed
positive-stranded and those for which a
transcript has first to be made are termed
negative-stranded
4. The symmetry of the nucleocapsid
5. The presence or absence of a lipid envelope.
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2. Orthomyxoviridae Family
Only one genus lnfluenzavirus has been recognised.
Influenzavirus type C possesses several distinctive
features and may have to be separated into a new
genus.
3. Paramyxoviridae Family
Three genera have been recognized:
i. Paramyxovirus which consists of the
Newcastle disease virus, mumps virus and
parainfluenza viruses of humans, other
mammals and birds.
ii. Morbillivirus, containing measles, canine
distemper, rinderpest and related viruses.
iii. Pneumovirus, containing respiratory syncytial
virus of humans and related viruses.
Chap-53.indd 389
4. Bunyaviridae Family
Five genera are establishedthe large genus
Bunyavirus containing about 150 species-and four
other generaHantavirus, Nairovirus, Phlebovirus,
Ukuvirus, and many unassigned viruses.
5. Arenaviridae Family
Only one genus Arenavirus has been recognized.
Species include lymphocytic choriomeningitis
virus, Lassa and members of the Tacaribe complex.
6. Rhabdoviridae Family
Two genera have been recognized:
i. Vesiculovirus, containing vesicular stomatitis
virus, Chandipura virus (isolated from human
in India) and related species.
ii. Lyssavirus, containing the rabies virus and
related viruses such as Lagos bat, Mokola,
Duvenhage and others.
7. Togaviridae Family
Three genera have been described:
i. Alpha virus, consisting of viruses formerly
classified as Group A arboviruses.
ii. Rubivirus, consisting of the rubella virus and
has no arthropod vector.
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8. Coronaviridae Family
Only one genus Coronavirus has been recognized.
Toroviruses, which cause gastroenteritis, form a
distinct genus.
PRIONS
Prions (proteinaceous infectious particles) are
infectious particles composed solely of protein
with no detectable nucleic acid. Unlike viruses, the
agents are resistant to a wide range of chemical and
physical treatments. They are highly resistant to
inactivation by heat, formaldehyde, and ultraviolet
light that inactivate viruses. The prion protein is
encoded by a single cellular gene.
Prion diseases: Prion diseases, called transmissible
spongiform encephalopathies, include scrapie in
sheep, mad cow disease in cattle, and kuru and
CreutzfeldtJakob disease in humans. Prions do
not appear to be viruses. It has been suggested that
they may also be responsible for some other chronic
neurological degenerative diseases of humans.
Key Points
Viroids
Important questions
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Chap-53.indd 391
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54
54
Chapter
VirusHost Interactions: Viral Infections
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe inclusion bodies
Describe routes of transmission of human virus
infections
D
escribe the following: Immunity in virus infections;
interferons.
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1. Respiratory Tract
Many viruses enter the body through inhaled drop
lets expelled from the nose or mouth of infected
persons during talking, coughing or sneezing. This
Viruses
3. Skin
4. Genital tract
5. Conjunctiva
RSV, respiratory syncytial virus; CMV, cytomegalovirus; EBV, EpsteinBarr virus; HAV, hepatitis A virus; HEV, hepatitis E virus; HIV, human
immunodeficiency virus; HTLV, human T cell leukemia virus
2. Alimentary Tract
The alimentary tract is the next most important
route of entry for viruses. The viruses that initiate
infection of humans via the alimentary tract are
many enteroviruses including poliovirus types 13,
hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis E virus (HEV),
adenoviruses, rotaviruses, Norwalk and related
viruses, Coronavirus, Astrovirus, coxsackie A and
B and echovirus. Polioviruses, HAV and HEV do
not produce any intestinal symptoms, but cause
generalized infection.
3. Skin
Of the viruses that enter through the skin, only a few
produce local lesions. Some obtain entry through
small abrasions of the skin (papillomaviruses,
molluscum contagiosum, cowpox, orf, milkers
nodes viruses, herpes simplex and HBV), insect
bite (arboviruses), animal bite (rab ies virus,
herpes B virus) or injection (HBV, HCV, HIV, HTLV,
CMV, EBV and Ebola virus) (Table 54.1).
Viruses that are introduced deeper into the
dermis have access to blood vessels, lymphatics,
dendritic cells, and macrophages and usually
spread and cause systemic infections. Rabies virus
travels along the nerves to the spinal cord or brain.
4. Conjunctiva
The conjuctiva also may act as a portal of entry for
viruses. This may lead to local disease (adenovirus)
or to systemic spread (measles).
5. Genital Tract
Papillomaviruses and herpes simplex viruses are
sexually transmitted and produce lesions on the
genitalia and perineum. HIV, HTLV, HBV and HCV
are also sexually transmitted but do not produce
local lesions.
Significance of the
incubation period
The incubation period represents the time taken
for the virus to spread from the site of entry to
the organs of viral multiplication and hence to
the target organs for the production of lesions. Its
duration is therefore influenced by the relation
between the sites of entry, multiplication and
lesion. They are classifed into four main groups:
short, medium, long, and very long.
1. Short means less than a week and primarily
applies to viruses causing localized infections
that spread rapidly on mucous surfaces.
2. Medium incubation periods range from about
721 days.
3. Long refers to periods measured in weeks or
months (e.g. 26 weeks for hepatitis A and 620
weeks for hepatitis B). Rabies may also have
incubation periods extending for many months.
4. Very long incubation periods are measured
in years, which is why the agents involved were
originally termed slow viruses. This group
comprises the prions and a fewconventional
viruses, such as papovaviruses and measles,
which very occasionally cause delayed disease
of the central nervous system.
A. Immunological Response
Virions in general are good antigens and induce
both antibody- and cell-mediated immunity (CMI).
For some diseases such as poxviruses, measles,
herpes simplex virus and CMV infections, CMI
appears to be the main immunospecific defence,
for others, such as enterovirus and arbovirus
infections, antibody production appears to be the
main immunospecific defence. However, some
viruses have evolved strategies to evade detection
and persist in their host.
1. Antibody-mediated Immunity
In mediating humoral antiviral immunity, the
important classes of antibodies are IgG, IgM
and IgA. IgG and IgM play a major role in blood
and tissue spaces, while secretory IgA antibody
is important in protecting against infection by
viruses through the respiratory or gastrointestinal
tracts. Humoral immunity protects the host against
reinfection by the same virus. Mechanisms of
antibodies effecting virus neutralization
Antibodies effect virus neutralization by several
mechanisms:
i. They may prevent adsorption of the virus to cell
receptors, cause enhanced virus degradation
or prevent release of the progeny virus from
infected cells.
ii. Opsonization of virions for phagocytosis and
killing by macrophages.
iii. Complement acts in conjunction with
antibodies in causing surface damage to
enveloped virions and in producing cytolysis
of virus infected cells.
2. Cell-mediated Immunity
Cell-mediated immunity prevents infection of
target organs and promotes recovery from disease
by destroying virus and virus-infected cells by any
of the following four different processes:
1. Cytolysis by cytotoxic T cells(Tc) cells.
2. Cytolysis by natural killer (NK) cells.
3. Antibody-complement-mediated cytotoxicity.
4. Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity
(ADCC).
B. Nonimmunological Responses
1. Phagocytosis: Polymorphonuclear leukocytes
do not play any significant role in the defence
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Synthesis of Interferons
Interferons are produced by all vertebrate species.
Normal cells do not generally synthesize interferon
until they are induced to do so. Viruses also vary
in their capacity to induce interferon, cytocidal
and virulent viruses being poor inducers and
avirulent viruses being good inducers. Infection
with viruses is a potent insult leading to induction;
RNA viruses are stronger inducers of interferon
than DNA viruses.
Types of Interferon
There are multiple species of interferons that fall
into three general groups, designated IFN-a, IFNb, and IFN-g.
1. Alpha-interferon (IFN-a): It is produced by
leukocytes following induction by suitable
viruses.
Key Points
Important Questions
1. Discuss various methods by which viruses can be
transmitted to human beings.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Inclusion bodies
b. Interferons
55
Chapter
Laboratory Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and
Chemotherapy of Viral Diseases
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe laboratory diagnosis of viral infections
Laboratory diagnosis of
viral infections
1. Indications for Laboratory Diagnosis
of Viral Infections
i. Diagnosis of diseases caused by viruses
for which antiviral chemotherapy is already
available (herpesviruses, human immuno
deficiency virus (HIV).
ii. For proper management of the patient
Example:
Rubella, rabies diagnosis
Rabies in the animal and postexposure
immunization of the patient prevents the
development of rabies
Primary genital herpes
Baby born to an HBsAg positive mother.
iii. Screening of blood donors: For the prevention
of some diseases (such as screening for HBV
and HIV in blood donors).
iv. Early detection of dangerous epidemics:
Such as yellow fever, encephalitis, influenza,
poliomyelitis, etc.
v.
To discover new viruses: HIV was discovered
in 1983.
2. Specimens
The appropriate specimens should be collected
from patients, preserved and transported to
the laboratory in the proper manner along with
pertinent clinical and epidemiological information.
2. Immunoelectron Microscopy
The addition of virus-specific antibody to a
sample can cause viral particles to clump, thereby
facilitating the detection and simultaneous
identification of the virus (immunoelectron
microscopy). This method is useful for the
detection of enteric viruses, such as rotavirus.
3. Fluorescence Microscopy
Direct or indirect fluorescent antibody technique
can be used to detect virions or viral antigens in
frozen tissue sections, acetone-fixed cell smears,
cells from virus infected cultures or vesicles fluid.
Fluorescence microscopy of brain biopsy can
be used for the verification of rabies in the brain
of animals suspected to be rabid. This method is
also useful for the rapid diagnosis of respiratory
infections caused by paramyxoviruses, orthomyxo
viruses, adenoviruses and herpes viruses.
4. Light Microscopy
Demonstration of the inclusion body is a routine
diagnostic method. Rabies may be detected
B. Virus Isolation
For virus isolation it is imperative that the specimen
be collected properly and transported with least
delay to the laboratory. The reasons are that many
viruses are labile and that the samples are susceptible
to bacterial and fungal overgrowth. Viruses are best
transported and stored on ice and in special media.
In general, the methods used for isolation
consist of inoculation into animals, eggs or tissue
culture, after the specimen is processed to remove
bacterial contaminants.
The isolates are identified by neutralization
or other suitable serological procedures. Many
viruses (for example adenoviruses, enteroviruses)
are frequently found in normal individuals. The
results of isolation should always be interpreted
in the light of the clinical data.
E. Serological Diagnosis
The demonstration of a rise in titer of antibodies
to a virus during the course of a disease is strong
evidence that it is the etiological agent. For this,
it is essential to examine paired sera, the acute
sample collected early in the course of the disease
and the convalescent sample collected 1014
days later. Examination of a single sample of serum
for antibodies may not be meaningful except
when IgM specific tests are done which is present
during the first 2 or 3 weeks of a primary infection,
generally indicates a recent primary infection.
The serological techniques employed would
depend on the virus but those in general uses
are neutralization, complement fixation, ELISA,
Immunoprophylaxis of
viral diseases
A. Acive Immunization
Viral vaccines are of the following types (Table 55.1).
I. Live-virus Vaccines
These are prepared from:
Attenuated strains, e.g. yellow fever
Temperature sensitive (ts) and cold-adapted
(ca) mutants, e.g. influenza
Type of
vaccine
Mode of preparation
Poliomyelitis
Live
Killed
Killed (sample
type)
Killed
Yellow fever
Live (17D)
Japanese
encephalitis
Killed
Varicella
Live
Attenuated virus
grown in chick embryo
fibroblast culture
Mumps
Live
Influenza
Killed
(subunit)
Live
(attenuated)
Live (mutant)
Live
(recombinant)
Measles
Live
Rubella
Live
Hepatitis B
Cloned
subunit
Rabies
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Advantages
1. Stability and safety.
2. They can be given in combination as polyvalent
vaccines.
3. There is also no danger of the spread of the virus
from the vaccinee.
Disadvantages
1. Extreme care is required in their manufacture
to make certain that no residual live virulent
virus is present in the vaccine.
B. Passive Immunization
Passive immunization with human gammaglobulin,
convalescent serum or specific immune globulin
gives temporary protection against many viral
diseases such at. measles, mumps and infectious
hepatitis. These are indicated only when
nonimmune individuals who are as special risk
are exposed to infection. Combined active and
passive immunization is an established method
for the prevention of rabies.
Chemoprophylaxis and
chemotherapy of virus diseases
Because viruses are obligate intracellular parasites,
antiviral agents must be capable of selectively
inhibiting viral functions without damaging the
host, making the development of such drugs very
difficult. Viral infection may be checked at the
level of attachment, transcription of viral nucleic
acid, translation of viral mRNA, replication of viral
nucleic acid and assembly and release of viral
progeny.
Available antiviral agents can be considered
under the following categories (Table 55.2).
Viral spectrum
Cidofovir
Cytomegalovirus, herpes
simplex
Foscarnet
Ganciclovir
Cytomegalovirus
Valacyclovir
Herpesviruses
Vidarabine
Herpesviruses, vaccinia,
HBV
Influenzavirus A
HIV-1, HIV-2
Ritonavir
HIV-1, HIV-2
Saquinavir
HIV-1, HIV-2
Nevirapine
HIV-1
Stavudine
HIV-1, HIV-2
(didehydrodexoythymidine)
Zidovudine
(azidothymidine, AZT)
Zatcitabine
(dideoxycytidine, ddC)
Didanosine
(dideoxyinosine, ddl)
HIV-1, HIV-2
1. Nucleoside Analogs
2. Protease Inhibitors
Acyclovir (Acycloguanosine)
Acyclovir (acycloguanosine) is acting against
herpes viruses. The related drug ganciclovir is more
active against CMV.
Interferons
Beneficial effect of interferons has been obtained
in persistent infections such as hepatitis B and C,
Key Points
Laboratory diagnosis of viral infections can be carried
out by the methods, such as I. Direct detection of
virus; II. Virus isolation; III. Detection of viral protins;
IV. Detection of viral genetic material and serology
Immunoprophylaxis of viral diseases is by active and
passive immunization
Viral vaccines are used for active immunization
which may be may be live or killed
Passive immunization with human gamma globulin,
convalescent serum or specific immune globulin
gives temporary protection against many viral
diseases.
Important Questions
1. Discuss laboratory diagnosis of viral infections.
2. Discuss viral vaccines.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Live viral vaccines
b. Acquired immunity in viral infections
c. Antiviral therapies.
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56
Chapter
Bacteriophages
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology of bacteriophage
Introduction
Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages,
or simply phages. Phages can readily be isolated from
a wide range of environments such as feces, sewage
and other natural sources of mixed bacterial growth.
Role of bacteriophages
1. They play an important role in the transmission
of genetic information from one bacterium to
another by the process of transduction.
2. They also play a role in the evolution of
bacterial types and in the transmission of some
virulence characters.
3. Phages may indeed be effective in treating
bacterial infections, including those caused by
antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
4. Phages have been used as cloning vectors in
genetic manipulations.
5. They may have a role in the control of bacterial
populations in natural waters.
Life cycle
Phages exhibit two different types of life cycle.
In the virulent or lytic cycle, intracellular mul
tiplication of the phage culminates in the lysis
of the host bacterium and the release of progeny
virions. In the temperate or lysogenic cycle the
Morphology
Certain bacteriophages that infect E. coli, called the
T even phages (T2, T4, T6), have been studied in
great detail and traditionally serve as the prototypes
in describing the properties of bacteriophages.
Most phages are tadpole-shaped, possess a
hexagonal head and a cylindrical tail.
1. Head: The head consists of a tightly packed
core of nucleic acid (double stranded DNA)
surrounded by a protein coat or capsid. The
head of phage T4 has a diameter of 65 nm and
is 100 nm long.
1. Lytic Cycle
Replication of a virulent phage can be considered
in the following stages adsorption, penetration
and synthesis of phage components, assembly,
maturation and release of progeny phage particles.
i. Adsorption
By random collision, phage particles attach to
virus-specific receptors on the host cell by its tail.
Adsorption is a specific process and depends on
the presence of complementary chemical groups
on the receptor sites on the bacterial surface and on
the terminal base plate of the phage. The infection
of a bacterium by the naked phage nucleic acid is
known as transfection.
ii. Penetration
After adsorption, most phages inject their nucleic
acid into the bacterial cytoplasm and leave their
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Fig. 56.2: Lytic and lysogenic life of bacteriophage. 1. Adsorption, 2. Injection of phage DNA, 3. Circularization of phage
DNA, 4. Replication of phage DNA, 5. Production of phage components, 6. Assenbly of phage, 7. Release of progeny phage,
8. Integration of phage DNA with host chromosome, 9. Binary fission of lysogenic bacterium, 10. Daughter bacteria carrying
prophage, 11. Excision of prophage, 12. Same stage as 3 (1 to 3 injection; 4 to 7 lytic; 8 to 10 lysogenic cycle; 11 and 12 induction)
v. Release
Release of the mature progeny phages typically
occurs by lysis of the bacterial cell. Phage enzymes act
on the weakened cell wall causing it to burst or lyse
resulting in the release of mature daughter phages.
Eclipse Phase
The interval between the entry of the phage nucleic
acid into the bacterial cell and the appearance of
the first infectious intracellular phage particle is
known as the eclipse phase. The interval between
the infection of a bacterial cell and the first release
of infectious phage particles is known as the latent
period (2040 minutes). Immediately following the
latent period, the number of phage particles released
increases for a few minutes till the maximum number
of daughter phages is attained. This period, during
which the number of infectious phages released
rises, is known as the rise period. The average yield
of progeny phages per infected bacterial cell is
known as the burst size (100300 phages).
2. Lysogenic Cycle
Unlike virulent phages which produce lysis of the
host cell, temperate phages enter into a symbiotic
relationship with their host cells without destroying
them. Following entry into the host cell, the
temperate phage nucleic acid becomes integrated
with the bacterial chromosome. The integrated
phage nucleic acid is known as the prophage.
The prophage behaves like a segment of the
host chromosome and replicates synchronously
with it. This phenomenon is called lysogeny
and a bacterium that carries a prophage within
its genome is called a lysogenic bacterium or
lysogen.
The prophage confers certain new properties
on the lysogenic bacterium. This is known as lyso
genic or phage conversion.
i. Toxin production in Corynebacterium
diphtheriae is determined by the presence in
it of the prophage b. The elimination of this
prophage abolishes the toxigenicity of the
Significance of phages
1. Virulent Phage
i. Phage Assay
When a phage is applied on the lawn culture of
a susceptible bacterium, areas of clearing occur
after incubation. These zones of lysis are called
plaques. The size, shape and nature of plaques are
characteristic for different phages. Plaque assay
can be employed for titrating the number of viable
phages in a preparation.
2. Temperate Phage
i. Transduction: Bacteriophages may act
as carriers of genes from one bacterium
to another. This is known as transduction.
Two types of transduction are recognized:
generalized transduction, in which any
portion of the donor DNA can be transferred,
and specialized transduction, in which only
a specific set of genes can be carried to a
recipient cell.
ii. Toxin production: Toxin production in
Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Clostridium
botulinum are determined by genes carried in
prohage DNA.
iii. Antigenic property: A wide variety of
temperate phages of Salmonella can modify
the antigenic properties of somatic O antigen.
Such acquisition of new properties by
bacterial cells following phage infection is
called phage conversion.
iv. Cloning vector: Bacteriophages have been used
as cloning vectors in genetic manipulations.
Key Points
Bacteriophages are bacterial viruses. They are
associated with transmission of genetic material
from one bacterium to another
Morphology: Most phages are tadpole-shaped,
possess a hexagonal head and a cylindrical tail. Most
of the phages usually consist of single, linear, and
doublestranded DNA molecule genome. The phages
show high host specificity
Life cycle: Phages exhibit two different types of
life cycle: lytic cycle and lysogenic cycle. In the lytic
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Important questions
1. Draw a labeled diagram of a T-even phage.
2. Discuss the life cycle of bacteriophages.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Lysogenic cycle of phages
b. Lysogenic conversion
c. Phage typing
d. Significance of phages.
57
Chapter
Poxviruses
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe structure of vaccinia virus
Introduction
Genus
Virus
Primary Clinical
host(s) features
in humans
Orthopoxvirus
Variola
Man
Smallpox
Vaccinia
Man
Vesicular
vaccination
lesion
Cowpox
Cattle,
cats,
rodents
Lesions on
hands
Monkeypox
Monkeys, Resembles
squirrels smallpox
Classification
The family Poxviridae contains two subfamilies: the
Chordopoxvirinae, the poxviruses of vertebrates,
and Entomopoxvirinae, the poxviruses of insects.
Chordopoxvirinae are placed in eight generaOrthopoxvirus, Para poxvirus, Molluscipoxvirus,
Yatapoxvirus, Capri poxvirus, Leporipoxvirus,
Avipoxvirus (fowlipox, pigeonpox, canarypox,
turkeypox) and Sui poxvirus. Poxviruses causing
diseases are enumerated in Table 57.1.
Parapoxvirus
Pseudocowpox Cattle
Localized
nodular
lesions
(milkers
nodules)
Yatapoxvirus
Orf
Sheep,
goats
Localized
vesiculo.
Granulo
matous
lesions
Tanapox
Yabapox
Monkeys Human
infections
very rare and
accidental;
localized skin
tumors
Morphology
These are the largest viruses of all. The orthopox
viruses are brick-shaped. They measure about
230 270 nm and when suitably stained can just
be seen with an ordinary light microscope. The
poxviruses is referred to as complex. Inside there
is a core structure shaped like a dumbbell, and two
accompanying lateral bodies, so named after their
location in the virion (Fig. 57.1).
Molluscipoxvirus Molluscum
contagiosum
Man
Multiple
small
skin nodules
|407
Antigenic Structure
All pox viruses share a common nucleoprotein (NP)
antigen. Some twenty different antigens have been
identified by immunodiffusion. These include the LS
antigens (a complex of two antigens, the heat labile
L and the heat stable S antigens), agglutinogen, and
hemagglutinin.
B. Tissue Culture
Variola and vaccinia viruses can be grown in
tissue cultures of monkey kidney, HeLa and chick
embryo cells. Cytopathic effects are produced by
vaccinia in 2448 hours and more slowly by variola.
Eosinophilic inclusion bodiesGuarnieri bodies
can be demonstrated in stained preparations.
Vaccinia virus produces plaques in chick embryo
tissue cultures but not variola virus.
C. Animals
Monkeys, calves, sheep and rabbits can be infected
by scarification leading to vesicular lesions.
Control of Smallpox
The story of Edward Jenners discovery in 1796 that
inoculation with cowpox would prevent smallpox
is well known. To Jenner, however, goes the credit
for showing that, following the inoculation of young
James Phipps with cowpox virus on May 14, 1796,
2. Monkeypox
This orthopoxvirus zoonosis causes an illness in
humans very similar to smallpox, squirrels seem to
be the main reservoir of infection, and the infection
is seen mainly in children who may acquire it from
playing with captive animals.
3. Buffalopox
Buffalopox was identified in cattle in India in 1934
and was considered an outbreak of vaccinia in
them. Epizootics had occurred in buffaloes and
lesions had been observed on the hands of persons
in contact with infected animals.
4. Milkers Node
Milkers node (paravaccinia) is a trivial occupa
tional disease that humans get by milking infected
cows. The lesions are small ulcerating nodules.
6. Tanapox
This virus takes its name from the Tana River in
Kenya, where it was first diagnosed. It is prevalent
in monkeys and appears to be spread by insect
bites. Monkeys are the only animals susceptible.
There is usually only one vesicular lesion but its
appearance is preceded by fever and quite severe
malaise. Recovery is uneventful.
7. Molluscum Contagiosum
Molluscum contagiosum is a benign epidermal tumor
that occurs only in humans. The causative agent is
molluscum contagiosum virus. It is a contangious
disease. The lesions of this disease are small, pink,
wart-like tumors on the face, arms, back, and buttocks
are more frequent in children than in adults. It is
spread by direct contact [e.g. sexual contact, wrestling
or fomites (e.g. towels)]. The disease is more common
in children than adults but its incidence is increasing
in sexually active individuals.
The diagnosis of molluscum contagiosum can
usually be made clinically. Sections of skin lesions
show large, eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions,
which displace the nuclei to the margin, known as
molluscum bodies under light microscope. It can
be detected under electron microscope and PCR
can detect viral DNA sequences. The virus cannot
be grown in animals or tissue cultures.
Key Points
Important question
Write short notes on:
a. Variola virus.
c. Molluscum contagiosum
b. Vaccinia virus
58
Chapter
Herpesviruses
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology of herpesvirus
Classify of human herpesviruses
Describe infections caused by herpes simplex virus
type 1 and herpes simplex virus type 2
D
escribe the following: Varicella-zoster virus;
cytomegalovirus
Discuss clinical manifestations of Epstein-Barr virus
(EBV)
Describe Paul-Bunnell test.
Introduction
Structure
The herpesvirus capsid is icosahedral, composed of
162 capsomers, and enclosing the core containing
the linear double stranded DNA genome. The
nucleocapsid is surrounded by the lipid envelope.
The envelope carries surface spikes, about 8 nm long.
Between the envelope and the capsid is an amor
phous structure called the tegument, containing
several proteins (Fig. 58.1). Herpesviruses replicate
in the host cell nucleus. They form Cowdry type A
intranuclear (Lipschutz) inclusion bodies.
Classification
The family Herpesviridae is divided into three
subfamilies based on biological, physical and
genetic properties (Table 58.1).
Eight different types of herpesviruses are known
whose primary hosts are human (Table 58.1).
Virus
Site of latency
Mode of spread
Human herpesvirus 1
Mucoepithelial cells
Neuron
Close contact
Human herpesvirus 2
Mucoepithelial cells
Neuron
Human herpesvirus 3
Varicella-zoster virus
Mucoepithelial cells
Neuron
Human herpesvirus 4
Epstein-Barr virus
B cell
Human herpesvirus 8
Lymphocyte and
other cells
Human herpesvirus 5
Cytomegalovirus
Monocyte, lymphocyte,
and epithelial cells
Monocyte,
lymphocyte,
and ?
Close contact,
transfusions, tissue
transplant, and
congenital
Human herpesvirus 6
Herpes lymphotropic
virus
T cells and ?
T cells and ?
Human herpesvirus 7
Human herpesvirus 7
T cells and ?
T cells and ?
Alphaherpesvirinae
Gammaherpesvirinae
Betaherpesvirinae
Pathogenesis
The mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of
HSV-1 and HSV-2 are very similar. Both viruses
initially infect and replicate in mucoepithelial cells
and then establish latent infection of the innervating
neurons. Skin and mucous membranes are the
portals of entry in which the virus also multiplies,
causing lysis of cells and formation of vesicles.
Soon after replication is under way in the skin
or a mucous membrane, virions travel to the root
ganglia via the sensory nerves supplying the area.
Primary infections of the orofacial and genital
areas involve respectively the trigeminal and
lumbosacral dorsal root ganglia. The virus then
becomes latent in the ganglia.
Clinical Features
1. Cutaneous infections: (i) The most common
site is the faceon the cheeks, chin, around
the mouth or on the forepead; (ii) Napkin
rash; (iii) Fever blister or herpis febrilis. In
some sensitive persons, very minor stimuli, like
common cold, exposure to sun or even mental
strain or menses may bring on such reactivation;
(iii) Herpetic whitlow- an infection of the
finger; (iv) Herpes gladiatorum an infection
of the body; (v) Eczema herpeticum.
2. Oral infection: Acute gingivostomatitis,
herpetic stomatitis, pharyngitis, tonsillitis and
localized lymphadenopathy may occur.
3. Ophthalmic: Severe keratoconjunctivitis,
follicular conjunctivitis with vesicle formation
on the lids, dendritic keratitis or corneal
ulcers or as vesicles on the eyelids, corneal
scarring and impairment of vision.
4. Nervous system: (i) HSV encephalitis; (ii)
Sporadic encephalitis; (iii) HSV meningitis;
(iv) Sacral autonomic dysfunction; (v) rarely
transverse myelitis or the GuillainBarre
syndrome and Bells palsy.
|411
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
2. Microscopy
B. Virus Isolation
Primary human embryonic kidney, human amnion
and many other cells are susceptible, but human
diploid fibroblasts are preferred. Specimen such
as vesicle fluid, spinal fluid, saliva and swab may
C. Serology
Rise in titer of antibodies may be demonstrated by
ELISA, neutralization or complement fixation tests.
Treatment
Varicella-zoster virus
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes chickenpox
(varicella) and, with recurrence, causes herpes
zoster, or shingles. Varicella (chickenpox) and
Varicella (Chickenpox)
Varicella (chickenpox) is one of the mildest highly
communicable and most common of childhood
infections.
It is usually a mild disease of childhood and is
normally symptomatic, although asymptomatic
infection may occur. The portal of entry of the
virus is the respiratory tract or conjunctiva. After an
incubation period of about two weeks (723 days)
the lesions begin to appear.
In children, there is little prodromal illness and
the disease is first noticed when skin lesions appear.
Initially macular, the rash rapidly evolves through
papules to the characteristic clear vesicles. The
rash is characteristically centripetal in distribution,
affecting mainly the trunk, and is very superficial
without involving the deeper layers of the skin. The
rash appears in successive crops, so that all stages
of the eruption can be seen at the same time. It
matures very quickly, beginning to crust within 48
hours.Recovery is usually uneventful.
Complications: Primary infection is usually more
severe in adults than in children. The rash may
become hemorrhagic. Varicella pneumonia is
more common in adults. A variety of organs may
be affected with complications like myocarditis,
nephritis, acute cerebellar ataxia, meningitis
and encephalitis. Secondary bacterial infections,
usually due to staphylococci or streptococci, may
occur. Reyes syndrome may follow varicella in
some cases with a history of administration of
salicylates.
Pathogenesis
Herpes zoster usually occurs in persons who
had chickenpox several year earlier. The virus
remaining latent in the sensory ganglia, may leak
out at times but is usually held in check by the
Complications
1. Postherpetic pain: In the affected area is
frequent, particularly in the elderly.
2. Ophthalmic zoster.
3. Generalized zoster
4. Ramsay Hunt syndrome: It is a rare form of
zoster affecting the facial nerve, with eruption
on the tympanic membrane and external
auditory canal, and often a facial palsy.
Immunity
Previous infection with varicella is believed to
confer lifelong immunity to varicella.
The development of varicella-zoster virusspecific cell-mediated immunity is important
in recovery from both varicella and zoster.
Appearance of local interferon may also contribute
to recovery.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis is usually clinical.
1. Microscopy: Multinucleated giant cells and type
A intranuclear inclusion bodies may be seen
in smears prepared by scraping the base of the
early vesicles (Tzanck smear) and stained with
toluidine blue, Giemsa or Papanicolou stain.
Direct examination by electron microscopy will
reveal herpes particles.
2. Virus isolation: Virus isolation can be
attempted by inoculating human amnion,
human fibroblast, HeLa or Vero cells.
3. Virus antigen: The virus antigen can be
detected in scrapings from skin lesions by
immunofluorescence, and in vesicle fluid by
counterimmunoelectrophoresis with zoster
immune serum. ELISA and PCR techniques
are also in use.
4. Serological diagnosis: A rise in specific
antibody titer can be detected in the patients
serum by various tests, including fluorescent
antibody, latex agglutination, and enzyme
immunoassay.
Passive Immunization
Varicella-zoster immunoglobulin (VZIG) prepared
from the patients convalescing from herpes zoster
seems to be of some use in preventing or modifying
severe disease in immunodeficient patients.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis is easily made clinical. Laboratory
diagnosis is as for chickenpox.
Treatment
It is as for chickenpox.
Cytomegalovirus
Cytomegaloviruses (CMV), formerly known as
salivary gland viruses, are a group of ubiquitous
herpesviruses of humans and animals.
Pathogenesis
The congenital, oral, and sexual routes, blood
transfusion, and tissue transplantation are the major
means by which CMV is transmitted. Congenitally
infected infants have viruria for upto 45 years. They
are highly infectious in early infancy.
A. Normal hosts: Primary cytomegalovirus
infection of older children and adults is
usually asymptomatic but occasionally causes
a spontaneous infectious mononucleosis
syndrome.
B. Immunocompromised hosts: This occurs
in transplant recipients, cancer patients on
chemotherapy, and more particularly in the
HIV infected.
C. Congenital and perinatal infections: Intra
uterine infection leads to fetal death or
cytomegalic inclusion disease of the newborn
which is often fatal. Cytomegalic inclusion
disease of newborns is characterized by
involvement of the central nervous system
|413
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens: CMV can be isolated from the
urine, saliva, breast milk, semen, cervical
secretions and blood leucocytes.
B. Demonsration of cytom egalic cell: The
histologic hallmark of CMV infection is the
cytomegalic cell, which is an enlarged cell
that contains a dense, central, owls-eye,
basophilic intranuclear inclusion body. The
inclusions are readily seen with Papanicolaou
or hematoxylin-eosin staining
C. lsolation of virus: Human cytomegaloviruses
can be grown in human fibroblast cultures.
Cultures have to be incubated for prolonged
periods as the cytopathic effects (swollen
refractile cells with cytoplasmic granules) are
slow in appearance.
D. DNA probes: DNA probes are used to directly
detect the CMV antigens in tissues or fluids.
E. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): To directly
detect the genome in tissues or fluids.
F. Serology: IgM antibodies suggests a current
infection and can be detected in serum by
ELISA.
EpsteinBarr virus
EpsteinBarr virus (EBV) is in some respects the
most sinister herpesvirus, for its association with
malignant disease is now well established. Only
human and some subhuman primate B cells have
receptors for the virus. EBV infected B cells are
transformed so that they become capable of con
tinuous growth in vitro.
Epidemiology
EpsteinBarr (EB) virus is ubiquitous in all human
populations. Infection with EBV is transmitted by
saliva, and requires intimate oral contact.
The source of infection is usually the saliva
of infected persons who shed the virus in
oropharyngeal secretions. Saliva sharing between
adolescents and young adults often occurs during
kissing; thus, the nickname kissing disease for
infectious mononucleosis. Children can acquire
the virus at an early age by sharing contaminated
drinking glasses. Infection may also follow blood
or marrow transfusion but these are rare events.
Clinical conditions
1. Infectious mononucleosis.
2. EBV associated malignancies:
a. Burkitts lymphoma.
b. Lymphomas in immunodeficient persons.
c. Nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
C. Chronic Disease
Epstein-barr virus (EBV) can cause cyclic recurrent
disease in some people. This disorder is different
from chronic fatigue syndrome, which has another
etiology.
D. Burkitts lymphoma
Epsteinbarr virus (EBV) is associated with the
development of Burkitts lymphoma (a tumor of
the jaw in African children and young adults).
Most African tumors (>90%) contain EBV DNA
and express EBNA1 antigen. Malaria, a recognized
cofactor.
E. Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma
This cancer of epithelial cells is common in males
of Chinese origin. It mainly affects people aged
2050 years, males preponderating. EBV DNA is
regularly found in nasopharyngeal carcinoma
(NPC) cells. Genetic and environmental factors
are believed to be important in the development
of nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
F. Lymphoproliferative Diseases in
Immunodeficient Hosts
Immunodeficient patients are susceptible to EBV
induced lymphoproliferative diseases that may
be fatal. AIDS patients are susceptible to EBVassociated lymphomas and hairy oral leukoplakia
of the tongue.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Differential White Cell Count
Blood examination during the initial phase may
show leucopenia. Later there is a prominent
leucocytosis with the appearance of abnormal
mononuclear cells. These atypical mononuclear
cells are lymphoblasts derived from T cells reactive
to the virus infection. The blood picture may
sometimes resemble lymphocytic leukemia.
4. Antigen Detection
2. PaulBunnell Test
B cells transformed by EBV undergo polyclonal
expansion. These antib odies include an IgM
heterophile antibody. Agglutination of horse or
sheep red cells by serum absorbed to exclude a
natural antibody is the basis of this test.
Procedure
Inactivated serum. 56C for 30 minutes in doubling
dilutions is mixed with equal volumes of a 1%
suspension of sheep erythrocytes. After incubation
at 37C for four hours the tubes are examined for
agglutination. An agglutination titer of 100 or above
is suggestive of infectious mononucleosis.
6. Virus Isolation
Epstein-barr virus (EBV) can be isolated from
saliva, peripheral blood, or lymphoid tissue by
immortalization of normal human lymphocytes,
usually obtained from umbilical cord blood.
Confirmation
For confirmation, differential absorpt ion of
agglutinins with guineapig kidney and ox red cells
is necessary. The Forssman antibody induced
by injection of horse serum is removed by
treatment with guineapig kidney and ox red cells.
Normally occurring agglutinins are removed by
guineapig kidney, but not by ox red cells. Infectious
mononucleosis antibody is removed by ox red cells
but not guinea pig kidney (Table 58.2).
Absorbed
Absorbed
Antibody after
serum therapy
Absorbed
Not absorbed
Infectious
Not absorbed
mononucleosis
|415
Absorbed
Key Points
Clinical syndromes
HSV-l is generally transmitted orally; HSV-2 is gener
ally transmitted sexually
HSV-1 causes acute herpetic gingivostomatitis, acute
herpetic pharyngotonsillitis, herpes labial is, herpes
encephalitis, eczema herpeticum, and herpetic
whitlow. HSV-2 causes genital herpes, neonatal
infection, and aseptic meningitis
Laboratory diagnosis: (A) Direct microscopic examin
ation of cells from base of lesion; (B) Cell culture;
(C) Assay of tissue biopsy, smear, or vesicular fluid
for HSV antigen; (D) HSV type distinction (HSV-l vs.
HSV-2) type
Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV)causes chickenpox
(varicella) and herpes zoster or shingles, two distinct
clinical entities in humans
Virus causes lifelong infection
Cytomegalovirus
Virus is transmitted orally and sexually, in blood
transfusions, in tissue transplants, in utero, at birth,
and by nursing
Clinical syndromesCongenital CMV infection,
acquired CMV infection, CMV infec t ion in
immunocompromised patients, and CMV infection
in immunocompetent adult hosts. CMV generally
causes subclinical infection
EpsteinBarr Virus
EBV causes heterophile antibody-positive infectious
mononucleosis and has been causally associated
with Burkitts lymphoma, Hodgk ins disease, and
nasopharyngeal carcinoma
Transmission occurs via saliva, close oral contact
(kissing disease), or sharing of items
Important questions
1. Name various viruses of the family Herpesviridae.
Discuss the various infections caused by herpes
simplex virus types 1 and 2.
2. Classify human herpesviruses. Discuss briefly
their pathogenesis and laboratory diagnosis.
3. Describe the lesions caused by herpes simplex
virus and their laboratory diagnosis.
4. Write short notes on:
a. Varicella-zoster virus
b. Varicella or chickenpox
c. Cytomegalovirus
d. Epstein-Barr virus (or) EB virus
e. Infectious mononucleosis
f. Paul-Bunnel test
g. Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6)
|417
59
Chapter
Adenoviruses
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology of adenovirus
Introduction
Adenoviruses are a group of medium sized,
nonenveloped, double stranded DNA viruses that
share a common complement fixing antigen. The
name adenovirus (adeno, from adenoid) reflects
the recovery of the initial isolate from explants of
human adenoids. All human serotypes are included
in a single genus within the family Adenoviridae.
Classification
The family Adenoviridae comprises two genera.
A. Mastadenovirus: Infects mammals. Human
adenoviruses are further subdivided into
six species AF (also called subgroups or
subgenera) (Table 59.1).
B. Aviadenovirus: Infects birds.
Morphology
Adenoviruses are 7090 nm in diameter and
display icosahedral symmetry (Fig. 59.1). There
is no envelope. The capsid is composed of 252
Resistance
Adnoviruses are relatively stable, remaining
viable for about a week at 37C. They are readily
inactivated at 50C. They resist ether and bile salts.
Pathogenesis
Adenoviruses infect and replicate in epithelial cells
of the respiratory tract, eye, gastrointestinal tract,
urinary bladder, and liver.
Several distinct clinical syndromes are associ
ated with adenovirus infection (Table 59.2)
Serotype (Species)
Total
Oncogenicity in
newborn hamsters
12, 18, 21
Rat (Partial)
High
Monkey (Complete)
Low
1, 2, 5, 6
Rat (Partial)
None
29
Rat (Complete )
None
Rat (Partial)
None
40, 41
Rat (Partial)
None
Total
47
|419
B. Eye Infections
1. Phar yngoconjunctival fever : Phar yn
goconjunctival fever tends to occur in outbreaks,
such as at childrens summer camps (swimming
pool conjunctivitis), and is associated with
serotypes 3, 7 and 14.
2. Epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (EKC): This
is a serious condition which may appear as an
epidemics, usually caused by type 8 and less
often by types 19 and 37. This disease occurs
mainly in adults and is highly contagious.
3. Acute follicular conjunctivitis: Types 3, 4 and
11 are commonly responsible. Adenoviral and
chlamydial conjunctivitis are clinically similar.
C. Gastrointestinal Disease
Diarrhea: Some fastidious adenoviruses can cause
diarrheal disease in children (for example, types
40 and 41).
A. Respiratory Diseases
1. Pharyngitis: Adenoviruses are the major cause
of nonbacterial pharyngitis and tonsillitis,
presenting as febrile common cold. Types 17
are commonly responsible.
2. Pneumonia: Adenovirus types 3 and 7 are
associated with pneumonia in adults resembling
primary atypical pneumonia. Adenoviruses,
particularly types 3, 7, and 21 are thought to be
responsible for about 1020% of pneumonias
in childhood. In infants and young children
type 7 may lead to more serious and even fatal
pneumonia.
3. Acute respiratory diseases: Adenoviruses are
the cause of an acute respiratory disease (ARD)
syndrome among military recruits. Serotypes 4,
7 and 21 are the agents commonly isolated.
D. Other Diseases
Mesenteric adenitis and intussusception in children,
pertussis-like illness, acute hemorrhagic cystitis with
dysuria and hematuria in young boys, musculoskeletal
disorders, genital and skin infections.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens
Depending on the clinical disease, virus may be
recovered from stool or urine or from a throat,
conjunctival, or rectal swab.
Those at risk
Associated serotypes
Endemic
1, 2, 5, 6
Epidemic
3, 4, 7
2. Pneumonia
Infants
1, 2, 3, 7
Military recruits
4, 7, 14, 21
4. Pharyngoconjunctival fever
3, 7
Adults
8, 19, 37
Any age
3, 4, 11
40, 41
1, 2, 5
11, 21
C. Virus Isolation
The clinical specimens are inoculated in tissue
culture such as HeLa, Hep., KB and human embryo
kidney cells. The development of characteristic
cytopathic effects-rounding and clustering of
swollen cellsindicates the presence of adenovirus
in inoculated cultures.
Isolates can be identified as adenoviruses by
immunofluorescence tests using an antihexon
antibody and infected cells hemagglutination
inhibition and neutralization tests.
Characterization of viral DNA by hybridization
or by restriction endonuclease digestion patterns
can identify an isolate as an adenovirus and group it.
Adenovarus-associated Viruses
The adenovirus-associated viruses (AAVs) are
members of the parvoviridae. They are about 22
nm in diameter, appear to be more hexagonal
than circular in outline and contain insufficient
single-stranded DNA to replicate on their own.
They form a genus, dependoviruses, indicating their
dependence on adenoviruses (or herpes simplex
virus) to provide the missing functions.
They can be detected by electron microscopy
and complement fixation or immunofluorescence
with specific antisera. Types 1, 2 and 3 are of human
origin and cause natural infection, while type 4 is of
simian origin. Their pathogenic role is uncertain.
True AAV (also known as adenovirus satellite
virus) has not been implicated in clinical disease
and its pathogenic role is uncertain.
Key Points
Adenoviruses are nonenveloped, icosahedral, DNA
viruses. The virion has the appearance of a space
vehicle
Adenoviruses infect and replicate in epithelial cells
of the respiratory tract, eye, gastrointestinal tract,
urinary bladder, and liver.
Adenovirus-associated viruses (AAVs) are members of
the parvoviridae. They form a genus, dependoviruses,
indicating their dependence on adenoviruses
(or herpes simplex virus) to provide the missing
functions.
Important questions
E. Serology
For serological diagnosis, rise in titer of antibodies
should be demonstrated in paired sera. Comple
ment fixation and neutralization tests may be used
by reference laboratories or in research.
Gene Therapy
There is growing interest in the potential use of aden
oviruses as gene delivery vehicles for gene therapy or
DNA vaccination. Adenoviruses have been used and
are being considered for more applications of gene
delivery for correction of several human diseases,
including immune deficiencies (e.g. adenosine
60
Chapter
Papovaviruses
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the following: Papillomaviruses; Polyomaviruses.
Introduction
The term Papova is a sigla indicating the names
of viruses included in this group: (Pa, papilloma;
po, polyoma; va, vacuolating virus) belong to
the family Papovaviridae and has two genera
Papillomavirus and Polyomavirus.
Papillomaviruses
Papillomaviridae family includes papillomaviruses.
Papillomaviruses are slightly larger in diameter
(55 nm) than the polyomaviruses (45 nm) and
contain a larger genomea. All papillomaviruses
induce hyperplastic epithelial lesions in their host
species. Over seventy types of human papilloma
viruses (HPVs) are now recognized.
Pathogenesis
Papillomaviruses cause several different kinds
of warts in humans, including cutaneous warts,
genital warts, respiratory papillomatosis, oral
papillomas and cancer.
4. Oral Papillomatosis
Epidermodysplasia Verruciformis
5. Cancer
1. Cutaneous Warts
These are frequently seen in young children and
adolescents. The viruses associated with such
lesions are HPV types 1 and 4 (plantar warts); 3 and
10 (flat warts); 2, 4 and 7 (common warts).
2. Anogenital Warts
These lesions (also known as condylomata
acuminata) are commonest in sexually active
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Morphological identification: HPV infection
may be readily diagnosed when there are
typical clinical lesions.
Subclinical infection requires labo ratory
confirmation using:
1. Cytological and histological detection.
2. Immunocytochemical detection: HPV capsid
antigen in sections of tissues or in cell smears
can be detected by immunoperoxidase test
using antiserum. It detects all the genital
HPV types.
3. Molecular methods: Amplification of HPV
DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
B. Serology: Are appropriate for epidemiological
studies.
Polyomaviruses
These are small viruses (diameter 45 nm) that
possess a circular genome of double-stranded DNA
enclosed within a nonenveloped capsid exhibiting
icosahedral symmetry.
The name is derived from poly (many) and
oma (tumor). The viruses are species-specific.
Recognized members of this group include:
1. Mouse polyomavirus
2. Simian vacuolating virus 40 (SV 40)
3. JC virus (JCV)
4. BK virus (BKV)
1. Mouse Polyomavirus
It causes harmless infections in mice by natural
routes. However, it induces different types of
malignant tumors when injected into infant rodents.
4. BK Polyomaviruses
The human polyomaviruses (BK and JC) have been
isolated from immunocompromised patients. It
was named after the initials of the person from
whom it was first isolated. BK virus isolated from
the urine of a patient with kidney transplant.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Electron Microscopy
Human polyomavirurses can be detected by
electron microscopy from brain tissue in a case
of PML (JC virus) and from the urine of a renal
transplant case (BK virus).
2. Virus Isolation
Human fetal glial cell culture and human diploid
fibroblasts are used for the isolaton of JC polyomavirus
BK virus respectively. Hemaggltination inhibition is
used to differentiate these two viruses.
5. Cytopathology
Exfoliated urinary epithelial cells show the
presence of enlarged deeply stained basophilic
nuclei with a single inclusion.
Key Points
3. JC Virus (JCV)
The JC virus was isolated from the brain of a patient
with Hodgkins disease and progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy (PML). It was named
after the initials of the person from whom it was
first isolated. JC virus is the cause of progressive
multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML).
Important question
Write short notes on:
a. SV40
b. Papovavirus
c. Polyomavirusess
|423
c. SV40 virus
d. Polyomavirus of mice
3. BK polyomavirus is isolated from urine by culture
in:
a. Human diploid fibroblasts
b. Human fetal glial cell culture
c. Vero cell culture
d. HeLa cell culture
Answers (MCQs)
1. b; 2. b; 3. a
61
Chapter
Parvoviruses
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe Parvoviruses.
Introduction
Clinical Diseases
A. Parvovirus
Parvovirus genus contains the autonomous par
voviruses, which are widespread in nature and
capable of autonomous replication. The group
includes feline and canine parvoviruses (FPV
and CPV) which are so important in veterinary
medicine that immunization against them is a
routine practice in developed countries.
B. Dependovirus
In contrast to parvoviruses, dependoviruses require
helper virus functions for replication. The most
studied are the human adeno-associated viruses
(AAV), to assist in replication.
C. Erythrovirus
There is only one parvovirus (B19) known to cause
disease in humans.
Parvovirus (B19): The cell receptor for parvovirus
B19 is the P antigen. This is present on red blood
cells, erythroid progenitors, vascular endothelium
and fetal myocytes. Infection is acquired in
childhood and is often asymptomatic. Transmission
of parvoviruses appears to be by the respiratory
route. Parvovirus 19 is highly contagious.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis may be made by detection of virus in the
blood in early cases, and of antibody later.
1. Virus isolation: Parvovirus B19 may be cultured
in cells from human bone marrow or fetal liver.
It can be detected in patients blood by electron
microscopy.
Key Points
Parvoviruses are the smallest of the DNA viruses
(about 20 nm)
The family Parvoviridae is divided into two
subfamilies: the Parvovirinae and the Densivirinae
The Parvovirinae contains three genera: Parvovirus,
Dependovirus and Erythrovirus
Erythrovirus: It is only one parvovirus (B19) known
to cause disease in humans.
Important question
Write short notes on:
a. Parvovirus
b. Dependovirus
c. Erythrovirus or Parvovirus (B19)
d. Erythema infectiosum or fifth disease.
|425
62
62
Chapter
Picornaviruses
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe enteroviruses
Discuss prophylaxis against poliomyelitis
Differentiate live and killed polio vaccines
INTRODUCTION
The family Picornaviridae comprises a large
number of very small RNA (pico, meaning small,
RNA: rna) viruses with a diameter of 2730 nm
and containing single-stranded RNA. They are
nonenveloped viruses, resistant to ether and other
lipid solvents.
CLASSIFICATION
The Picornaviridae family has more than 230
members that are divided into six genera:
Enterovirus, Rhinovirus, Cardiovirus, Aphthovirus,
Hepatovirus and Parechovirus (Table 62.1).
IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF
PICORNAVIRUSES
Size: 2830 nm in diameter.
ENTEROVIRUSES
1. Enterovirus
Poliovirus types 1, 2 and 3
Coxsackie A virus types 122 and 24
Coxsackie B virus types 16
Echovirus (ECHO virus) types 19, 1127, and 2934
Enterovirus 6872
2. Rhinovirus types 1100+ most important cause of
the common cold
3. Cardiovirus of mice, including the
encephalomyocarditis virus
4. Aphthovirus causing the foot and mouth disease of cattle
5. HeparnavirusHepatitis A virus
6. Parechovirus (parechoviruses)Echovirus 22 and 23.
Chap-62.indd 426
Property
Enteroviruses
Rhinoviruses
Size (nm)
2230
30
Form
Polypeptides
RNA type
Icosahedral
VP1, VP2, VP3, VP4
Single-stranded,
positive-sense
Icosahedral
VP1, VP2, VP3, VP4
Single-stranded,
positive-sense
Optimal
temperature for
growth
Acid
37C
33-34C
Capsid
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POLIOVIRUS
Morphology
Size: The virion is a spherical particle, about 27
nm in diameter.
Capsid: It consists of a capsid shell of 60 subunits,
each consisting of four viral proteins (VP1VP4),
arranged in icosahedral symmetry.
Genome: The genome is a single strand of positive
sense RNA.
Resistance
1. Poliovirus is resistant to ether, chloroform, bile,
proteolytic enzymes of the intestinal contents
and detergents.
2. It is stable at pH 3.
3. In feces, virus can survive for months at 4C, for
years at 20 or 70C and at room temperature
for several weeks.
4. They are inactivated when heated at 55C for
30 minu tes, but molar MgCl 2 prevents this
inactivation.
5. Drying rapidly inactivates enteroviruses by
ultraviolet light, and usually by drying.
6. Formaldehyde and oxidizing disinfectants
destroy the virus.
7. Chlorination destroys the virus in water but
organic matter delays inactivation.
8. Poliovirus does not survive lyophilization well.
Antigenic Properties
Two antigens C and D (C = coreless or capsid; D =
dense) can be recognized by complement fixation,
enzyme-linked immunosobent assay (ELISA) or
precipitation tests.
Types: There are three types (1, 2 and 3) of
poliovirus, identified by neutralization tests. The
three types are antigenically distinct, but overlap
occurs in neutralization tests. The prototype strains
are as follow.
|427
Pathogenesis
The virus is transmitted by the fecal-oral route
through ingestion. Inhalation or entry through
conjunctiva of droplets of respiratory secretions
may also be possible modes of entry in close
contacts of patients in the early stage of the disease.
Virus is ingested and multiplies initially in the
lymphoid tissue of the tonsil or Peyers patches in
the small intestine. It then spreads to the regional
lymph nodes and enters the bloodstream (minor or
primary viremia). Primary viremia spreads the virus
to receptor-bearing target tissues, where a second
phase of viral replication may occur, resulting in
symptoms and a secondary viremia.
Clinical Features
The incubarion period is usually 714 days, but
it may range from 3 days to 35 days. Following
exposure to poliovirus, 9095% of susceptible
individuals develop only inapparent infection,
which causes seroconversion alone. It is only in
510% that any sort of clinical illness results.
1. Asymptomatic illness : At least 90% of
poliovirus infections are asymptomatic.
2. Abortive poliomyelitis, the minor illness:
is a nonspecific febrile illness occurring in
approximately 5 % of infected people.
3. Nonparalytic poliomyelitis or aseptic
meningitis: It occurs in 12% of patients with
poliovirus infections. In this disease, the virus
progresses into the central nervous system and
the meninges, causing back pain and muscle
spasms in addition to the symptoms of the
minor illness.
4. Paralytic poliomyelitis, the major illness:
Paralytic polio, the major illness, occurs in
0.12.0% of persons with poliovirus infections.
The predominating complaint is flaccid paralysis
resulting from lower motor neuron damage.
Depending on the distribution of paralysis, cases
are classified as spinal, bulbar or bulbospinal.
Mortality ranges from 510% and is mainly due
to respiratory failure.
5. Progressive postpoliomyelitis muscle atrophy
That may occur much later in life of the original
victims.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens
Chap-62.indd 427
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C. Serological Tests
Serodiagnosis is less often employed. Antibody rise
can be demonstrated in paired sera by neutralisa
tion or complement fixation tests.
Immunity
Immunity is permanent to the type causing
the infection. Humoral immunity provided by
circulating and secretory antibody is responsible
for protection against poliomyelitis.
The virus also induces cell mediated immunity,
but its importance appears to be uncertain.
Prophylaxis
Immunization
Both killed and live attenuated vaccines are
available. Two types of vaccines are used throughout
the world; they are:
1. Inactivated (Salk) polio vaccine (lPV)
2. Oral (Sabin) polio vaccine (OPV).
1. Inactivated polio vaccine(IPV)Salks killed
polio vaccine
By 1953, Salk had developed a killed vaccine.
Salks killed polio vaccine is a formalin inactivated
preparation of the three types of poliovirus grown in
monkey kidney tissue culture. Killed vaccine is given
by injection and is therefore called inactivated or
injectable poliovaccine (lPV). The primary or initial
course of immunization consists of 4 inoculations.
The first 3 doses are given at intervals of 12 months
and 4th dose 612 months after the third dose. First
dose is usually given when the infant is 6 weeks old
to ensure that immune response is not impaired by
residual maternal antibodies. Additional doses are
recommended prior to school entry and then every.
5 years until the age of 18.
IPV induces humoral antibodies (lgM, IgG
and IgA serum antibodies) but does not induce
intestinal or local immunity. The circulating
antibodies protect the individual against paralytic
polio, but do not prevent reinfection of the gut by
wild viruses. In the case of an epidemic, IPV is
unsuitable.
Chap-62.indd 428
Immunization Schedule
The WHO Program on Immunization (EPI) and
the National Immunization Program in India
recommend a primary course of 3 doses of OPV
at one-month intervals, commencing the first
dose when the infant is 6 weeks old. One booster
dose of OPV is recommended 1218 months later.
It has been recommended that in the tropics, the
number of doses of vaccine be increased to five, in
order to enhance seroconversion in the vaccinees.
It is very important to complete vaccination of all
infants before 6 months of age. This is because most
polio cases occur between the ages of 6 months
and 3 years.
There has been much controversy about the
relative merits of killed and live vaccines. The
differences between IPV and OPV are given in
Table 62.3.
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|429
Table 62.3: Differences between killed (IPV) and live polio vaccines (OPV)
Killed polio vaccine (Salk type)
Virus
Route of administration
Given subcutaneously or 1M
Given orally
Nature of immunity
Manufacture
Easy to manufacture
Duration of immunity
Life long
Cost
Cheaper
Storage
Contraindicated in
immunodeficiency states or
pregnancy
No
Yes
Global Eradication
COXSACKIEVIRUS
Epidemiology
Poliomyelitis is an exclusively human disease and
the only source of virus is humans. The virus is
transmitted by fecal oral route through ingestion.
The disease occurs in all age groups, but
children are usually more susceptible than adults.
In India, polio is essentially a disease of infancy
and childhood. In developed countries, before the
advent of vaccination, the age distribution shifted
so that most patients were over age 5 and 25% were
over age 15. The case fatality rate is variable. It is
highest in the oldest patients.
Most infections are subclinical. It is estimated
that for every clinical case, there may be 1000
subclinical cases in children and 75 in adults.
Poliovirus type I is responsible for most
epidemics of paralytic poliomyelitis. Type 3 also
causes epidemics to a lesser extent. Type 2 usually
causes inapparent infections in the western coun
tries but in India paralysis due to type 2 is quite
common. Immunity is type-specific.
Chap-62.indd 429
Antigenic Characters
Thirty antigenic types have been defined by crossneutralization tests in mice or cell culture, and
cross-complement fixation reactions. Twenty-three
have the features of group A and six have those
of group B. Coxsackie A 23 is the same as echo 9
(Coxsackievirus A23 has now been reclassified
as echovirus 9) and Coxsackie A24 the same as
ECHO 34.
Clinical Features
Like other enteroviruses, coxsackieviruses inhabit
the alimentary canal primarily and are spread
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Features
Coxsackievirus A Coxsackievirus B
1. Growth in
monkey
kidney
4. Juvenile diabetes
Juvenile diabetes has been claimed to be associated
with coxsackie B4 infection.
2. Effect in
suckling
mice
Generalized
myositis
Flaccid paralysis
Death within a
week
Patchy focal
myositis
Spastic paralysis,
Necrosis of the
brown fat and,
often, pancreatitis,
hepatitis,
myocarditis and
encephalitis
3. Types
23 (124*)
6 (16)
Group A Viruses
1. Herpangina (vesicular pharyngitis)
Herpangina is a severe febrile pharyngitis and is a
common clinical manifestation of coxsackie group
A infection in children.
2. Aseptic meningitis
Aseptic meningitis is caused by all types of
group B coxsackieviruses and by many group A
coxsackieviruses, most commonly A7 and A9.
3. Hand-foot-and-mouth disease
Hand-foot-and-mouth disease is a vesicular exan
them and is characterized by oral and pharyngeal
ulcerations and a vesicular rash of the palms and
soles. This disease has been associated particularly
with coxsackievirus A16, but A5 and Al0 have also
been implicated.
4. Respiratory infections
A number of the enteroviruses have been asso
ciated with common colds; among these are
coxsackieviruses A21, A24, B1, and B35.
Group B Viruses
1. Epidemic myalgia or Bornholm disease
It is so called because it was first described on the
Danish island of Bornholm. It is an acute illness
in which patients have a sudden onset of fever
and unilateral low thoracic, pleuritic chest pain
that may be excruciating. Coxsackie B virus is the
causative agent.
2. Myocardial and pericardial infections
Myocardial and pericardial infections caused
by coxsackie B virus occur sporadically in older
Chap-62.indd 430
5. Neonatal infections
Transplacental and neonatal transmission has
been demonstrated with coxsackie B viruses,
resulting in a serious disseminated disease that
may include hepatitis, meninoencephaIitis and
adrenocortical involvement.
6. Chronic fatigue syndrome
There is some evidence of a possible association
between chronic fatigue syndrome and infection
with enteroviruses, particularly coxsackie B viruses.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Virus Isolation
The virus is isolated readily from throat washings
conjunctival swabs, throat swabs and feces.
i.
Inoculation into suckling mice: Specimens
are inoculated into suckling mice. In suckling
mice, signs of illness appear usually within 38
days with group A strains and 514 days with
group B strains. Identification is by studying
the histopathology in infected mice and by
neutralization tests.
ii. Tissue culture: Specimens are inoculated into
tissue cultures. Of group A coxsackieviruses,
only A7 and A9 grow in monkey kidney cells,
and coxsackievirus A21 can be grown in
HeLa, HEp2 or human embryonic kidney cell
cultures. All group B coxsackieviruses grow
readily in monkey kidney cell cultures.
B. Serology
Serologic tests are difficult to evaluate (because of
the multiplicity of types).
ECHOVIRUSES
Echoviruses (enteric cytopathogenic human
orphan viruses) are grouped together because
they infect the human enteric tract. They were
called orphans as they could not be associated
with any particular clinical disease then. There is
still no clear association of some types with specific
diseases.
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Clinical Features
Most echovirus infections are asymptomatic but
some have been associated with clinical syndromes
(Table 62.5).
1. Aseptic meningitis
2. Respiratory illnesses in children
3. Infantile diarrhea has not been established.
4. Occasionally, there is conjunctivitis, muscle
weakness and spasm.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimen
The procedure of choice is isolation of virus from
throat swabs, stools, rectal swabs, and, in aseptic
meningitis, cerebrospinal fluid.
2. Virus isolation
Specimens may be inoculated into monkey
kidney tissue cultures and virus growth detected
by cytopathic changes. The large number of
serotypes makes identification by neutralization
tests laborious.
69
70
70, 71
Paralysis, meningoencephalitis
71
Hand-foot-and-mouth disease
72*
Hepatitis A
*Reclassified as Hepatavirus
|431
3. Serology
Serological diagnosis is impractical.
4. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Nucleic acid detection assays, such as polymerase
chain reaction, are more rapid than virus isolation
for diagnosis.
Polioviruses
Coxsackie A
virus
Coxsackie B
virus
Echoviruses
Enterovirus
types 6871
Aseptic meningitis
13
Many
16
Many
71
Paralysis
Paralysis
13
7, 9
25
2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 30
70, 71
Encephalitis 71
13
2, 57, 9
15
2, 6, 9, 19
70, 71
9, 16, 23
4, 6, 9, 16
Herpangina
16, 8, 10
5, 10, 16
71
Upper respiratory
infection
21
11, 20
Pneumonitis,
bronchiolitis
68
Bornholm disease
1, 5
1, 5
70
Myocarditis,
pericarditis
Acute hemorrhagic
conjunctivitis
Chap-62.indd 431
24
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Pathogenesis
The virus enters via the upper respiratory tract.
Local inflammation and cytokines may be
responsible for the symptoms of common cold.
Clinical Syndromes
The incubation period is brief from 2 days to 4
days. The acute illness usually lasts for 7 days.
Usual symptoms in adults include sneezing, nasal
obstruction, nasal discharge, and sore throat; other
symptoms may include headache, mild cough,
malaise and a chilly sensation. There is little or
no fever.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The clinical syndrome of the common cold is
usually so characteristic that laboratory diagnosis
is unnecessary.
A. Specimens: Nose, throat swabs and nasophary
ngeal aspirates.
B. Culture: Cell cultures of human origin such as
MRC5 or WI38 are preferred for the isolation
of rhinoviruses. Cultures are incubated at 33C
and observed microscopically for a CPE.
C. Serology: Serology is not feasible.
D. Nucleic acid detection: Likely to become a
significant tool in diagnosis.
Chap-62.indd 432
Key Points
Coxsackieviruses
Based on the pathological changes produced in
suckling mice, they are classified into two group
A and B
The clinical manifestations of infection with yarious
coxsackieviruses are diverse and may present as
distinct disease entities
Echoviruses
Echoviruses are found in the intestinal tract of the
infected humans
Most echovirus infections are asymptomatic but
some have been associated with clinical syndromes
Rhinoviruses
Rhinoviruses are the most important causative
agents of the common cold and upper respiratory
tract infections.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Name the picornaviruses. Discuss pathogenesis
and laboratory diagnosis of poliomyelitis.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Prophylaxis against poliomyelitis
b. Coxsackieviruses
c. Echoviruses
d. Enterovirus 70
e. Acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis
f. Rhinoviruses.
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Chap-62.indd 433
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63
Chapter
Orthomyxovirus
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Differentiate between orthomyxoviruses and
paramyxoviruses
Describe morphology of influenza virus
Discuss types and subtypes of orthomyxoviruses
Introduction
The name Myxovirus was used originally for a
group of enveloped RNA viruses characterized by
their ability to adsorb into mucoprotein receptors
on erythrocytes, causing hemagglutination. The
name referred to the affinity of the viruses to
mucins (from myxa, meaning mucus). Despite
having certain similarities, the orthomyxoviruses
and the paramyxoviruses are separated into two
distinct groups because of fundamental differences
in their structures and their patterns of replication.
Table 63.1 lists the important differences between
orthomyxovirus and paramyxovirus.
Properties of Orthomyxovirus
The family Orthomyxoviridae comprises four
genera : influenza A , B and C viruses and
thogotoviruses. Antigenic changes continually
D
escrbe the following: Hemagglutinin (H) and
neuraminidase (NA); Antigenic variation in Influenza
virus; Antigenic shift and antigenic drift
Discuss laboratory diagnosis of influenza
D escribe the following: Influenza pandemics;
prophylaxis against influenza; influenza vaccines.
Influenza viruses
Morphology
Virus: The influenza virus is typically spherical,
with a diameter of 80120 nm but pleomorphism
is common.
Genome: The virus core consists of ribonucleoprotein
in helical symmetr y. The negative sense
singlestranded RNA genome is segmented and
exists as eight pieces. Also present within the virion
is the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase; this
is essential for infectivity as the virion RNA is of
negative sense.
Orthomyxovirus
Paramyxovirus
Size of virion
80120 nm
100300 nm
Shape
Pleomorphic
Genome
Diameter of nucleocapsid
9 nm
18 nm
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Not required
Effect of actinomycin D
Inhibits multiplication
Antigenic stability
Variable
Stable
Hemolysin
Absent
Present
Resistance
The influenza virus withstands slow drying at room
temperature on articles such as blankets and glass.
It can be preserved for long periods at 70C, and
remains viable indefinitely when freeze-dried.
Influenza viruses are relatively hardy in vitro
and may be stored at 04C for weeks without loss
of viability. Exposure to heat for 30 minutes at 56C
is sufficient to inactivate most strains. The viruses
are inactivated by a variety of substances, such as
20% ether in the cold, phenol, formaldehyde, salts
of heavy metals, detergents, soaps, halogens and
many others. Iodine is particularly effective.
Antigenic Structure
The antigens of the influenza virus can be classified
as the internal antigens and the surface antigens.
A. Internal Antigens
1. Ribon ucleoprotein (RNP) antigen: The
internal antigen is the ribonucleoprotein and
is hence called the RNP antigen. It was also
called the soluble (S) antigens because it is
found free in infected tissues and occurs in the
supernatant when the virus containing fluid is
centrifuged.
|435
B. Surface Antigens
The term viral or V antigen was formerly used to
describe the surface antigen of the influenza virus.
The V antigen is actually composed of at least two
viruscoded proteins, the haemagglutinin and the
neuraminidase.
1. Hemagglutinin (HA): Hemagglutinin (HA) is
a glycoprotein composed of two polypeptides
HA1 and HA2. The HA has several functions.
It is the viral attachment protein responsible for
hemaglutination and hemadsorotion. It enables
the virus to adsorb to mucoprotein receptors on
red cells as well as on respiratory epithelial cells.
Antihemagglutinin antibodies are produced
following infection and immunization.
Mutation-derived changes in HA are responsi
ble for the minor (drift) and major (shift)
changes in antigenicity. Fifteen distinct HA
subtypes, named H1 to H15 have been identified
in avian influenza viruses, but only four of them
have been found in human isolates so far. Shifts
occur only with influenza A virus.
2. Neuraminidase (NA): Neuraminidase is
a glycoprotein enzyme which destroys cell
receptors by hydrolytic cleavage. Neuramini
dase activity is also thought to be important in
the final stages of release of new virus particles
from the infected cells. The antineuraminidase
antibody is formed following infection and
immunization. It is not as effective in protection
as the antihemagglutinin antibody. It does not
prevent the adsorption of virus onto cells but
can inhibit the release and spread of progeny
virions and may thus contribute to limiting
the infection. It is a strain-specific antigen and
exhibits variation. Major differences acquire the
designations NI, N2, and so on. Nine different
subtypes have been identified (NlN9).
Antigenic Variation
Antigenic Classification
Antigenic differences exhibited by two of the inter
nal structural proteins, the nucleocapsid (NP) and
matrix (M) proteins, are used to divide influenza
viruses into types A, B and C. These proteins
possess no cross reactivity among the three types.
Antigenic variations in the surface glycoproteins,
HA and NA, are used to subtype the viruses. Only
type A has designated subtypes. Influenza virus
type A strains can be classified into subtypes based
on variations in their surface antigens.
Host Range
1. Animals: Intranasal inoculation in ferrets
produces an acute respiratory disease.
2. Egg inoculation: The virus grows well in
the amniotic cavity of chick embryos. After
a few egg passages, the virus grows well in
the allantoic cavity also, except for the type
C virus which does not generally grow in the
allantoic cavity. Virus growth is detected by the
appearance of hemagglutinin in the allantoic
and amniotic fluids.
3. Cell culture: The virus grows in primary
monkey kidney cell cultures, as well as in some
continuous cell lines.
von Magnus phenonomenon: When passaged
serially in eggs, using as inocula undiluted infected
allantoic fluid, the progeny virus will show high
Pathogenesis
Influenza virus spreads from person to person
by airborne droplets. The viral neuraminidase
facilitates infection by reducing the viscosity
of the mucous film lining the respiratory tract
and exposing the cell surface receptors for virus
adsorption. The ciliated cells of the respiratory
tract are the main sites of viral infection. Within a
short time, many cells in the respiratory tract are
infected and eventually killed. Influenza infections
cause cellular destruction and desquamation of
superficial mucosa of the respiratory tract. This
renders the respirator y tract highly vulnerable
to bacterial invasion, especially staphylococci,
streptococci, and Haemophilus influenzae. Viral
pneumonia is seen only in more severe cases.
Clinical Features
A. Uncomplicated Influenza
The incubation period is 13 days. The disease
varies in severity from a mild coryza to fulminating
and rapidly fatal pneumonia. Most infections are
subclinical.
Symptoms of classic influenza usually appear
abruptly and include chills, headache and dry
cough, followed closely by high fever, generalized
muscular aches, malaise and anorexia. The fever
usually lasts 35 days, as do the systemic symptoms.
Complications
Complications of influenza include primary viral
pneumonia, secondary bacterial pneumonia,
myositis and cardiac complicat ions, such as
congestive failure or myocarditis and, neurological
involvement, such as GuillainBarre syndrome,
encephalopathy, encephalitis and Reyes syndrome
may occur.
Reyes Syndrome
Influenza, particularly infection with type B, has
been associated with Reyes syndrome. It is an
acute encephalopathy of children and adolescents,
usually between 2 and 16 years of age and is
characterized by acute degenerative changes in
the brain, liver and kidneys. Type B infections
may sometimes cause gastrointestinal symptoms
(gastric flu).
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis of influenza relies on isolation of the
virus, identification of viral antigens or viral nucleic
3. Serology
Complement fixation tests (CFTs) and hemaggluti
nation inhibition (HI) tests are employed for the
serological diagnosis of influenza. Paired acute
|437
Immunity
Immunity to influenza is long-lived and subtypespecific. Antibodies against HA and NA are
important in immunity to influenza, whereas
antibodies against the other virus-encoded proteins
are not protective.
An attack of influenza confers protection
effective for about one or two years. The apparent
short duration of immunity is due to the antigenic
variation that the antigenic variation that the virus
undergoes frequently. Following infection and
immunization, circulating antibodies are formed
against the various antigens of the virus. However,
it the local concentration of anthaemagglutinin
and, to a smaller extent, of anineuraminadase
antibodies (mainly IgA) in the respiratory tract that
is more relevant in protection.
When an individual experiences repeated
infections with different antigenic variants of
influenza virus type A, he responds by forming
antibodies not only against each infecting strain
but also against the strain that he first comes into
contact with. The dominant antibody response
will be against the strain that caused the earliest
infection. This phenomenon called the doctrine
of original antigenic sin.
Influenza virus infection induces cell-mediated
immunity also but its role in protection has not
been clarified.
Epidemiology
Influenza viruses occur worldwide and occurs
sporadically, as epidemics or in pandemic form.
The source of infection is an infected individual.
Influenza infection is spread readily via small
airborne droplets expelled during talking,
breathing, and coughing. Influenza C is least
significant; it causes mild, sporadic respiratory
disease but not epidemic influenza. Influenza B
sometimes causes epidemics, but influenza type A
can sweep across continents and around the world
in massive epidemics called pandemics.
What makes influenza an important and
challenging disease is its propensity for causing
pandemics. Domestic birds like ducks can get
infected from wild birds and carry the infection to
pigs.The genetic reassortment may take place in
pigs that have receptors for both human and avian
B. Influenza Vaccines
Influenza vaccines have been in use for many
decades. The aim of immunization is to produce
hemagglutinat ion inhibiting or neutralizing
antibody in all vaccinees. However, cert ain
characteristics of influenza viruses make prevention
and control of the disease by immunization
especially difficult. Existing vaccines are continually
being rendered obsolete as the viruses undergo
antigenic drift and shift. Vaccines are of two types
as follow.
Prophylaxis
A. Chemoprophylaxis
Chemoprophylaxis has been reported to be
successful with the antiviral drugs amantadine
Indications
1. Annual influenza vaccination is recommended
for high-risk groups: These include individuals
at increased risk of complications associated
with influenza infection.
2. Pandemic threat : The most important
indication for immunoprophylaxis is when a
pandemic is threatened by a new virus.
Contraindication: The only contraindication
to vaccination is a history of allergy to egg protein.
b. Live-virus Vaccines
1. The earliest live vaccine was the virus attenuated
by repeated egg passage. It was administered by
intranasal instillation. However, it sometimes
gave rise to clinical disease, especially in
children. These vaccines have been generally
effective in provoking a good local (IgA) antibody
response but are not at presently widely used.
2. Use of temperature-sensitive mutants: A coldadapted donor virus, able to grow at 25C but not
at 37Cthe temperature of the lower respiratory
tractshould replicate in the nasopharynx,
which has a cooler temperature (33C). A live
attenuated, cold-adapted, trivalent influenza
virus vaccine administered by nasal spray has
proved effective in clinical trials in children.
Treatment
The antiviral drug amantadine and its analogue
rimantadine inhibit an uncoating step of the
influenza A virus but do not affect the influenza
B or C virus. The target for their action is the M2
protein. Resistance to these drugs develops rapidly.
Zanamivir and oseltamivir inhibit both influ
enza A and B as enzyme inhibitors of the neuramini
dase. Zanamivir is inhaled, whereas oseltamivir is
taken orally as a pill. These drugs are effective
for prophylaxis and for treatment during the first
2448 hours after the onset of influenza A illness.
Treatment cannot prevent the later host-induced
immunopathogenic stages of the disease.
Key Points
Important questions
1. Tabulate the differences between orthomyxoviruses
and paramyxoviruses.
2. Discuss the morphology and pathogenesis of
influenza virus infection.
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64
Chapter
Paramyxoviruses
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
D
escribe the following: Para influenza viruses;
Measles virus; Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
Classify paramyxoviruses
Introduction
Family Paramyxoviridae causes a variety of
diseases, predominantly involving the respiratory
tract, in humans, birds, and other animals.
In humans, they include measles, respirat ory
infections caused by respiratory syncytial virus
(RSV) and parainfluenza viruses, and the more
innocuous salivary gland infection of mumps.
Classification
Within the family Paramyxoviridae two subfamilies
(Table 64.1). Paramyxoviridae and Pneumovirinae
are recognized.
Subfamily Paramyxoviridae
1. Respirovirus (para-influenza viruses 1, 3).
2. Rubulavirus (mumps virus, para-influenza
viruses 2, 4a, 4b).
3. Morbillivirus (Measles).
4. HenipavirusNipah virus and Hendra virus.
Subfamily Pneumovirinae
Fig. 64.1: Schematic diagram of a paramyxovirus showing
major components
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Pneumovirinae
Property
Respirovirus
Pneumovirus
Metapneumovirus
Human
viruses
Measles
Parainfluenza Mumps,
1,3
parainfluenza
2, 4a, 4b
Morbillivirus Henipavirus
Hendra,
Nipah
Respiratory
syncytial
virus
Human
metapneumovirus
Serotypes
1 each
1 each
Diameter of
nucleocapsid
(nm)
18
18
18
13
13
Membrane
fusion
(F protein)
Hemolysin2
Hemaglutinin
+3
+3
+4
Hemadsorption +
Neuraminidase
+3
+3
Inclusions
N, C
Zoonotic paramyxoviruses
2
Hemolysin activity carried by F glycoprotein
3
Hemagglutination and neuraminidase activities carried by HN glycoprotein
4
Hemagglutination of monkey erythrocytes only, by H glycoprotein that lacks neuraminidase activity
5
C, cytoplasm; N, nucleus
1
Differentiation of Genera
Parainfluenza viruses, NDV and mumps virus
have a surface hemagglutinin and neuraminidase,
while measles virus has a hemagglutinin but no
neuraminidase, and pneumovirus has neither.
In addition, measles virus has a haemolysin not
possessed by the others, while RS virus has a large
surface glycoprotein, G, which has a similar cellattaching function as a hemagglutinin (Table 64.1).
Unlike the orthomyxoviruses, the paramyxoviruses
with their unsegmented genome cannot exchange
genetic information by recombination and variation
depends on mutational change.
Parainfluenza viruses
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Direct Identification
Pathogenesis
B. Virus Isolation
Genus Rubulavirus
Mumps Virus
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory studies are not usually required to
establish the diagnosis of typical cases.
The diagnosis may be established by virus
isolation and serological tests.
A. Direct Demonstration
Pathogenesis
Transmission is from person to person by large
droplets. Primary replication occurs in nasal or
upper respiratory tract epithelial cells. Virernia
then disseminates the virus to the salivary glands
and other major organ systems and infects the
parotid gland. The virus is spread by the viremia
throughout the body to the testes, ovary, pancreas,
thyroid, and other organs. Infection of the central
nervous system, especially the meninges, immunity
is lifelong.
Clinical features: Infection is acquired by inhalation,
and probably also through the conjunctiva. The
incubation period may range from 7 days to 25 days
but is typically about 1618 days. The generalized
phase is the usual flu-like illness with fever
and malaise, followed by developing pain in the
parotid glands, which then swell rapidly. Parotitis is
nonsuppurative and usually resolves within a week.
However, involvement of the extraparotid sites may
be more serious.
Complications: Epididymo-orchitis, aseptic
meningitis, postinfection encephalitis, mumps
meningitis. Other less common complications
are arthritis, oophoritis, nephritis, pancreatitis,
thyroiditis and myocarditis.
Epididymo-orchitis: Is a complication seen in
about a third of postpubertal male patients and
rarely causes sterility.
Immunity
There is only one antigenic type of mumps virus,
and it does not exhibit significant antigenic
C. Serology
Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or
hemagglutination inhibition test is commonly used.
Mumps specific IgM antibodies can be detected in
serum by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA) for rapid diagnosis.
Prophylaxis
1. Vaccination
An effective attenuated live Mumps virus vaccine
based on the Jeryl Lynn or Urabe strains. Mumps
vaccine is available in monovalent form (mumps
only) or as combined vaccine, viz. combined
mumps-rubella (MR) or into a triple vaccine
against measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) livevirus vaccines. The vaccine is recommended for
children over age 1 year.
The vaccine is given as a single dose (0.5 mL)
intramuscularly. It provides effective protection for
at least ten years. Contraindications are pregnancy,
immunodeficiency, severely ill and hypersensitivity
to neomycin or egg protein.
2. Immunoglobulin
A specific immunoglobulin (mumps immuno
globulin) is available and is of no value either for
postexposure prophylaxis or treatment.
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Complications
Genus morbillivirus
Measles (Rubeola)
Measles is one of the five classic childhood exant
hems, along with rubella, roseola, fifth disease, and
chickenpox.
Morphology
The virus has the general morphology of paramyxo
viruses (Fig. 64.2). It is a roughly spherical but often
pleomorphic particle, 120250 nm in diameter. The
tighdy coiled helical nucleocapsid is surrounded
by the lipoprotein envelope carrying on its surface
hemagglutinin (H) spikes. The envelope also
has the F protein which mediates cell fusion and
hemolytic activities. The measles virus agglutinates
monkey erythrocytes but there is no elution as the
virus does not possess neuraminidase activity.
Pathogenesis
The virus gains access to the human body via the
respiratory tract, or the conjunctiva where it multiplies
locally. The infection then spreads to the regional
lymphoid tissue, where further multiplication occurs.
Primary viremia disseminates the virus, which then
replicates in the reticuloendothelial system. Finally,
a secondary viremia seeds the epithelial surfaces
of the body, including the skin, respiratory tract, and
conjunctiva, where focal replication occurs.
Clinical Features
Measles is a serious febrile illness. Incubation
period is 911 from the time of exposure to infection
for the first signs of clinical disease to appear. After
2 days of illness, the typical mucous membrane
lesions, known as Kopliks spots, appear most
commonly on the buccal mucosa across from the
molars. Their appearance in the mouth establishes
with certainty the diagnosis of measles.
Before the rash there is a prodromal stage
lasting 2 or 3 days, with high fever and CCC and
P-cough, coryza, and conjunctivitis, in addition to
photophobia.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Typical measles is reliably diagnosed on clinical
grounds, usually in the patients home. Laboratory
diagnosis may be necessary in cases of modified or
atypical measles.
B. Virus Isolation
The virus can be isolated from the nose, throat,
conjunctiva and blood during the prodromal phase
and upto about two days after the appearance of the
rash. The virus may be obtained from the urine for
a few more days. Primary human or monkey kidney
and amnion cells are most useful. Cytopathic
changes may take up to 710 days to develop
but earlier diagnosis of viral growth is possible
by immunofluorescence. Typical cytopathic
effects (multinucleated giant cellscontaining
both intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusion
bodies) suggests the presence of measles virus.
C. Serological Diagnosis
Demonstration of measles-specific IgM in a single
specimen of serum drawn between one and two
weeks after the onset of the rash is confirmatory.
Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA),
hemagglutination inhibition (HI), and neutralization
Epidemiology
Prophylaxis
A. Passive immunization
Description
B. Active Immunization
A highly effective, safe, attenuated live measles
virus vaccine is available. The original live vaccines
used the Edmonston strain developed by multiple
passage through human kidney, amnion and chick
embryo cultures. The Schwartz and Moraten
strains so developed were safe but effective only
in children older than 15 months. In the tropics,
measles is common and serious in children below 12
months. Recent observations have suggested that the
EdmonstonZagreb strain, attenuated by passage in
human diploid cells, may protect children from 4 to
6 months of age. The recommended age for measles
vaccination in the developing countries is 9 months,
while in the advanced countries it remains 15 months.
The vaccine is given either by itself, or in
combination as the MMR vaccine. A single
subcutaneous injection of the measles vaccine
provides protection beginning in about 12 days
and lasting for over 20 years, probably for life.
Contraindications are pregnancy, acute illnesses,
immunodeficiency and untreated tuberculosis.
A live attenuated vaccine has been developed
which can be given by intranasal aerosol in young
babies and gives good protection irrespective of the
presence of maternal antibodies.
Genus pneumovirus
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) first isolated from
a chimpanzee was named respiratory syncytial
virus (RSV) because it caused cell fusion and the
formation of multinucleated syncytia in cell cultures.
Clinical Features
The spectrum of respiratory illness ranges from the
common cold in adults, through febrile bronchitis
in infants and older children and pneumonia in
infants, to bronchiolitis in very young babies.
1. Common cold: In adults RSV infection may
present as a febrile common cold. It can cause
pneumonia in the elderly.
2. Febrile rhinitis and pharyngitis
3. Bronchiolitis, pneumonia, or both: The most
serious illness caused by RS virus are bronchi
olitis in young babies.
4. Sudden infant death syndrome: A relation
between RSV and the sudden death syndrome
in infants has been proposed but not proven.
Epidemiology
Respiratory syncytial virus is distributed worldwide
and is recognized as the major pediatric respiratory
tract pathogen. It is the most common cause of viral
pneumonia in children under age 5 years. RSV is
highly contagious.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Demonstration of Virus Antigen
Immunofluorescence and enzyme immunoassay
tests are available for direct detection of the viral
antigen in infected cells and nasal washings.
B. Virus Isolation
Human heteroploid cell lines HeLa and HEp-2 are
the most sensitive for viral isolation. The presence of
respiratory syncytial virus can usually be recognized
by development of giant cells and syncytia in
inoculated cultures but cytopathic effects may take
as long as 10 days for to appear. Definitive diagnosis
can be established by detecting viral antigen in
infected cells using a defined antiserum and the
immunofluorescence test.
C. Serology
Serological diagnosis is by demonstration of
rising antibody titers in paired serum samples by
enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA),
complement fixation (CF), neutralization or
immunofluorescence tests.
Prophylaxis
No vaccine is currently available for RSV prophy
laxis. The use of recombinant DNA technology for
making RSV vaccine is now being studied.
Treatment
In otherwise healthy infants, treatment is
supportive care. Ribavirin is administered by
inhalation (nebulization) and has been found
beneficial in hospitalized patients, decreasing the
duration of illness and of virus shedding.
Metapnemovirus
Human metapneumovirus is a respiratory
pathogen and is an important cause of respiratory
tract infection in children. It can also cause disease
in adults. It causes a disease similar to that of
human respiratory syncytial virus.
It is a single stranded RNA virus like other
paramyoviruses. Respiratory secretions are clinical
specimen for test. The virus is difficult to grow.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be used
for diagnosis. No specific antiviral treatment or
vaccine is available.
Key Points
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Within the family Paramyxoviridae two subfamiliesParmyxoviridae and Pneumovirinae are recognized
Parainfluenza viruses 1, 2, and 3 may cause respiratory
tract syndromes ranging from a mild coldlike upper
respiratory tract infection to bronchiolitis and
pneumonia. Parainfluenza virus type 4 does not
cause serious disease, even on first infection
Mumps virus causes mumps
Measles virus causes measles, atypical measles, and
subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE)
Measles vaccine is a live attenuated vaccine which
now uses Schwartz and Moraten attenuated strain
of the original Edmonston B strain
Measles vaccine along with mumps and rubella
(MMR) vaccine is currently used for universal
immunization of the children
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes infection
of the respiratory tract, ranging from the common
cold in adults, through febrile bronchitis in infants
and older children and pneumonia in infants, to
bronchiolitis in very young babies.
Important questions
1. Classify and discuss the morphology of paramyxo
viruses.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Parainfluenza viruses
b. Mumps virus
c. Measles virus
d. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
e. Measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine.
f. Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE)
g. Atypical measles.
65
Chapter
Arboviruses
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Classify arboviruses
Describe laboratory diagnosis of arboviruses
List mosquito-borne and tick-borne arboviruses
INTRODUCTION
Arboviruses (Arthropod-borne viruses) are
define as viruses which are maintained in nature
principally, or to an important extent through
biological transmission between susceptible
vertebrate hosts by hematophagous arthropods.
They multiply in the tissues of arthropods, and
are passed onto new vertebrates by the bites of
arthropod after a period of extrinsic incubation.
Certain viruses within the six families contain
ing arboviruses are not transmitted by arthropods,
but are maintained in nature within rodent
reservoirs that may transmit infection directly to
humans. These include the Hantavirus genus of
the family Bunyaviridae
Genus
Important species
Togaviridae
Alphavirus
Flaviviridae
Flavivirus
Bunyaviridae
Bunyavirus
Phlebovirus
Nairovirus
California encephalitis,
Oropouche, Turlock
Sandfly fever viruses, Rift
valley fever virus
Crimean Congo hemor
rhagic fever viruses,
Nairobi sheep disease
virus, Ganjam virus
Hantan, Seoul, Puumala,
Prospect Hill, Sin Nombre
viruses
CLASSIFICATION
Arboviruses are classified within five families (Table
65.1). Most are members of the families Togaviridae,
Flaviviridae and Bunyaviridae. Within each family,
they areclassified into genera, and antigenic
groups, based on serological relationships.
Hantavirus
PROPERTIES
Arboviruses share common biological attributes
(Table 65.2).
1. Intracerebral inoculation in suckling mice is the
most sensitive method for their isolation in the
laboratory.
2. Most arboviruses agglutinate the red cells of
goose or day-old chicks.
3. They can be grown in the yolk sac or chorio
allantoic membrane of chick embryo, in tissue
Chap-65.indd 446
Reoviridae
Orbivirus
Coltivirus
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|447
Alphavirus
Flavivirus
Bunyavirus
Rhabdovirus
Reovirus
1. Symmetry
Cubic
Cubic
Helical
Bullet-shaped
Cubic
6065
4060
80100
180 x 85
6080
3. Nucleic acid
Single stranded
positive sense
RNA
Single stranded
positive sense
RNA
Double
stranded RNA
4. Inactivation by
diethyl ether/sodium
deoxycholate
4.
5.
6.
7.
LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS
A. Specimen
As all arbovirus infect ions are viremic, blood
collected during the acute phase of the disease may
yield the virus. Isolation may also be made from
the CSF in some encephalitic cases but the best
specimen for virus isolation is the brain.
B. Virus Isolation
i. Suckling Mice
Specimens are inoculated intracerebrally into suck
ling mice. The animals develop fatal encephalitis. This
is the most sensitive method for isolation of viruses.
Chap-65.indd 447
D. Serology
Diagnosis may also be made serologically by
demonstrating rise in antibody titer in paired
serum samples by hemagglutination inhibition,
complement fixation or neutralization tests. Virusspecific IgM antibody may be detected within I day
of onset of clinical symptoms using an IgM capture
ELISA test.
PATHOGENESIS
The virus enters the body through the bite of the
insect vector. After multiplication in the reticulo
endothelial system, viremia of varying duration
ensues and, in some cases, the virus is transported
to the target organs, such as the central nervous
system in encephalitides, the liver in yellow fever
and the capillary endothelium in hemorrhagic
fevers. Arboviruses cause the following clinical
syndromes (Table 65.3).
Fever with or without rash and arthralgia
Encephalitis
Hemorrhagic fever
The characteristic systemic disease, yellow
fever
Arboviruses are maintained in natural trans
mission cycles involving reservoir hosts and
arthropod vectors, typically: ticks, mosquitoes and
other biting flies.
FAMILIES OF ARBOVIRUSES
A. Family Togaviridae
Togaviruses
Morphology
Togaviruses are spherical enveloped viruses with
a diameter of 5070 nm. The genome is single
stranded RNA. The name Togavirus is derived from
toga, meaning the Roman mantle or cloak, and
refers to the viral envelope.
Classification
The family Togaviridae contains two genera:
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Genus
Virus
Vector
Geographic
distribution
Reservoir
Alphavirus
Chikungunya
Mosquito
Africa, Asia
Alphavirus
Onyong-nyong
Mosquito
Africa
Not known
Alphavirus
Ross River
Mosquito
Australia
Small animals
Alphavirus
Sindbis
Mosquito
Africa, Asia
Birds, mammals
Alphavirus
Mayaro
Mosquito
South America
Monkeys, marsupials
Flavivirus
Dengue, types 14
Mosquito
Widespread,
especially
Asia Pacific,
Caribbean
Not known
(? Monkeys)
Flavivirus
West Nile
Mosquito
Birds
Phlebovirus
Sandfly fever
Sandfly
Mediterranean, Asia,
Tropical America
not known
(? Small mammals)
Phlebovirus
Mosquito
Americas
Sheep, cattle
Bunyavirus
Oropouche
Mosquito
South America
Not known
Reoviridae
Orbivirus
Tick
USA
Rodents
Togaviridae
Alphavirus
Eastern equine
encephalitis
Mosquito
Americas
Birds
Alphavirus
Western equine
encephalitis
Mosquito
Americas
Reptiles (? Birds)
Alphavirus
Venezuelan equine
Mosquito
Americas
Rodents
Flavivirus
Mosquito
Americas
Birds
Flavivirus
West Nile
Mosquito
Birds
Flavivirus
Japanese encephalitis
Mosquito
Birds
Flavivirus
Murray valley
encephalitis
Mosquito
Australia
Birds
Flavivirus
RSSE complex
Tick
Rodents, other
mammals, birds, ticks
Flavivirus
Louping ill
Tick
Britain
Sheep
Flavivirus
Powassan
Tick
North America
Rodents
Bunyavirus
California
Mosquito
North America
Rodents
Flaviviridae
Bunyaviridae
Flaviviridae
Bunyaviridae
Hemorrhagic fever
Togaviridae
Alphavirus
Chikungunya
Mosquito
Africa, Asia
Not known
(? Monkeys)
Flaviviridae
Flavivirus
Dengue types 14
Mosquito
Tropics
Not known
(? Monkeys)
Flavivirus
Yellow fever
Mosquito
Monkeys, man
Flavivirus
Kyasanur forest
disease
Tick
Southwest India
Rodents (? Ticks)
Flavivirus
Omsk hemorrhagic
fever
Tick
USSR
Small mammals
Flavivirus
Crimean Congo
hemorrhagic fever
Tick
Small mammals
Alphavirus
Rubivirus
Chap-65.indd 448
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|449
Viruses of Togaviridae
Rubivirus
Rubella virus.
1. Alphavirus
Encephalitis viruses: Three members of this
group, Eastern, Western and Venezuelan equine
encephalitis viruses, cause encephalitis in horses
and humans.
Reservoirs: Several species of Culex and Anopheles
mosquitoes are the vectors, and wild birds the
reservoirs.
Vaccine: Formalinized vaccines have been
developed for EEE and WEE and a live attenuated
vaccine for VEE.
4. Sindbis Virus
B. Family Flaviviridae
The family Flaviviridae contains three genera:
1. Flavivirus; 2. Pestivirus; 3. Hepacivirus.
Flavivirus
The name Flavivirus refers to the type species,
the yellow fever virus (Flavus, L = yellow). The
Flaviviridae family consists of about 70 viruses.
Morphology
A. Mosquito-borne Group
2. Onyong-nyong Virus
Onyong-nyong virus (ONNV), is confined to
Africa, is closely related to the chikungunya virus
antigenically and causes a similar disease.
This is transmitted by the Anopheles species
(Anopheles funestus and Anopheles gambiae). The
Mayaro virus causes a similar disease in the West
Indies and South America.
Chap-65.indd 449
B. Tick-borne Group
These viruses producetwo clinical syndromes,
encephalitis and hemorrhagic fevers.
A. Mosquito-borne Group
a. Encephalitis viruses: Five members of this
group cause encephalitis, each of them limited to
a geographic zone.
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Geographical Distribution
The disease has been recognised in Japan since
1871 and was named Japanese B encephalitis to
distinguish it from encephalitis A (encephalitis
lethargica, von Economos disease) which was
then prevalent. The virus was first isolated in Japan
during an epidemic in 1935.
Clinical Features
Problem in India
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Control
1. Vector Control
b. Yellow Fever
Clinical Findings
The incubation period is 36 days. The disease
starts as a fever of acute onset with chills, headache,
nausea and vomiting. Jaundice, albuminuria, and
hemorrhagic manifestations develop and the
patient may die of hepatic or renal failure.
Epidemiology
Two major epidemiologic. Cycles of transmission
of yellow fever are recognized:
1. Urban yellow fever: In the urban cycle,
humans at both as the natural reservoir, and as
the definitive case, the virus being transmitted
by the domestic Aedes aegypti mosquito.
2. Forest or sylvatic cycle: in the forest or sylvatic
cycle, wild monkeys act as the reservoirs and
forest mosquitoes (Haemagogus spegazzinii
in South America and Aedes africanus and A.
simpsoni in Africa) as the vectors. Human cases
occur only when humans trespass into the
Chap-65.indd 451
2. Vaccination:
b. 17D Vaccine
A safe and equally effective vaccine, the 17D
vaccine was developed by Theiler in 1937 by
passaging the Asibi strain serially in mouse embryo
and whole chick embryo tissues and then in chick
embryo tissue from which the central nervous
tissue has been removed and has been used as a
vaccine for over 40 years.
The 17D vaccine is thermolabile and is
administered by subcutaneous inoculation.
Immunity develops within 10 days of vaccination.
Vaccination which is mandatory for travel to or
from endemic areas is valid for 10 years beginning
10 days after vaccination. Serious side effects are
rare with the 17D vaccine. In India, the 17D vaccine
is manufactured at the Central Research Institute,
Kasauli.
c. Dengue
Dengue virus is widely distributed throughout
the tropics and subtropics. The term breakbone fever was coined during the Philadelphia
epidemic in 1780.
Four types of dengue virus exist : DEN 1,
DEN 2, and DEN 3 and 4. Immunity is type
specific. However, the febrile clinical symptoms
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Clinical Findings
Classic dengue usually affects older children and
adults.After incubation period of 27 days, patient
develops fever of sudden onset and often biphasic
with severe headache, chilies, retrobulbar pain,
conjunctivitis and severe pain in the back, muscles
and joints (breakbone fever). A maculopapular
rash generally appears on the trunk in 35 days of
illness and spreads later to the face and extremities.
Lymph nodes are frequently enlarged. Leukopenia
with a relative lymphocytosis is a regular occurrence.
Complications and death are rare.
Complications of Dengue: Dengue may also
occur in more serious forms, with hemorrhagic
manifestations (dengue hemorrhagic fever) or
with shock (dengue shock syndrome). They are
more common in previously healthy children in the
indigenous populations of endemic areas.
Pathogenesis: The pathogenesis of the severe
syndrome involves preexisting dengue antibody.
It is postulated that virusantibody complexes
are formed within a few days of the second
dengue infection and that the non-neutralizing
enhancing antibodies promote infection of
higher numbers of mononuclear cells, followed
by the release of cytokines, vasoactive mediators,
and procoagulants, leading to the disseminated
intravascular coagulation seen in the hemorrhagic
fever syndrome.
Dengue hemorrhagic fever: Dengue hemorrhagic
fever (DHF) may occur in individuals (usually
children) with passively acquired (as maternal
antibody) or preexisting non-neut ralizing
heterologous dengue antibody due to a previous
infection with a different serotype of virus.
Dengue shock syndrome (DSS), a more severe
form of the disease characterized by shock and
hemoconcentration, may ensue. Circumstantial
evidence suggests that secondary infection with
dengue type 2 following a type 1 infection is a
particular risk factor for severe disease.
Laboratory Diagnosis
(a) Specimens
For antibody detectionSerum
For isolation of virus and PCR. Serum, plasma,
whole blood (washed buffy coat), autopsy tissues
and, mosquitoes collected in nature.
A. Virus detection: Isolation of the virus is
difficult. Virus isolation can be done by
inoculating clinical specimen into mosquitoes,
mosquitoes cell lines (C6/36 or AP-61 cells), or
Chap-65.indd 452
Epidemiology
Dengue virus is transmitted from person to person
by Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Most subtropical and
tropical regions around the world where Aedes
vecrors exist are endemic areas. Dengue was
initially confined to the east coast of India and has
caused epidemics. All four types of dengue virus
are present in this country.
Control
Control depends upon antimosquito measures, as
no vaccine is currently available.
A live attenuated vaccine containing all four
dengue serotypes is under clinical trial in order to
avoid DHF/DSS in immunized persons.
B. Tick-borne Group
These viruses produce two clinical syndromes,
encephalitis hemorrhagic fevers.
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Control
The control of infection depends on the avoidance
of tick bites. A formalin inactivated vaccine is
commercially available for the Western subtype
and for the Eastern subtype.
ii. Powassan virus: Powassan virus causes
encephalitis in Canada and Northern USA.
History
KFD was first recognized in 1957 in Shimoga district
of Karnataka state in South India. The situation
changed suddenly in 1982 with the appearance
of an epizootic and epidemic. The outbreak,
known locally as monkey fever, started with dead
monkeys. The ecological disturbance caused by
clear felling of the virgin forest is believed to have
activated a silent enzootic focus of the virus.
Epidemiology
a. Agent-Flavivirus: The agent KFD virus is a
member of group B Togaviruses (Flaviviruses).
b. Natural hosts and reservoirsMain reservoirs
of the virus are small mammals particulairly
rats and squirrels and forest birds. Monkeys are
only amplifier hosts.
Chap-65.indd 453
|453
Clinical Features
Incubation period is between 3 and 8 days. The
disease appears with a sudden onset of fever,
headache and severe myalgia, with prostration in
some patients. The acute phase lasts about 2 weeks.
Gastrointestinal disturbances and hemorrhages
from nose, gums, stomach and intestine may occur
in severe cases.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Virus isolation: Virus can be isolated from
the blood up until the12th day in suckling mice,
hamster or monkey kidney cells or HeLa cells with
cytopathic effect.
B. Serology: Serological diagnosis can be made
with rising antibody (IFA, HI and N) titers in acute
and convalescent sera, as well as by EIA tests.
Control
Control is essentially a breaking of the tick-human
contact. Personal protection involves regular
de-ticking of the body and the use of repellents and
protective clothing.
Vaccine: A killed KFD virus vaccine was used in
a small field, trial and appeared to provide some
degree of protection.
Family Bunyaviridae
The Bunyaviridae family contains more than 300
viruses is the largest group of arboviruses, mostly
arrhropod-rransmitted.
Morphology: The virus is about 100 nm in diameter
and has a complex structure, with a triple segmented
genome of single stranded RNA.
Classification
The family Bunyaviridae contains four genera of
medical importance:
A. BunyavirusMosquito-borne
B. PhlebovirusSandfly
C. NairovirusTick borne
D. HantavirusNon-arthropord borne.
A number of viruses are yet ungrouped.
A. Bunyavirus
The genus contains over 150 species, of which only
a few cause human infections. This genus includes
15-03-2016 11:23:05
B. Phlebovirus
a. Sandfly fever (Phlebotomus fever): Sandfly
fever (Phlebotomus fever) also known as
Pappataci fever and three-day fever, is a
self, nonfatal fever transmitted by the bite of
sandfly Phlebotomus papatasii. It occurs along
the mediterranean Coast and Central Asia,
extendIng as far east as Pakistan and North
West India. Cases have also been reported from
South and Central America.
Natural vectors are Phlebotomus papatasi and
other phlebotomine sandflies.
Twenty antigenic types of the virus exist, of
which only five cause human diseaseNaples,
Sicilian, Punta Toro, Chagres, Candiru. Its
occurrence in India was thought to be doubtful.
b. Rift valley fever: The agent of this disease,
a bunyavirus of the Phleb ovirus genus, is a
mosquito-borne zoonotic virus pathogenic
primarily for sheep, cattle, and goats. Humans
are secondarily infected.
C. Nairovirus
Members of the Crimean Congo hemorrhagic
group are the major human pathogens in this
genus.
Crimean Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF)
virus: is distributed widely. Cattle, sheep, goats
and other domesticated animals act as natural
reservoirs. It is transmitted by Hyalomma ticks.
During the acute phase of the disease, the blood
of the patients is highly infectious and direct
transmission may occur through contact.
Hazara virus: A related virus, Hazara, has been
isolated in Pakistan.
Nairobi sheep disease: It is an acute, hemorrhagic
gastroenteritis caused by a Nairovirus in sheep and
goats in East Africa. It is transmitted by Rhipice
phalus ticks.
Ganjam virus: Ganjam virus, isolated from ticks
collected from sheep and goats in Orissa, India, is
closely related to the Nairobi sheep disease virus.
D. Hantavirus
1. Hantaviruses: Hantaan viruses are classified
in the Hantavirus genus of the Bunyaviridae
family. The viruses are found worldwide and
cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome
Chap-65.indd 454
Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory diagnosis depends on detection
of viral nucleic acid by reverse transcriptionpolymerase chain reaction or detection of specific
antibodies using recombinant proteins of different
hantaviruses. Hantaviruses can be isolated in
cultured cells.
Reoviridae
Family Reoviridae contains four genera-Orbivirus,
Coltivirus, Orthoreovirus, and Rotavirus
The genus Orbivirus contains arthropod
borne viruses. Rotaviruses and reoviruses have no
arthropod vectors.
A. Genus Orbivirus: The genus Orbivirus contains
arthropod borne viruses which infect animals
and humans.
i. African horse sickness virus: African horse
sickness virus, transmitted by Culicoides.
It caused extensive disease among army
horses and mules in India.
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Rhabdoviridae
Chandipura virus: Chandipura virus, belonging
to the vesiculovirus genus of Rhabdoviridae, was
isolated in 1967 from the blood of patients during
an epidemic of dengue chikungunya fever in
Nagpur. The virus appears to multiply in sandflies
and Aedes mosquitoes. Antibodies are common in
human sera from different parts of India, as well as
in animal sera. The pathogenic significance of this
virus has not been established.
UNGROUPED ARBOVIRUSES
Wanowri virus: This was isolated from Hyalomma
ticks in India.
Bhanja virus: This was isolated from hemophysalis
ticks from goats in Ganjam, Orissa.
A.Group A (Alphaviruses)
Sindbis
Chikungunya
B.Group B ( Flaviruses)
Dengue
KFD
JE
West Nile
C.Others
Umbre
Sathuperi
Chandipura
Chittoor
Ganjam
Minnal
Venkatapuram
Dhori
Kaisodi
Sandfly fever
African horse sickness
Vellore
Key Points
Chap-65.indd 455
|455
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Classify arboviruses. Discuss various methods
used for laboratory diagnosis of arboviruses.
2. Name the arboviruses which cause encephalitis.
Describe briefly Japanese B encephalitis.
3. List the arboviruses prevalent in India. Describe
the pathogenicity and laboratory diagnosis of
dengue virus.
4. Write short notes on:
a. Chikungunya
b. Yellow fever
c. Dengue fever (or) Break bone fever
d. Kyasanur forest disease (KFD)
e. Bunyaviruses
f. Sandfly fever (phlebotomus fever)
g. Hantavirusess.
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Chap-65.indd 456
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66
Chapter
Rhabdoviruses
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe morphology of rabies virus
Describe the following: Street virus vs. fixed virus;
pathogenesis and clinical features of rabies; Negri
bodies
Introduction
Bullet shaped, enveloped viruses with single stranded
RNA genome are classified as rhabdoviruses (from
rhabdos, meaning rod) in the family Rhabdoviridae.
Classification
Rhabdoviruses infecting mammals belong to two
genera in Rhabdoviridae family
A. Lyssavirus
It contains rabies virus and related viruses
(Lagos bat virus, Mokola, Duvenhage).
B. Genus vesiculovirus: It contains vesicular
stomatitis virus (VSV) and related viruses like
Chandipur (arbelius).
Rabies virus
Morphology
1. Virion: The rabies virion consists of a helical
nucleocapsid contained in a bullet-shaped
lipoprotein envelope 180 75 nm, with one
end rounded or conical and the other plane or
concave (Fig. 66.1).
2. Proteins: Protruding from the lipid envelope
are approximately 200 glycoprotein (G) spikes
of the virus, hemagglutinin activity. Spikes do
not cover the planar end of the virion.
3. Membrane or matrix (M) protein: Beneath
the envelope is the membrane or matrix (M)
protein and is the major structural protein
Street Virus
Antigenic Properties
There is a single serotype of rabies virus.
A. Glycoprotein G: The surface spikes are
composed of glycoprotein G, which is important
in pathogenesis, virulence and immunity.
Purified spikes containing the viral glycoprotein
elicit neutralizing antibody in animals. The
purified glycoprotein may therefore provide a
safe and effective subunit vaccine.
Hemagglutinating activity: Rabies virus
possesses hemagglutinating activity, optimally
seen with goose erythrocytes at 04 C and
pH 6.2. Hemagglutination is a property of
the glycoprotein spikes. The hemagglutinin
antigen is species specific and distinct from the
antigens on rabies related viruses.
B. Nucleocapsid protein: Complement fixing
antibodies are induced by the nucleocapsid
protein and are not protective. This antigen
is group specific and cross-reactions are seen
with some rabies related viruses. Antiserum pre
pared against the purified nucleocapsid is used
in diagnostic immunofluorescence for rabies.
C. Other antigens: Other antigens identified
include two membrane proteins, glycolipid
and RNA dependent RNA polymerase.
Fixed Virus
After several serial intracerebral passages in rabbits,
the virus undergoes certain changes and becomes
what is called the fixed virus that no longer multiplies
in extraneural tissues. The fixed (or murant) virus
is more neurotropic, though it is much less infective
by other routes. After intracerebral inoculation, it
produces fatal encephalitis after a short and fixed
incubation period of 67 days. Negri bodies are
usually not demonstrable in the brain of animals
dying of fixed virus infection. The fixed virus is used
for vaccine production.
B. Chick Embryos
The rabies virus can be grown in chick embryos.
The usual mode of inoculation is into the yolk sac.
Serial propagation in chick embryos has led to the
development of attenuated vaccine strains like
Flury and Kelev.
C. Tissue Culture
The rabies virus can grow in chick embryo
fibroblast, porcine or hamster kidney cells human
diploid cell and vero cell cultures.
Pathogenesis
Rabies infection usually results from the bite of
rabid dogs or other animals. The virus can also be
transmitted following nonbite exposures through
the inhalation of aerosolized virus (as may be found
in bat caves), in transplanted infected tissue (e.g.
cornea), and by inoculation through intact mucosal
membranes. The virus present in the saliva of the
animal is deposited in the wound.
The virus appears to multiply in the muscles,
connective tissue or nerves at the site of deposition.
The virus remains at the site for days to months
(Fig. 66.2) before progressing to the central
nervous system (CNS). Rabies virus travels by
retrograde axoplasmic transport to the dorsal root
ganglia and to the spinal cord. Once the virus gains
access to the spinal cord, the brain becomes rapidly
infected. The virus then disseminates from the CNS
via afferent neurons to highly innervated sites, such
as the skin of the head and neck, salivary glands,
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B. Rabies in Dogs
Clinical Picture
Fig. 66.2: Pathogenesis of rabies virus infection
Clinical Features
A. Humans
Rabies is primarily a disease of lower animals and
is spread to humans by bites of rabid animals or
by contact with saliva from rabid animals. The
infection has also been acquired from aerosols in
bats caves.
The incubation period in humans is typically
12 months but may be as short as 1 week or as long
as many years (up to 19 years). It is usually shorter
in children than in adults.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Diagnosis of Human Rabies
Tests are performed on samples of saliva, serum,
spinal fluid, and skin biopsies of hair follicles at the
nape of the neck.
B. Virus Isolation
a. Mouse Inoculation
Samples of brain tissue, saliva, CSF, or urine may
be injected intracerebrally into newborn mice for
C. Serology
Rabies antibodies can be detected in the serum and
CSF of the patient by ELISA. High titer antibodies
are present in the CSF in rabies but not after
immunization.
2. Animal Rabies
The head of the animal is cut off and sent to the
nearest testing laboratory, duly packed in ice in an
air-tight container. Alternatively, the brain may be
removed with antiseptic precautions and sent in
50% glycerol-saline for examination and the other
in Zenkers fixative, sent for biological test and
microscopy, respectively. The portion of brain sent
should include the hippocampus and cerebellum
as Negri bodies are most abundant there. The
following tests are done in the laboratory:
1. Demonstration of rabies virus antigen by
immunofluorescence
This is a highly reliable and the best single test
currently available for the rapid diagnosis of rabies
viral antigen in infected specimens. This test
can establish a highly specific diagnosis within
a few hours. Examination of salivary glands by
immunofluorescence is useful.
2. Demonstration of inclusion bodies (Negri
bodies)
A definitive pathologic diagnosis of rabies can be
based on the finding of Negri bodies in the brain
or the spinal cord. Negri bodies, named after the
Prophylaxis
This may be considered under:
A. Postexposure Prophylaxis
B. Preexposure Prophylaxis
A. Post-exposure Prophylaxis
This consists of: a. Local treatment , b. Antirabic
vaccines, c. Hyperimmune serum.
a. Local treatment of wound:
i. Cleansing: Immediate flushing and
washing the wound(s), scratches and the
adjoining areas with plenty of soap and
water, preferably under a running tap, for
at least 5 minutes as soap inactivates virus
by destroying its envelope.
ii. Chemical treatment: After cleansing
wound should be inactivated by irrigation
with virucidal agents - either alcohol
I. Neural Vaccines
These are suspensions of nervous tissues of
animals infected with the fixed rabies virus.
1. Semple Vaccine
Semple (1911) developed this vaccine at the Central
Research Institute, Kasauli (India), had been the
most widely used vaccine for over half a century.
It is a 5% suspension of sheep brain infected with
fixed virus and inactivated with phenol at 37C,
leaving no residual live virus.
2. Beta propiolactone (BPL) vaccine
This is a modification of the Semple vaccine,
in which beta propiolactone is used as the
inactivating agent instead of phenol. It is prepared
from fixed virus grown in the brains of adult sheep
(Semple type) or other animals. It is believed to be
more antigenic.
|461
3. Subunit Vaccine
The glycoprotein subunit on the virus surface,
which is the protective antigen, has been cloned
and recombinant vaccines produced. They are still
in the experimental stage.
Dosage Schedules
Vaccination Schedules
Neural Vaccines
The dosage of the vaccine depends on the degree
of risk to which the patient has been exposed.
Accordingly, patients are classified as follows.
Classification of Exposures
One of the factors determining the dose of antirabies vaccine is the degree of risk of rabies to
which the person is exposed. Accordingly, patients
are classified as follows.
Class I (Slight risk)
a. Licks on healthy unbroken skin.
b. Licks on intact mucous membrane or conjunctiva.
c. Bites or scratches which have raised the
epidermis but have not drawn blood, on all
parts of the body except the head, face, neck or
fingers.
d. Consumption of unboiled milk or handling raw
flesh of rabid animals.
Class II (Moderate risk)
a. Licks on definitely remembered fresh cuts or
abrasions on the fingers.
b. Scratches with oozing of blood.
c. All bites except those on head, neck, face, palms
and fingers.
d. Minor wounds less than 5 in number.
Class III (Severe risk)
a. Licks on definitely remembered fresh cuts or
abrasions on head, face or neck.
b. All bites or scratches on the head, face or neck.
c. All bites or scratches on the fingers which are
lacerated, more than half centimeter long or
have penetrated the true skin.
d. All bites penetrating the true skin and drawing
blood, when there are five teeth marks or more.
e. All bites on any part of the body causing
extensive laceration.
f. Bites from wild animalsAll jackal and wolf
bites.
g. Any Class II patient who has not received
treatment within 14 days of exposure.
Adverse Reactions
1. General: Headache, insomnia, giddiness,
palpitation, diarrhea.
2. Local: Itching irritation, pain, tenderness,
redness and swelling at the site of injection.
3. Allergic: Urticaria, syncope, angioneurotic
edema, anaphylactic reaction.
4. Neuroparalysis: Post-vaccinial paralysis due to
sensitization.
i. Preexposure Prophylaxis
This is indicated for persons at high risk of contact
with rabies virus such as laboratory workers
handling rabies virus or with rabid animals
(veterinarians). Preexposure prophylaxis requires
three doses of the vaccine injected on day 0, 7, 21 or
0, 28 and 56. A booster dose is recommended after
one year and then one every five years.
C. Passive Immunization
Passive immunization is an important adjunct to
vaccination and should be invariably employed
whenever the exposure is considered of high risk.
Two preparations of anti rabies serum are available
for passive immunization:
i. Horse Antirabies Serum: It should be given on
day 0 in a single dose of 40 IU/kg of body weight
subject to a maximum of 3000 Units.
Virus
Isolated
from
Disribution
1.
Rabies
Warm
blooded
animals
Worldwide
with few
exceptions
2.
Lagos bat/
Natal bat
Bat/cat
Nigeria/
Central and
South Africa
3.
Mokola
Shrew/
cat/dog/
human
Nigeria/
other African
countries
4.
Duvenhage
Human/
bat
South Africa
5.
European
bat
lyssavirus:
Type I
Bat/human
Europe
6.
European
bat
lyssavirus:
Type II
Bat/human
Europe
7.
Australian
bat
lyssavirus:
Bat/human
Australia
B. Preexposure Prophylaxis
This is indicated for persons at high risk of contact
with rabies virus or with rabid animals. It is rec
ommended that antibody titers of vaccinated
individuals be monitored periodically and that
boosters be given when required.
Epidemiology
Rabies is the classic zoonotic infection, spread
from animals to humans. Rabies virus is present in
terrestrial animals in all parts of the world except
Australasia and Antartica, and some islands like
Britain.
All warm blooded animals including man are
susceptible to rabies. Rabies in man is a dead-end
infection, and has no survival value for the virus.
Major source of virus is saliva in bite of rabid
animal. Direct person-to-person transmission of
rabies has not been recorded. An unusual mode
of transmission of rabies has occurred in some
recipients of corneal grafts. Minor source is aerosols
in bat caves containing rabid bats.
Epidemiological forms of rabies: Rabies exists
in two epidemiological forms: a. Urban rabies: b.
Wild-life or sylvatic rabies:
In certain Latin American countries and parts
of U.S.A. the vampire bat is an important host
and vector of rabies. Vampire bats have not been
reported in India.
Reservoir of rabiesReservoir of rabies are
wild animals.
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Control
Human rabies can be checked by control of rabies
in domestic animals, by registration, licensing and
vaccination of pets and destruction of stray animals.
Key Points
Rhabdoviruses are bullet or rod shaped, enveloped
viruses with single stranded RNA genome
The rabies virus causes rabies in humans and a wide
variety of animals
Important questions
1. Describe the morphology and draw a labeled
diagram of rabies virus. Discuss the laboratory
diagnosis of rabies.
2. Discuss the pathogenesis and clinical features of
rabies.
67
67
Chapter
Hepatitis Viruses
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Classify various hepatitis viruses
Tabulate differences between various hepatitis
viruses
Compare various features of hepatitis A virus (HAV)
and hepatitis B virus (HBV)
Describe the following: Morphology of hepatitis
B virus; antigenic structure of hepatitis B virus;
Introduction
Viral hepatitis is a systemic disease primarily
involving the liver. At least six viruses, A through E
and a newly discovered G, are considered hepatitis
viruses. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and Hepatitis B
virus (HBV) are the best known, but three nonA, non-B hepatitis (NANBH) viruses (C, G, and
E) have been described, as has hepatitis D virus
(HDV), the delta agent (Table 67.1).
Hepatitis A Virus
(Infectious hepatitis)
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) causes infectious hepatitis
and is spread by the fecaloral route. It is a subacute
disease of global distribution, affecting mainly chil
dren and young adults.
Morphology
HAV is a 27 nm nonenveloped RNA virus belonging
to the Picornavirus family (Fig. 67.1). Although it
was first provisionally classified as enterovirus 72,
but it has been placed into a new genus, Heparna
virus, on the basis of its unique genome. Only one
serotype is known.
Resistance
HAV is stable to treatment with 20% ether, acid
(pH 1.0 for 2 hours), and heat (60C for 1 hour).
Pathogenesis
Hepatitis A virus is ingested and probably enters
the bloodstream through the oropharynx or the
epithelial lining of the intestines to reach its target,
the parenchymal cells of the liver. The virus can be
localized by immunofluorescence in hepatocytes
and Kupffers cells. Virus is produced in these cells
and is released into the bile and from there into
the stool. Virus is shed in large quantity into the
stool approximately 10 days before symptoms of
jaundice appear or antibody can be detected.
Epidemiology
The HAV transmission is by the fecaloral route in
contaminated water, in food, and by dirty hands.
HAV outbreaks usually originate from a common
source (e.g. water supply, restaurant, daycare center).
Under crowded conditions and poor sanitation,
HAV infections occur at an early age. In India, type A
hepatitis is the most common cause of acute hepatitis
in children, but is much less frequent in adults.
Virus structure
HCV, 3060 nm
RNA, Flavivirus
(hepacivirus)
HDV, 3537 nm
Defective RNA
Deltavirus
Modes of
infection
Fecal-oral
Parenteral
Vertical, sexual
Parenteral
Parenteral
Fecaloral
Age affected
Children
Any age
Adults
Any age
Young adults
Incubation
period (days)
1545
30180
15160
30180
1560
Onset
Acute
Insidious
Insidious
Insidious
Acute
Illness
Mild
Occasionally
severe
Moderate
Occasionally severe
Carrier state
Nil
Common
Present
Nil
Oncogenicity
Nil
Present specially
after neonatal
infection
Present
Nil
Nil
Prevalence
Worldwide
Worldwide
Probably
worldwide
Endemic areas
(Mediterranean, N,
Europe, Central and
N. America)
Only developing
countriest lndia,
Asia, Africa, Central,
America)
Laboratory
diagnosis
Specific
prophylaxis
Ig and vaccine
Ig and vaccine
Nil
HBV vaccine
Nil
Clinical Features
The incubation period is 26 weeks. Disease in
children is generally milder than that in adults
and is usually asymptomatic. The clinical disease
consists of two stages: the prodromal or preicteric
and the icteric stages. The onset may be acute or
insidious, with fever, malaise, anorexia, nausea,
Laboratory Diagnosis
Etiological diagnosis of type A hepatitis may be
made by demonstration of the virus or its antibody.
A. Demonstration of the virus: The virus can be
visualized by immune electron microscopy
(IEM) in fecal extracts during the late incubation
period and the preicteric phase.
B. Demonstration of antibody: The best way
to demonstrate an acute HAV infection is by
finding anti-HAV immunoglobulin M (IgM), as
measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent
assay (ELISA) or radioimmunoassay. Antibody
IgM anti-HAV antibody appears during the
late incubation period, reaches peak levels in
23 weeks and disappears after 34 months.
IgG antibody appears at about the same time,
peaks in 34 months and persists much longer,
perhaps for life (Fig. 67.2). Demonstration of
IgM antibody in serum indicates current or
recent infection, while IgG antibody denotes
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Prophylaxis
A. General Measures
The spread of HAV is reduced by interrupting the
fecaloral spread of the virus by avoiding potentially
contaminated water or food, water.
B. Immunization
1. Passive protection: Specific passive prophylaxis
by pooled normal human immunoglobulin
(16% solution in a dose of 0.20.12 mL/kg body
weight) intramuscular (IM), before exposure
or in early incubation period, can prevent or
attenuate clinical illness, while not necessarily
preventing infection and virus excretion.
2. Hepatitis A vaccine
i. Formalin inactivated, alum conjugaged
vaccine: A safe and effective formalin
inactivated, alum conjugated vaccine
containing HAV grown in human diploid
cell culture is available for use in children
and adults at high risk for infection,
especially travelers to endemic regions. A
full course consists of two intramuscular
injections of the vaccine. Protection begins
4 weeks after injection and lasts for 1020
years.
ii. Live HAV vaccine: It has been developed
in China.
Treatment
Treatment is symptomatic. No specific antiviral
drug is available.
Classification
HBV is assigned to a separate family Hepadnaviridae
(Hepatitis DNA viruses) which consists of two
genera:
i.
Orthohepadnavirus: It containing HBV as
well as the woodchuck and ground squirrel
hepatitis viruses. HBV is Hepadnavirus type 1.
ii. Avihepadnavirus: It containing the Pekin
duck and gray heron hepatitis viruses.
Structure
The HBV is a 42 nm DNA virus with an outer
envelope and an inner core, 27 nm in diameter,
enclosing the viral genome and a DNA polymerase
(Fig. 67.3) which is circular double stranded DNA.
Australia antigen: In 1965, Blumberg, studying
human serum lipoprotein allotypes, observed in
the serum of an Australian aborigine, a new antigen
which gave a clearly defined line of precipitation
with sera from two hemophiliacs who had received
multiple blood transfusions. This was named the
Australia antigen. By 1968 the Australia antigen
was found to be associated with serum hepatitis.
It was subsequently shown to be the surface
component of HBV. Therefore, the name Australia
antigen was changed to hepatitis B surface antigen
(HBsAg).
Types of particles: Under the electron microscope,
sera from type B hepatitis patients show three types
of particles (Fig. 67.4).
i. Spherical particle: The predominant form is
a small, spherical particle with a diameter of
22 nm.
ii. Tubular particle: The second type of particle
is filamentous or tubular with a diameter of 22
nm and of varying length. The particles carry
the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg).
Antigenic Structure
1. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg): The
envelope proteins expressed on the surface
of the virion and the surplus 22 nm diameter
spherical and filamentous particles constitute
the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg).
HBV Subtypes
The particles containing HBsAg are antigenically
complex. It contains two different antigenic
componentsthe common group reactive antigen
a, and two pairs of type specific antigens d-y and
w-r, only one member of each pair being present at
a time. HBsAg can thus be divided into four major
antigenic subtypes: adw, adr, ayw and ayr.
They show a distinct geographical distribution.
(Table 67.3).
Cultivation
HBV does not grow in any conventional culture
system. However, limited production of the virus
and its proteins can be obtained from several cell
lines transfected with HBV DNA. HBV proteins have
been cloned in bacteria and yeast. The chimpanzee
is susceptible to experimental infection and can be
used as a laboratory model.
Stability
Regions
Antigen
S
(Having three regions S,
Pre-S1 and Pre-S2)
S
S + Pre-S2
S + Pre-S1 and S2
C
(Having two regions C and
Pre-C)
C
C + Pre-C
DNA polymerase
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Epidemiology
Distribution
adw
Worldwide
adr
Asia
ayw
ayr
Clinical Syndromes
Acute Infection
The clinical presentation of HBV in children is less
severe than that in adults, and infection may even
be asymptomatic. Clinically apparent illness occurs
in as many as 25% of those infected with HBV.
1. Preicteric phase: HBV infection is characterized
by a long incubation period (about 16 months)
and an insidious onset. Symptoms during the
prodromal period may include fever, malaise,
and anorexia, followed by nausea, vomiting,
abdominal discomfort, and chills.
2. Icteric phase: The classic icteric symptoms of
liver damage (e.g. jaundice, dark urine, pale
stools) follow soon thereafter.
3. Convalescent phase: About 9095% of adults
with acute hepatitis B infection recover within
12 months of onset and eliminate the virus from
the body within about six months, remaining
immune thereafter. Mortality is about 0.52%.
Chronic infection: A proportion of cases (110%)
remain chronically infected. They may be asympto
matic carriers or may progress to recurrent or chronic
liver disease or cirrhosis. A few of them may develop
hepatocellular carcinoma after many decades.
Pathogenesis
The pathogenesis of hepatitis appears to be immune
mediated. HBV replicates in the hepatocytes,
reflected in the detection of viral DNA and HBcAg
in the nucleus and HBsAg in the cytoplasm and at
the hepatocyte membrane.
Mode of Transmission
The HBV is a blood borne virus and there are three
important modes of transmission:
1. Parenteral transmission
2. Perinatal transmission
3. Sexual transmission.
1. Parenteral transmission: HBV is transmitted
only in blood and other body fluids, including
cervical secretions, semen, and breast milk. Many
other therapeutic, diagnostic, prophylactic and
even nonmedical procedures are now the main
modes of infection. HBV is very highly infectious
far more that HIV.
2. Perinatal transmission: Vertical transmission
from mother to child is one of the most
important routes. HBV can be transmitted to
babies through contact with the mothers blood
at birth and in mothers milk.
3. Sexual transmission: Since HBV is present in
semen and vaginal secretions, therefore, it can
be transmitted by sexual contact. The risk of
transmission by heterosexual and homosexual
contact increases with the number of partners
and the duration of such relationships.
Hepatitis B Carriers
Carriers are of two types:
1. Super carriers: They have HBeAg, high titters
of HBsAg and DNA polymerase in their blood.
HBV may also be demonstrable in their blood.
Very minute amount of serum or blood from
such carriers can transmit the infection. About a
quarter of the carriers in India are HBeAg positive.
2. Simple carriers: These are more common
types of carriers who have low titer of HBsAg
in blood, with negative HBeAg, HBV and DNA
polymerase. They transmit the infection only
HBV Markers
The main antigens HBsAg, HBcAg, and HBeAg
each induce corresponding antibodies. With
the exception of HBcAg, all these antigens and
antibodies, together with the viral DNA polymerase,
can be detected in the blood at various times after
infection and are referred to as markers (Table
67.4). HBcAg is readily detectable only in the
hepatocyte nuclei.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Specific Diagnosis
Specific diagnosis of hepatitis B tests on serological
demonstration of the viral markers and can be
carried out by detection of HBsAg, anti-HBs,
HBeAg, anti-HBe, IgM anti-HBc, IgG anti-HBc
and HBV DNA in the serum. The sequence of
appearance of viral markers in the blood is shown
in Figure 67.6. These can be detected by sensitive
and specific tests like ELISA and RIA.
Serological tests
HBsAg
HBeAg
Anti-HBS
Anti-HBe
Anti-HBc
IgM
IgG
Acute hepatitis
Simple carrier
Super carrier
Past infection
4. Biochemical Tests
In acute viral hepatitis caused by various hepatitis
viruses, levels of serum transaminases (amino
transferases) are increased 5100-fold. Both
alanine and aminotransferase and aspartate
aminotransferase, rise together late in the incubation
period. Peak level is obtained about the time jaundice
appears and reverts to normal in next 2 months.
Serum bilirubin levels may rise up to 25-fold.
Prophylaxis
Measures for the control of HBV infection are the
same as those for HIV infection.
A. General prophylaxis: consists in avoiding
risky practices like promiscuous sex, injectable
drug abuse and direct or indirect contact with
blood, semen or other body fluids of patients
and carriers.
B. Immunization:
I.
Passive immunization: Hyperimmune
hepatitis B immune globulin (HBIG)Hyperimmune hepatitis B immune globulin
(HBIG) prepared from human volunteers
with high titer anti-HBs, administered 1M in
a dose of 300500 iu soon after exposure to
infection constitutes passive immunisation.
It may not prevent infection, but protects
against illness and the carrier state.
HBIG must be given as soon as possible
after an accident and preferably within 48
hours. A second dose is given 4 weeks later to
those who do not respond to current vaccines.
If the victim has not been vaccinated, HBIG
should be used and a course of active
immunization started, injecting the two
materials into different body sites.
II. Active immunization:
1.
Plasma-derived hepatitis B vaccine:
The initial vaccine was prepared by
purifying HBsAg associated with the
22 nm particles from healthy HBsAgpositive carriers and treating the particles
with virus-inactivating agents (formalin,
urea, heat). This was immunogenic,
but became unacceptable because its
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Treatment
No specific antiviral treatment is available for acute
HBV infection. Hepatitis B immune globulin may
be administered within a week of exposure and
to newborn infants of HBsAg-positive mothers.
Interferon alpha, alone or in combination, with
other antiviral agents, such as lamivudine and
famcyclovir, has been beneficial in some cases of
chronic hepatitis.
Clinical Features
The incubation period is long, 15160 days, with a
mean of 50 days.
HCV causes three types of disease:
i. Acute hepatitis with resolution of the infect
ion and recovery in 15% of cases.
ii. Chronic persistent infection with possible
progression to disease much later in life for 70%.
iii. Severe rapid progression to cirrhosis in 15% of
patientsMany patients develop cirrhosis and
are at high risk for hepatocellular carcinoma
(525%) decades later.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Antobody detection: The diagnosis and
detection of HCV infection are based on ELISA
recognition of antibody. The antigens used are
various structural and nonstructural proteins
cloned in E. coli. Confirmation by immunoblot
assay is therefore recommended. In HCV
infection antibodies appear irregularly and late,
limiting their diagnostic utility.
B. HCV RNA identification: Reverse transcriptasepolymerase chain reaction, branched-chain
DNA, and other genetic techniques can detect
HCV RNA in seronegative people and have
become key tools in the diagnosis of HCV
infection.
Pathogenesis
Its mode of transmission is the same as for HBV.
Similar to HBV, the delta agent is spread in blood,
semen, and vaginal secretions. However, it can
replicate and cause disease only in people with
active HBV infections.
Prophylaxis
Only general prophylaxis, such as screening of
blood and blood products prior to transfusion, is
possible. No specific active or passive immunizing
agent is available.
Treatment
Recombinant interferon-alpha, alone or with
ribavarin is the only known treatment for HCV.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The only way to determine the presence of the
agent is by detecting the delta antigen or antibodies.
ELISA and radioimmunoassay procedures are
available for doing this. Anti-delta antibodies
appear in serum and can be identified by ELISA.
The IgM antibody appears 23 weeks after infection
and is soon replaced by the IgG antibody in acute
delta infection.
For the rapid identification of delta particles in
circulation, RNA sequences have been cloned and
DNA probes have been developed. The woodchuck
has been found to be a suitable experimental
model for the study of HDV infection.
Treatment
There is no known specific treatment for HDV
hepatitis.
Prophylaxis
Because the delta agent depends on HBV for repli
cation and is spread by the same routes, prevention
of infection with HBV prevents HDV infection.
Immunization with HBV vaccine protects against
subsequent deltavirus infection.
Clinical Features
The incubation period ranges from 29 weeks with
an average of six weeks. Most cases occur in the
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Epidemiology
HEV is predominantly spread by the feco-oral
route, especially in contaminated water. Hepatitis
E has been shown to occur in epidemics, endemics
and sporadic forms almost exclusively in the
less developed parts of the world. A substantial
proportion of cases of acute viral hepatitis occurring
in young to middle-aged adults in Asia and the
Indian subcontinent appear to be caused by HEV.
The largest such epidemic occurred in Delhi
during the winter of 195556, following a breakdown
in the water supply and sewage systems of Delhi,
affecting over 30,000 persons. The cause was
eventually identified as a new agent, HEV. A similar
epidemic of hepatitis E occurred between December
1975 and January 1976 in Ahmedabad city, India.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Several antibody assays are being developed,
mostly based on ELISA methods.
1. Exclusion of hepatitis A and hepatitis B:
Exclusion of hepatitis A by IgM serology and
hepatitis B by absence of HBsAg and IgM antiHBc.
2. Immunoelectron microscopy: Immunoelectron
microscopic examination of patient feces for
aggregated calicivirus-like particles using
monoclonal antibodies.
3. ELISA tests: for IgM and IgG anti-HEV.
4. Western blot assay: A Western blot assay for
IgM and/or IgG antiHEV.
5. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): Polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) assay for the detection of
HEV RNA (as cDNA) in patient feces or in acutephase sera.
Prophylaxis
General measures: These depend on the mainten
ance of a clean water supply, and generally
resemble those used to control HAV.
Immunization: Vaccines based on recombinant
antigens are under development, and show some
promise.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. HGV is identified by detection of the genome by
reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction
(RT-PCR) or other RNA detection methods.
2. An immunoassay has been developed to detect
anti-HG env. Serum HGV RNA indicates viremia,
whereas anti-HGenv is associated with recovery.
Key Points
At least six viruses, A through G (A, B, C, D, E and G.)
are hepatitis viruses
All the hepatitis viruses are RNA viruses, except
the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which is a DNA virus
belonging to the family Hepadnaviridae
Hepatitis A virus (HAV)
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) can be demonstrated in the
stool by immunoelectron microscopy (IEM). ELISA is
the method for detection of IgM and IgG antibodies
in the serum
Prevention of HAV infection depends on: vaccines
containing formalin-inactivated HAV
Hepatitis B Virus
HBV is associated with hepatocellular carcinoma
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a double-walled spherical
structure and measures 42 nm in diameter (Dane
particle). The outer surface or envelope of virus
contains hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). It
Important questions
1. Name the hepatitis viruses. Describe the morphology
and antigenic structure of hepatitis B virus.
2. Classify hepatitis viruses. Discuss the laboratory
diagnosis of infections caused by hepatitis B virus.
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68
Chapter
Retroviruses: Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Classify retroviruses.
Describe morphology of human immunodeficiency
virus
Describe the antigenic structure of human immuno
deficiency virus (HIV) and draw labeled diagram of
HIV-I
Describe modes of transmission of human immuno
deficiency virus
Describe types of exposure and their relative risks
Retroviruses
These are RNA viruses that belong to family
Retroviridae (Re = Reverse, tr = transcriptase).
Members of this family possess an RNA genome
and the characteristic biochemical feature is the
presence of RNAdependent DNA polymerase
(reverse transcriptase) within the virus.
Classification
The family Retroviridae is classified into three
subfamilies (Table 68.1).
D
iscuss opportunistic infections associated with
human immunodeficiency virus infection
D escribe the laboratory diagnosis of human
immunodeficiency virus infection
D escribe the laboratory tests for detection of
specific antibodies in human immunodeficiency
virus infection
Describe strategies of human immunodeficiency
virus testing
Describe the following: Antiviral therapy for HIV;
postexposure prophylaxis.
Structure
1. Enveloped virus: HIV is a spherical enveloped
virus, about 90120 nm in size (Fig. 68.1).
2. Nucleocapsid: The nucleocapsid has an outer
icosahedral shell and an inner coneshaped
core, enclosing the ribonucleoproteins.
3. Genome: There are two identical copies of the
positive sense, single-stranded RNA genome in
the capsid (retroviruses are diploid). Also found
within the capsid are the enzymes reverse
Genus
Virus
Disease
Oncovirinae
Retrovirus
HTLV-1
HTLV-2
Lentivirinae
Lentivirus
HIV-1
HIV-2
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AIDS
AIDS
Gene
Virus
Function
gag
All
pol
All
Polymerasereverse transcriptase,
protease, integrase
env
All
Envelopeglycoproteins
tax
HTLV
tat
HIV-1
rex
HTLV
rev
HIV-1
nef
HIV-1
vif
HIV-1
vpu
HIV-1
vpr (vpx*)
HIV-1
LTR
All
*In HIV-2
HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HTLV, human
T-lymphotropic virus; LTR, long-terminal repeat (sequence)
Classification
Lentiviruses have been isolated from many species,
including at least 26 different African nonhuman
Resistance
1. Temperature: HIV is inactivated by heat, in the
autoclave or hot air oven. HIV is thermolabile,
being inactivated in 10 minutes at 60C and in
seconds at 100C.
2. Lyophilization: It withstands lyophilization.
3. Disinfectants: HIV is completely inactivated by
treatment for 10 minutes at room temperature
with any of the following: 10% household bleach,
50% ethanol, 35% isopropanol, 1% Nonidet
P40, 0.5% Lysol, 0.5% paraformaldehyde, or
0.3% hydrogen peroxide. The virus is also
inactivated by extremes of pH (pH 1.0, pH
Routes of Transmission
Virus is present in the blood, semen, and cervical
and vaginal secretions, and these sources are
important in transmission. HIV is spread only by
three modes (Table 68.4):
1. Sexual contact with infected persons (hetero
sexual or homosexual).
2. By blood and blood products.
3. From infected mother to babies (intrapartum,
perinatal, postnatal).
The modes of transmission of HIV and their
relative risks are shown in Table 68.5.
1. Sexual Intercourse
HIV is primarily a sexually transmitted infection.
Both sexes are affected equally. Transmission in the
developing countries is almost always heterosexual
and can take place in both directions.
Specific transmission
2. Sexual transmission
3. Mother to baby
Intrauterine transmission
Peripartum transmission
Breast milk
Household members
Healthcare workers not
exposed to blood
Efficiency
Blood transfusion
>90%
Perinatal
1340%
Sexual intercourse
Anal intercourse
Vaginal intercourse
1% per episode
0.1% per episode
0.51%
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3. Mother-to-child Transmission
Transmission of infection from mother to baby can
take place before, during or after birth. Mother-toinfant transmission rates vary from 13 to 40% in
untreated women. Infants can become infected in
utero, during the birth process, or, more commonly,
through breastfeeding. Transmission during
breastfeeding usually occurs early (by 6 months).
Pathogenesis
Infection is transmitted when the virus enters
the blood or tissues of a person and comes into
contact with a suitable host cell, principally the
CD4 lymphocyte. The major determinant in the
pathogenesis and disease caused by HIV is the
virus tropism for CD4-expressing T cells and cells
of the macrophage lineage.
HIV genome is uncoated and internalized into
the cell after fusion of the virus with the host cell
membrane Viral reverse transcriptase mediates
transcription of its RNA into double stranded
DNA, which is integrated into the genome of
the infected cell through the action of the viral
enzyme integrase, causing a latent infection. HIV
causes lytic and latent infection of CD4 T cells
and persistent infection of cells of the monocyte
macrophage family and disrupts neurons. The
outcomes of these actions are immunodeficiency
and acquired immunod eficiency syndrome
(AIDS) dementia. From time to time, lytic
infection is initiated releasing progeny virions
which infect other cells. The long and variable
incubation period of HIV infection is because of
the latency. HIV can be isolated from the blood,
lymphocytes, cell-free plasma, semen, cervical
secretions, saliva, tears, urine and breast milk in
an infected individual.
The primary pathogenic mechanism in HIV
infection is the damage caused to the CD4+ T
lymphocyte. The T4 cells decrease in numbers
Group II
Asymptomatic infection
Group III
Persistent generalized
lymphadenopathy
Group IV
Other diseases:
Subgroup A
Constitutional diseaseARC
Subgroup B
Neurologic diseases
Subgroup C
Category C1
Specified infectious
diseases listed in the CDC
surveillance definition
for AIDS, such as P. carinii
pneumonia, cryptosporidiosis,
toxoplasmosis, generalized
strongyloidiasis,
cryptococcosis CMV or herpes
diseases.
Category C2
Subgroup D
Subgroup E
Other conditions.
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I. BACTERIAL
1.
M. avium complex
2.
Mycobacterium tuberculosisdisseminated or
extrapulmonary
3.
Salmonellarecurrent septicemia
II. VIRAL
1. Cytomegalovirus
2. Herpes simplex virus
3. Varicella-zoster virus
4. Epstein-Barr virus
5. Human herpesvirus 6
6. Human herpesvirus 8
III. FUNGAL
1. Candidiasis
2. Cryptococcosis
3. Aspergillosis
4.
Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
5. Histoplasmosis
6. Coccidioidomycosis
IV. PARASITIC
1. Toxoplasomosis
2. Cryptosporidiosis
3. lsosporiasis
4. Microsporidiosis
5. Generalized strongyloidiasis
V. MALIGNANCIES
1. Kaposis sarcoma
2. B cell lymphoma or non-Hodgkins lymphoma
VI. SLIM DISEASE
Laboratory Diagnosis
2. Virus Isolation
The virus is present in circulation and body fluids,
within lymphocytes or cell-free. It can be isolated
from CD4 lymphocytes of peripheral blood, bone
marrow and serum. The technique of isolation
is by cocultivation of the patients lymphocytes
with uninfected lymphocytes in the presence of
interleukin-2. Virus presence is detected by assays
for reverse transcriptase and p24 antigen in the
culture fluids.
Virus titers parallel p24 titers, being high soon
after infection, low and antibody bound during
the asymptomatic period, and again high towards
the end.
p24 Ag (free)
Anti-HIV IgG
Anti-HIV IgM
Early infection
Carrier asymptomatic
Full pattern
PGL
Loss of p24/p55
AIDS
4. Antibody Detection
Demonstration of antibodies is the simplest and
most widely employed technique for the diagnosis
of HIV infection. The mean time to seroconversion
after HIV infection is 34 weeks. Most individuals
will have detectable antibodies within 612 weeks
after infection, whereas virtually all will be positive
within 6 months.
Serological tests for anti-HIV antibodies are of
two type-screening and confirmatory tests (Table
68.10).
B. Confirmatory Tests
a. Western blot test: In this test, HIV proteins
separated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
are blotted onto strips of nitrocellulose paper. The
antigen impregnated nitrocellulose is then cut into
strips. Each strip is then incubated with a dilution
of patient serum. Antibodies which attach to the
separated viral antigens on the strip are detected
by antihuman immunoglobulin antibody to which
enzyme has been attached followed by application
of a substrate. The substrate changes color in
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B. Nonspecific Tests
Immunological Tests
Fig. 68.3: Diagrammatic representation of Western blot
test for HIV
Epidemiology
Routes of Transmission
HIV is spread only by three modessexual
contact with infected persons; by blood and blood
products; and from infected mother to babies
(intrapartum, perinatal, postnatal).
Control
i. Sexual transmission: The best method of
checking sexual transmission of infection is
health education The use of condoms and
vaginal antiseptics could have an impact.
ii. Exposure to blood: Drug injectors can avoid
risk by not injecting, or can reduce risk by
using only clean equipment.
iii. Mother to child transmission: This can be
reduced by identifying infected mothers and
giving specific therapy in the later stages of
pregnancy and to the baby after birth. All
women who have been potentially exposed
should seek HIV antibody testing before
becoming pregnant and, if the test is positive,
should consider avoiding pregnancy. HIV
infected mothers should avoid breastfeeding
to reduce transmission of the virus to their
children.
Prophylaxis
The prevention of AIDS rests at present on general
measures, such as health education, identification
of sources and elimination of high risk activities. No
specific vaccine is available.
Vaccine development: No vaccine against HIV is
available despite several trials.
Treatment
The anti-HIV drugs approved can be classified as
nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors,
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HIV positive
and clinically
symptomatic
Usually no PEP or
consider two drug
PEP regimen
Usually no PEP or
consider two drug
PEP regimen
Usually no PEP or
consider two drug
PEP regimen
Key Points
Important questions
1.
Describe
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69
Chapter
Slow Virus and Prion Diseases
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe slow virus and prion diseases
Describe the following: Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
Introduction
The term slow virus disease is applied to a group
of infections in animals and human beings,
characterized by a very long incubation period
and a slow but relentless course, terminating
fatally. This usually ends months later in disability
or death.
The concept of slow infection was originally
proposed by Sigurdsson (1954), a veterinary
pathologist for slowly progressing infections of
sheep, such as scrapie, visna and maedi.
Classification
Slow virus diseases may be classified into three
groups: Group A, group B, group C (Table 69.1).
Group A: Group A consisting of slowly progressive
infections of sheep, caused by serologically related
nononcogenic retroviruses called lentiviruses
(from Latin. lentus, meaning slow). Examples:
Visna; Maedi (progressive pneumonia).
Group A
Visna
Visna, a demyelinating disease of sheep and has
an incubation period of about two years. It has an
insidious onset with pareses, progressing to total
paralysis and death.
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Agent
Hosts
Incubation period
Nature of disease
Group A
Visna
Retrovirus
Sheep
Months to years
i. Scrapie
Prion
Sheep, goat,
mice
Months to years
Spongiform encephalopathy
Prion
Cattle
Months to years
Spongiform encephalopathy
Prion
Months to years
Spongiform encephalopathy
Prion
Mink, other
animals
Months
Spongiform encephalopathy
i. kuru
Prion
Humans,
chimpanzees,
monkeys
Months to years
Spongiform encephalopathy
Prion
Humans,
chimpanzees,
monkeys
Months to years
Spongiform encephalopathy
Humans
220 years
Chronic sclerosing
panencephalitis
Years
Group B
(a) Animal diseases
iii. GerstmannStraussler
Scheinker (GSS) disease
Prion
Group C
(a) Subacute sclerosing
panencephalitis
Measles virus
variant
Polyomavirus Humans
JCV
Group C
i. Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) is an
extremely serious, very late neurologic sequela
of measles. This disease occurs when a defective
measles virus persists in the brain and acts as a
slow virus. It has been reported that SSPE may
also develop as a very rare late complication of
live measles virus vaccination. A similar picture
has also been described as a rare complication of
rubella infection.
The SSPE is most prevalent in children who
were initially infected when younger than 2 years.
The disease begins insidiously 5 to 15 years after a
case of measles. It is characterized by progressive
mental deterioration, involuntary movements,
muscular rigidity, and coma. Death occurs 1 to 3
years after onset of symptoms.
Key Points
Important Questions
1. Write briefly on slow virus diseases.
2. Write short notes on:
a. CreutzfeldtJakob disease
b. Kuru
c. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or
mad cow disease
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70
Chapter
Miscellaneous Viruses
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe Rubella virus
Describe the following: Lassa fever; severe acute
respiratory syndrome (SARS)
RUBIVIRUS
Rubella virus has been classified in the family
Togaviridae as the only member of the genus
Rubivirus. It resembles togaviruses structurally and
in many other features.
Epidemiology
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Virus Isolation
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B. Serology
ELISA for IgM and IgG antibodies gives valuable
information. IgM antibody alone, without IgG
means current acute infection. In case of rubella
IgG antibody, four fold or more rise in titer in paired
sera has a diagnostic value. IgG antibody alone,
without IgM means past infection or vaccination
and denotes immunity, as there is only one
serotype of rubella virus.
Prophylaxis
Passive prophylaxis: There is little evidence that
administering normal human immunoglobulin after
contact reduces the risk of maternal rubella and fetal
infection.
Active Prophylaxis
Rubella vaccines: Live attenuated vaccine in use
now is the RA 27/3 strain grown in human diploid cell
culture and administeted by subcutaneous injection
in a single dose of 0.5 mL. The vaccine is available
as a single antigen or combined with measles and
mumps components as MMR vaccine. Vaccineinduced immunity persists in most vaccinees for at
least 1416 years and probably is lifelong.
The vaccine virus is apparently not teratogenic.
Inadvertent administration of the vaccine to
a pregnant women may not therefore lead to
congenital defects in the baby.
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2. Lassa Fever
The first recognized cases of Lassa fever occurred
in 1969 among Americans stationed in the Nigerian
village of Lassa.
Natural reservoir is the multimammate rat,
Mastomys natalensis. Rodent excreta probably act
as the source of infection. The incubation period is
316 days. The virus is present in the throat, urine
and blood of patients. Nosocomial infection has
occurred frequently.
The antiviral drug ribavirin is the drug of choice
for Lassa fever and is most effective if given early
in the disease process. A potential vaccine is under
study.
ARENAVIRUSES
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FILOVIRUSES
They have been classified as filoviridae.These are
long threadlike viruses, hence the name (filum
means thread). They range in size from 80 to
8001000 nm. Marburg and Ebolaviruses causing
hemorrhagic fever belong to the genus Filovirus.
Morphology: Marburg and Ebola viruses are
enveloped negative sense single stranded RNA
viruses with long tubular or filamentous forms
(Fig. 70.1).
Marburg Virus
Marburg disease is a hemorrhagic fever that
occurred simultaneously in laboratory workers
Ebola Virus
In 1976, two severe epidemics of hemorrhagic fever
occurred in Sudan and Zaire with high fatality. The
causative virus was morphologically identical to
the Marburg virus but antigenically distinct. The
virus responsible was named Ebola virus after the
Ebola river. In 1979 Ebola re-emerged in Sudan,
with serial persont o-person spread. Another
epidemic occurred in Kikwit, Zaire, in 1995.
Three distinct strains of Ebola virus have been
recognized.
1. Zaire strain (EBO- Z)
2. Sudan strain (EBO-S)
3. Reston strain (EBO-R)
Pathogenesis
It is probable that Marburg and Ebola viruses have
a reservoir host, perhaps a rodent or a bat, and
become transmitted to humans only accidentally.
Transmission among humans generally requires
direct contact with blood or body fluids, although
droplet infections can occur.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Electron microscopy: In the blood and in the
cytoplasm of the affected cells filamentous
viruses can be seen by electron microscopy.
2. Isolation of virus: Virus can be cultured in
vero cells from the blood during the febrile
phase. Virus isolate is identified by electron
microscopy and direct immunofluorescence.
Virus culture must only be attempted in
laboratories with required biosafety level.
3. Serology: Indirect immunofluorescence can be
used for detection of antibodies in the serum.
CORONAVIRUSES
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Laboratory Diagnosis
i.
Isolation of virus: Nasopharyngeal washings
are used for the isolation of virus. Human
coronaviruses can be cultured in human fetal
tracheal organ culture. Some strains may grow
on monolayers of diploid human embryonic
fibroblasts, with minimal cytopathic effects.
ii. Demonstration of antigen: ELISA test is
used for detection of coronavirus antigens in
respiratory secretions.
iii. Antibody detection: Antibodies in serum may
be detected by ELISA.
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Laboratory Diagnosis
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REOVIRIDAE
Reoviridae constitutes a diverse family of viruses that
infect humans, many mammals, other vertebrates
(including birds), plants and insects. The family
Reoviridae derives its name from the prototype
virus which was known as the Respiratory enteric
orphan virus, because it could be isolated fre
quently from the respiratory and enteric tracts,
and it was considered orphan because it was not
associated with any disease.
Classification
Classification
Rotaviruses share a common group antigen situated
in the inner capsid layer. So far, rotaviruses have
been classified into at least seven antigenic groups
(A to G) based on antigenic epitopes on the internal
structural protein VP6. For groups A-E complete
lack of serological cross-reactivity has been proven.
These can be detected by immunofluorescence,
ELISA, and immune electron microscopy (IEM).
Multiple serotypes have been identified among
human and animal rotaviruses.
Group A strains: Cause the majority of human
infections have been classified into subgroups
(I and II) by ELISA, CF or immune adherence
agglutination, and into many serotvpes (1, 2, 3, etc.)
by neutralisation tests.
Group B strain: The Chinese ADRV is of group B.
Group C rotaviruses: Cause occasional outbreaks
in humans.
Animal Susceptibility
Rotaviruses have a wide host range. Human
rotavirus infection has been transferred to piglets,
calves and monkeys. Swine rotavirus infects both
newborn and weanling piglets.
Morphology: All reoviruses have a doubleshelled capsid, no envelope and measure 7580
nm in diameter. The genome consists of double
stranded RNA in 1012 pieces, a feature unique
among animal viruses. They are nonenveloped and
resistant to lipid solvents.
Epidemiology
Rotaviruses
Morphology: Morphologically, rotaviruses are
polyhedrons of 75 nm diameter displaying char
acteristic sharp-edged double shelled capsids,
which in electron micrographs look like spokes
grouped around the hub of a wheel. The name is
derived from rota, in Latin, meaning wheel. Both
complete and incomplete particles are seen.
The complete or double shelled virus measures
about 70 nm in diameter and has a smooth surface.
The incomplete or single shelled virus is smaller,
about 60 nm, with a rough surface and is rota
virus that has lost the outer shell. Empty particles
Chap-70.indd 496
Clinical Features
Infection is by the fecal-oral route. The incubation
period is 23 days. Vomiting and diarrhea occur
with little or no fever. Stools are usually greenish
yellow or pale, with no blood or mucus. The disease
is self-limited and recovery occurs within 510 days.
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Laboratory Diagnosis
Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
Management consists of replacement of fluids
and restoration of electrolyte balance either intra
venously or orally, as feasible.
Control
In view of the fecaloral route of transmission,
wastewater treatment and sanitation are significant
control measures.
Rotavirus Vaccine
An oral live attenuated rhesus-based rotavirus
vaccine was licensed in the United States in 1998
for vaccination of infants. It was withdrawn a year
later. A number of different candidate vaccines of
live attenuated rotavirus of bovine or human origin.
Adenoviruses
Several outbreaks of diarrhea in children have been
associated with the presence of large numbers of
adenoviruses in feces. Serotypes 40 and 41 are
most commonly associated with acute diarrhea
in infants.
Astrovirus
These star shaped (Greek, astron = a star, 28 nm
isometric particles which have been associated
with some epidemics of diarrhea in children.
They are recognized as pathogens for infants and
children, elderly institutionalized patients, and
immunocompromized persons.Similar viruses
have also been identified in lamb and calf diarrhea.
Coronavirus
These are well established causes of acute diarrhea
in calves, piglets and dogs. They have been observed
in human feces also but their relation to diarrhea is
uncertain.
Key Points
NORWALK VIRUS
Norwalk virus has been included in the family
Caliciviridae. Caliciviruses are similar to picorna
viruses but are slightly larger (2740 nm).
Norwalk virus is the most important cause of
epidemic viral gastroenteritis in adults. A 27 nm
virus was shown to be responsible for an epidemic
of gastroenteritis affecting school children and
teachers in Norwalk, Ohio, in 1972. The virus
induced diarrhea in human volunteers. Serological
surveys have shown that infection with Norwalk
virus is widespread in many countries. The viruses
are most often associated with epidemic outbreaks
of waterborne, food-borne, and shellfish-asso
ciated gastroenteritis.
Chap-70.indd 497
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IMPORTANT QUESTION
Write short notes on:
a. Rubella or German measles
b. Viral hemorrhagic fevers
c. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCM)
d. Ebola virus
e. Coronaviruses
f. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
g. Viruses causing diarrhea
h. Rotaviruses.
Chap-70.indd 498
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71
Chapter
Oncogenic Viruses
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe oncogenic viruses
Classify oncogenic viruses
INTRODUCTION
The association of viruses with malignancy dates
from the observation by Ellerman and Bang
(1908). Peyton Rous (1911) showed that a virus
causes fowl sarcoma, a discovery for which he was
awarded the Nobel prize belatedly in 1966. Shope
isolated the rabbit fibroma virus in 1932 and the
papilloma virus in 1933. Bittner (1936) proposed
that breast cancer in mice could be caused by a
virus transmitted from mother to offspring through
breast milk. It is now acknowledged that at least
15% of all human tumors worldwide have a viral
cause.
Oncogenic Viruses
Oncogenic viruses are viruses that produce tumors
in their natural hosts or in experimental animals,
or induce malignant transformation of cells on
culture.
Chap-71.indd 499
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V. Hepatitis B Virus
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) following
chronic infection with hepatitis B virus is one of
the most prevalent forms of cancer. HBV has been
claimed to be directly or indirectly involved in the
etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma.It is also the
only malignant disease of humans preventable by
immunization against the causal agent.
II. Poxvirus
III. Adenovirus
Though some types (12, 19,21) of human
adenovirus may produce sarcomas in newborn
rodents after experimental inoculation, they do not
appear to have any association with human cancer.
IV. Herpesvirus
1. Mareks disease: Mareks disease is a highly
contagious lymphoproliferative disease of
chickens.
Chap-71.indd 500
Oncogenic retroviruses:
1. Avian leukosis complex: A group of antigen
ically related viruses which induce avian
leukosis (lymphomatosis, myeloblastosis and
erythroblastosis viruses) or sarcoma in fowls
(Rous sarcoma virus, RSV).
2. Murine leukosis viruses: This group consists of
several strains of murine leukemia and sarcoma
viruses.
3. Mammary tumor virus of mice: This virus
occurs in certain strains of mice having a high
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Virus
Tumor
Papovaviridae
Human
papilloma
virus (HPV)
Herpesviridae
EpsteinBarr
virus (EBV)
Nasopharyngeal
carcinoma
African Burkitts
lymphoma
B-cell lymphoma
Cervical carcinoma
Kaposis sarcoma
HSV type 2
Human
herpesvirus 8
Hepadnaviridae Hepatitis B
virus
Hepatocellular
carcinoma
RNA viruses:
Flaviviridae
Hepatitis C
virus
Retroviridae
Human T-cell
lymphotropic
virus (HTLV-1)
|501
ONCOGENES
Oncogene is the general term given to genes
that cause cancer. Viral oncogenes (V-onc),
commonly known as cancer genes are genes
which encode proteins triggering transformation
of normal cells into cancer cells. Normal versions
of these transforming genes are present in normal
cells and have been designated proto-oncogenes
or c-onc. They are not of viral origin. Oncogenes
are not essential for the replication of the virus
and mutants lacking them occur, which replicate
normally without being oncogenic.
Apparently viral oncogenes originated at
some distant past from proto-oncogenes by
recombination between retroviral and cellular
genes. Transduction of the cellular genes was
probably an accident, as the presence of the
cellular sequences is of no benefit to the viruses.
Proto-oncogenes are widespread in vertebrates
and metazoafrom human beings to fruitflies.
They have been found to code for proteins involved
in regulating cell growth and differentiation.
Incorrect expression of any component might
interrupt that regulation, resulting in uncontrolled
growth of cells (cancer). The presumed functions of
many oncogenes have been identified (Table 71.4).
Transfection: Transfection is a useful method for
the study of oncogenes. Certain mouse fibroblast
cell lines, such as NIH 3T3, can take up foreign
Origin
Natural tumor
Human gene
V-src
Chicken
Sarcoma
C-src
20
V-ras
Rat
Sarcoma
C-ras
11
V-myc
Chicken
Leukemia
C-myc
V-fes
Cat
Sarcoma
C-fes
15
V-sis
Monkey
Sarcoma
C-sis
22
V-mos
Mouse
Sarcoma
C-mos
*Oncogenes are given three-letter codes from the animal or tumor from which they are derived, preceded by either V- or C-, for viral or
cellular genes, respectively
src, sarcoma of chicken; ras, rat sarcoma; sis, simian sarcoma
Chap-71.indd 501
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ANTIONCOGENES
A class of genes has been identified in normal human
cells, whose function appears to be inhibition of
malignant transformation. They have been termed
antioncogenes, tumor-suppressor or growthsuppressor genes.
Key Points
Examples
i. Retinoblastoma (Rb) gene: The loss of
Rb gene function is causally related to the
development of retinoblastoma-a rare ocular
tumor of children-and other human tumors.
ii. p53 gene: The p53 gene is mutated in over half
of all human cancers. Specific chromosomal
deletions, recognized in association with
certain types of human cancers may reflect
the loss of tumor-suppressor genes.
Chap-71.indd 502
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Define and classify oncogenic viruses.
2. Enumerate RNA and DNA oncogenic viruses.
Describe mechanism of viral carcinogenesis.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Viral oncogenes.
b. Viruses associated with human cancer.
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72
Chapter
Classify fungi
Describe laboratory diagnosis of fungal infections
Discuss diseases caused by fungi.
Introduction
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI
A. Morphological Classification
On the basis of morphology, there are four groups
of fungi:
1. Yeasts: Yeasts are round, oval or elongated
unicellular fungi. Most reproduce by an asexual
process called budding. (Fig. 72.1). Some
reproduce by fission. On culture, they form
smooth, creamy colonies.
Examples: Cryptococcus neoformans.
2. Yeast-like fungi: Yeast-like fungi grow partly as
yeast and partly as elongated cells resembling
hyphae. The latter form a pseudomycelium.
Example: Candida albicans.
3. Molds or filamentous fungi: Molds or filament
ous fungi form true mycelia and reproduce by
the formation of different types of spores.
Examples of molds: Dermatophytes, Aspegillus,
Penicillium, Mucor and Rhizopus.
4. Dimorphic fungi: Many fungi pathogenic to
man have a yeast form in the host tissue and
B. Systematic Classification
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B. Direct Microscopy
I. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) Preparation
A portion of the treated specimen should be
examined microscopically to determine whether
hyphal elements are present. Most specimens
can be examined satisfactorily in wet mounts
after partial digestion of the tissue with 1020%
potassium hydroxide. The alkali digests cells
and other tissue materials, enabling the fungus
elements to be seen clearly. Newer preparations
for the KOH test may provide easier and more
reliable results.
Fig. 72.2: Sexual spores
III. Gram-staining
It is used for the diagnosis of yeast infections of
mucous membranes.
V. Histology
Common tissue stains used for detection of fungal
elements are the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS), Grocott
Gomori methenamine-silver (GMS), hematoxylin
and eosin (H and E), Giemsa, and the Fontana
Masson stains, are based on the presence of chitin
and polysaccharides in their cell wall.
C. Culture
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Collection and Processing of
Specimens
The sampling procedures vary according to the
area and type of tissue involved. Causative agents
D. Identification of Fungi
Once an organism has grown, it is examined for
characteristic gross and microscopic structures,
so that identification can be made (Fig. 72.5).
1. Gross or macroscopic examination of
cultures: Growth characteristics useful for
identification are the rapidity of growth, colour
and morphology of the colony on the obverse
and pigmentation on the reverse.
2. Microscopic examination
i. Tease mount: For microscopic examination
slide mounts should be made in lactophenol
cotton blue (LCB) from fungal colony (in
teased mounts or slide cultures) to study
the morphology of hyphae, spores and other
structures. Teased mounts are prepared
in lactophenol cotton blue (LCB) which
contains lactic acid, phenol and cotton blue.
Microscopic characteristics that should be
obtained as the following:
a. Septate versus sparsely septate hyphae
b. Spores or conidia
ii. Cellophane tape preparation: It should be
read within 30 minutes and then discarded.
iii. Slide culture: Slide culture provides a
useful technique for demonstrating the
natural morphology of fungal structures.
3. Tests for the identification of molds:
i. Hair perforation test: It is done to differtiate
T. rubrum, from T. mentagrophytes,.
ii. Urease test: It is done to help differentiate T.
mentagrophytes from T. rubrum
iii. Thiamine requirement
iv. Trichophyton agars
v. Growth on rice grains.
4. Tests for the identification of yeasts
Germ tube production, carbohydrate assimilation,
chromogenic substrates, cornmeal agar, potassium
nitrate assimilation, temperature studies and urease.
E. Serologic Tests
The most common tests for
a. Fungal antibodies:
1. Immunodiffusion; 2. countercurrent immunoelectrophoresis (CIE); 3. whole cell agglutination;
4. complement fixation; 5. Enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
b. Antigen detection:
1. Latex particle agglutination; 2. ELISA.
Classification of mycoses
Classification of fungal disease according to
primary sites of infections is as follows (Table 72.1):
A. Superficial mycoses: These infections are
limited to the outermost layers of the skin and
hair. These include:
a. Infection of skin caused by Malassezia
furfur (pityriasis versicolor) and Exophiala
werneckii (tinea nigra), and
b. Infection of hair caused by Piedraia hortae
(black piedra) and Trichosporon beigelii
(white piedra).
B. Cutaneous mycoses: Infections that extend
deeper into the epidermis as well as invasive
hair and nail diseases.
Examples
a. Infection of skin, hair and nail caused by
dermatophytes.
b. Infection of skin, nail and mucous membrane
caused by C. albicans and other Candida
specicies.
C. Subcutaneous mycoses: These infections
involve the dermis, subcutaneous tissues,
muscle, and fascia.
Examples: Mycetoma, chromomycosis, sporotri
chosis and rhinosporidiosis.
D. Systemic mycoses: Systemic mycoses-infections
that originate primarily in the lung but that
may spread to many organ systems. Systemic
mycoses are caused by inhalation of airborne
spores.
Examples: Blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, cocci
dioidomycosis and paracoccidioidomycosis.
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Mycosis
A. Superficial
Pityriasis versicolor
Tinea nigra
White piedra
Black piedra
Malassezia species
Hortaea werneckii
Trichosporon species
Piedraia hortae
B. Cutaneous
Dermatophytosis
Candidiasis of skin, mucosa, or nails
Sporotrichosis
Chromoblastomycosis
Mycetoma
Phaeohyphomycosis
Sporothrix schencki
Phialophora verrucosa, Fonsecaea pedrosoi, others
Pseudallescheria boydii, Madurella mycetomatis, others
Exophiala, bipolaris, exserohilum, and others
C. Subcutaneous
E. Opportunistic
Systemic candidiasis
Cryptococcosis
Aspergillosis
Mucormycosis (zygomycosis)
Penicilliosis
Key Points
Important Questions
1. Describe the laboratory diagnosis of fungal diseases.
2. Write short notes on classification of fungi.
73
Chapter
Superficial, Cutaneous and
Subcutaneous Mycoses
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
List superficial, cutaneous and subcutaneous
mycoses
A. SUPERFICIAL MYCOSES
These infections are limited to the outermost layers
of the skin and hair. These include:
a. Infection of skin: Caused by Malassezia furfur
(pityriasis versicolor) and Exophiala werneckii
(tinea nigra)
b. Infection of hair: Caused by Piedraia hortae
(black piedra) and Trichosporon beigelii (white
piedra).
a. Infection of Skin
Pityriasis Versicolor (Tinea Versicolor)
Pityriasis versicolor (Tinea versicolor) is a chronic,
usually asymptomatic, involvement of the stratum
corneum, characterized by discrete or confluent
macular areas of discoloration or depigmentation
of the skin. The areas involved are mainly the chest,
abdomen, upper limbs and back. The disease is
worldwide in distribution.
Causative agent: A lipophilic, yeast-like fungus
Pityrosporum orbiculare (Malassezia furfur).
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Direct microscopy: The diagnosis is confirmed
by direct microscopic examination of scrapings
of infected skin, treated with 1020% KOH or
stained with calcofluor white. Demonstration of
clusters of the characteristic round yeast cells with
short, stout hyphae, which may be curved and
occasionally branched, is diagnostic (Fig. 73.1).
B. Culture: The fungus can be grown on Sabour
auds agar, covered with a layer of olive oil.
Chap-73.indd 508
Tinea Nigra
Tinea nigra (or tinea nigra palmaris) is a localized
infection of the stratum corneum, particularly of
the palms, producing black or brownish macular
lesions. It is caused by the dematiaceous fungus
Hortaea (Exophiala) werneckii.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Direct microscopy: Microscopic examination
of skin scrapings from the periphery of the
lesion will reveal brownish, branched, septate
hyphae and budding cells (Fig. 73.2).
B. Culture: On Sabouraud agar the fungus
develops as grey, yeast-like colonies, which
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Classification
b. Infection of Hair
Piedra
Piedra is a fungal infection of the hair, characterised
by the appearance of firm, irregular nodules
along the hair shaft. Two varieties of piedra are
recognisedblack piedra caused by Piedraia hortae
and white piedra caused by Trichosporon beigelii.
Black Piedra
This condition, caused by Piedraia hortae. It
is characterized by the presence of black, hard
nodules up to 1 mm in diameter, mainly on the
hairs of the scalp.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Direct microscopy: Crushing the nodules
reveals the sexual reproductive phase, clubshaped asci, each with eight ascospores.
B. Culture: Culture is not necessary.
White Piedra
White piedra, an infection of the hair, is caused by the
yeast-like organism Trichosporon beigelii. Axillary,
pubic, beard, and scalp hair may be infected.
B. CUTANEOUS MYCOSES
Infections that extend deeper into the epidermis as
well as invasive hair and nail disease.
Examples:
a. Infection of skin, hair and nail caused by der
matophytes.
b. Infection of skin, nail and mucous membrane
caused by C. albicans and other Candida
specicies.
Dermatophytes
The dermatophytes are a group of closely related
filament ous fungi that infect only superficial
keratinized tissuesthe skin, hair and nails.
Dermatophytoses are among the most prevalent
infections in the world. Being superficial, dermatophyte
(ringworm) infections have been recognized since
antiquity.
Chap-73.indd 509
Identification
In skin, they are diagnosed by the presence of
hyaline, septate, branching hyphae or chains of
arthroconidia. In cultures on Sabourauds agar,
they form characteristic colonies consisting of
septate hyphae and two types of asexual spores,
microconidia and macroconidia. Differentiation
into the three genera is based mainly on the nature
of macroconidia (Fig 73.3). In culture, the many
species are closely related and often difficult to
identify.
Trichophyton
Colonies may be powdery, velvety or waxy, with
pigmentation characteristic of different species.
Microconidia are abundant and are arranged in
clusters along the hyphae or borne on conidiophores.
Macroconidia are relatively scanty. They are
generally elongated, with blunt ends (Figs 73.3
and 73.4). Macroconidia have distinctive shapes in
different species and are of importance in species
identification. Some species possess special hyphal
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M. canis
Important Species
T. rubrum, T. mentagrophyte, T. tonsurans, T.
schoenleinii, T. violaceum.
T. rubrum: The typical colony of T. rubrum has a
white, cottony surface and a deep red, nondiffusible
pigment when viewed from the reverse side of the
colony. The microconidia are small and piriform
(pear-shaped) and clubshaped thinwalled macro
conidia (scanty).
T. mentagrophyte: T. mentagrophyte has grapelike clusters of microconidia (Fig. 73.4) and cigar
shaped macroconidia.It has no red pigment and
urease positive. Hair perforation test is positive.
T. tonsurans: T. tonsurans produces a flat,
powdery to velvety colony on the obverse surface
that becomes reddish-brown on reverse. The
microconidia are mostly elongate (Fig. 73.4).
Microsporum
Colonies are cotton-like, velvety or powdery, with
white to brown pigmentation. Microconidia are
relatively scanty and are not distinctive. Macroconidia
are the predominant spore form. They are large,
multicellular, spindle shaped structures, borne singly
on the ends of hyphae. Both types of conidia are
borne singly in these genera. Microsporum species
infect only hair and skin but usually not the nail.
Important species are M. audouinii, M. canis,
M. gypseum
M. audouinii
M. audouinii rarely forms conidia in the culture but
many thick-walled chlamydospores (chlamydo
conidia) may be present. It is anthropophilic.
Chap-73.indd 510
M. gypseum
M. gypseum colonies grow rapidly producing a flat,
spreading, powdery surface that is cinnamonbuff to
brown which consists of abundant macroconidia.
They are boat-shaped, rough walled with 4 to 6
septa. It is geophilic.
Pathogenicity
Dermatophytes grow only on the keratinised
layers of the skin and its appendages and do not
ordinarily penetrate the living tissues. Lesions vary
considerably according to the site of the infection
and the species of fungus involved.
Dermatophytids (or id reaction): Hypersensitivity
to fungus antigens may play a role in pathogenesis
and is probably responsible for the sterile
vesicular lesions, sometimes seen in sites distant
from the ringworm. These lesions are called
dermatophytids (or id reaction). Hypersensitivity
can be demonstrated by skin testing with the fungus
antigen, trichophytin.
Types of hair infections: Three types of hair
infection can be seen in 10% KOH wet mounts:
1. Ectothrix: In this, the hyphae are sparsely
distributed within hair shaft with a sheath
of arthrospores on the surface of hair shaft.
It is caused by M. audouinii, M. canis and T.
mentagrophytes (Fig. 73.5A).
2. Endothrix: In this, the arthrospore formation
occurs entirely within the hair completely filling
the hair shaft. This is caused by T. tonsurans and
T. violaceum (Fig. 73.5B).
3. Favus: In this, there is sparse hyphal growth and
formation of air spaces within the hair shaft.
This is caused by T. schoenleinii (Fig. 73.5C).
Clinical Findings
Dermatophyte infections were mistakenly termed
ringworm or tinea. Table 73.1 lists the clinical
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Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens
Specimens consist of scrapings from both the skin
and the nails plus hairs plucked from involved areas.
B. Microscopic Examination
The routine method of diagnosis is by the examin
ation of KOH mounts. Specimens are placed on
a slide in a drop of 1020% potassium hydroxide,
Chap-73.indd 511
Disease
Tinea capitis
Favus
T. schoenleinii, T. violaceum,
M. gypseum
Tinea barbae
T. rubnun, T. mentagrophytes,
T. verrucosum
Tinea imbricata
T. concentricum
Tinea corporis
T. cruris
E. floccosum, T. rubrum
T. pedis
T. rubrum, E. Boccosum
Microsporum species,
T. rubrum, T.menrngrophytes
T. schoenieinii, T. tonsurans,
T. violaceum
C. Culture
Specimens are inoculated onto inhibitory mold
agar or Sabourauds agar slants containing cyclo
heximide and chloramphenicol to suppress mold
and bacterial growth, incubated for 13 weeks at
room temperature, and further examined in slide
cultures if necessary. Species are identified on the
basis of colonial morphology (growth rate, surface
texture, and any pigmentat ion), microscopic
morphology (macroconidia, microconidia), and,
in some cases, nutritional requirements.
Epidemiology
Dermatophytosis occurs throughout the world
Tinea pedis is rare in the tropics where most walk
barefoot. In India, tinea capitis occurs more often
in the native children than in Europeans.
C. SUBCUTANEOUS MYCOSES
The principal subcutaneous mycoses are mycetoma,
chromomycosis, sporotrichosis and rhinosporidiosis.
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Etiology
It can be divided into three types, eumycetomas,
actinomycetomas and botryomycosis. A similar
condition called botryomycosis is caused by
Staphylococcus aureus and some other bacteria.
Important causative agents of these are given in
Table 73.2.
Pathogenesis
Triad of symptoms: Infection follows traumatic
inoculation of the organism into the subcutaneous
tissue from soil or vegetable sources, usually on
thorns or splinters and results in tumefactions,
deformities and draining sinuses discharging
fungal colonies called grains or granules (triad of
symptoms). Subcutaneous tissues of the feet, lower
extremities, hands, and exposed areas are most
often involved.
Grains: Within host tissues the organisms develop
to form compacted colonies (grains) 0.52 mm
in diameter, the color of which depends on the
organism responsible. The color and consistency
of the grains vary with the different agents causing
the disease (Table 73.2).
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Direct Examination
The presence of grains in pus collected from
draining sinuses or in biopsy material is diagnostic.
The grains are visible to the naked eye and their
color may help to identify the causal agent. Grains
should be examined microscopically to differentiate
between actinomycetoma and eumycetoma.
Material from actinomycetoma grains may be Gram
stained to demonstrate the gram-positive filaments.
B. Culture
Samples should also be cultured, at both 2530C
and 37C, on brain-heart infusion agar or blood
agar for actinomycetes and on Sabouraud agar
(without cycloheximide) for fungi. The fungi that
cause eumycetoma are all septate molds that
appear in culture within 14 weeks.
Chap-73.indd 512
A. Eumycetoma
Madurella mycetomatis
Black
M. grisea
Black
Exophiala jeanselmei
Black
Pseudallescheria boydii
White-yellow
Acremonium falciforme
White-yellow
Aspergillus nidulans
White
B. Actinomycetoma
Actinomadura madurae
White-yellow
A. pellitieri
Red-yellow
Nocardia asteroids
White-yellow
N. brasiliensis
White
Streptomyces somaliensis
Yellow
C. Botryomycosis
Staphylococcus species
White
Streptococcus species
White
Escherichia coli
White
Proteus species
White
Pseudomonas aeruginosa .
White
Actinobacillus lignieresi
Yellow
Treatment
The management of eumycetoma is difficult,
involving surgical debridement or excision and
chemotherapy. Actinomycetoma responds well to
rifampicin in combination with sulfonamides or
cotrimoxazole.
2. Chromoblastomycosis
This disease, also known as chromomycosis, is a
chronic, localized disease of the skin and subcutan
eous tissues. The disease is mainly encountered in
the tropics.
Etiological agents: The etiological agents are soil
inhabiting fungi of the family Dematiaceae.
All are dematiaceous fungi which are darkly
pigmented fungi. These include: Phialophora
verrucosa, Fonsecaea pedrosoi, Rhinocladiella
aquaspersa, Fonsecaea compacta, and Cladophial
ophora carrionii.
They enter the skin by traumatic implantation.
The lesion develops slowly around the site
of implantation. The infection is chronic and
characterized by the slow development of progres
sive granulomatous lesions that in time induce
hyperplasia of the epidermal tissue.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Microscopic examination: Histologically, the
lesions show the presence of the fungus as
round or irregular, dark brown, yeastlike bodies
with septae, called sclerotic cells (Fig. 73.6).
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Phaeohyphomycosis
Phaeohyphomycosis is a term applied to infections
characterized by the presence of darkly pigmented
septate hyphae in tissue. The sites of lesions may be
cutaneous, subcutaneous, deeper tissues, or organs
like the brain or lung. Sclerotic cells or granules are
not found. The fungi appear in lesions as distorted
hyphal strands.
3. Sporotrichosis
Sporotrichosis is a chronic, pyogenic granulomatous
infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues
which may remain localized or show lymphatic
spread. The disease is worldwide and is rare in
Europe.
Causative agent: Sporothrix schenckii, a saprophyte
in nature.
Pathogenesis
The fungus is a saprophyte found widely on plants,
thorns and timber. Infection is acquired through
thorn pricks or other minor injuries.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis is made by culture as frequently the
fungus may not be demonstrable in pus or tissues.
A. Microscopic examination: Direct microscopy
is of little value.
B. Culture: SDA or blood agar are the media used.
S. schenckii is a dimorphic fungus occurring
in the yeast phase in tissues and in cultures at
37C, and in the mycelial phase in nature and
in cultures at room temperature. The septate
hyphae are very thin (1-2 mm diameter) and
carry flower-like clusters of small conidia borne
Chap-73.indd 513
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4. Rhinosporidiosis
Rhinosporidiosis is a chronic granulomatous
disease characterized by the development of large
polyps or wart-like lesions in the nose, conjunctiva
and occasionally in ears, larynx, bronchus, penile
urethra, vagina, rectum and skin. More than 90% of
the cases have been reported from India, Sri Lanka
and South America.
Etiology: The causative fungus Rhinosporidium
seeberi.
Mode of infection: The mode of infection is not
known, though infection is believed to originate
from stagnant water or aquatic life. It is believed
that fish may be the natural hosts of R. seeberi.
Laboratory Diagnosis
It has not been cultured and animal inoculation is
also not successful.
Demonstration of Sporangia
Diagnosis depends on the demonstration of
sporangia. Direct examination of the surface of
the polypoid growth and histologic examination
are the only ways to make a diagnosis. R. seeberi
can be identified in hematoxylin and eosin-stained
sections, but sometimes one may need special
stains. Histologically, the lesion is composed of
large numbers of fungal spherules embedded in
a stroma of connective tissue and capillaries. The
spherules are 10200 mm in diameter and contain
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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
5. Subcutaneous Phycomycosis
Key Points
Superficial Mycoses
Pityriasis versicolor or tinea versicolor is caused by
Malassezia furfur (Pityrosporum orbiculare)
Tinea nigra is an infection of keratinized layer of skin
caused by Hortaea (Exophiala) werneckii
Black piedra is a superficial infection of the hair
caused by Piedroiohortae, a dematiaceous fungus
White piedra is an infection of the hair caused by
yeast-like organism, Trichosporon beigelii
Cutaneous Mycoses
The dermatophytes infect only superficial keratinized
structure such as skin, hair and nail but not deeper
tissues
Dermatophytes belong to three genera: Trichophyton,
Microsporum and Epidermophyton
Clinical findings: Dermatophyte infections were
mistakenly termed ringworm or tinea because of
the raised circular lesions
Laboratory diagnosis is based on microscopy and
culture. The differentiation of the three genera is
based mainly on nature of macroconidia
Subcutaneous Mycosis
Mycetoma is a chronic, granulomatous infection
of the skin, subcutaneous tissues, fascia and bone,
which most often affects the foot or the hand
It can be divided into three types, eumycetomas,
actinomycetomas and botryomycosis
Chromoblastomycosis or chromomycosis is caused
by fungi collectively called dematiaceous fungi
Sporotrichosis is caused by Sporothrix schenckii, a
saprophyte in nature
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74
Chapter
Systemic Mycoses
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
List of fungi causing systemic infections
Descrbe histoplasmosis
Introduction
These are the include blastomycosis, histoplasmosis,
coccidioidomycosis and paracoccidioidomycosis.
1. Blastomycosis
Blastomycosis is a chronic infection of the lungs
which may spread to other tissues, particularly
skin, bone and genitourinary tract.
It is caused by Blastomyces dermatitidis, a
dimorphic fungus. The disease has been called
North American blastomycosis, because it is
endemic and most cases occur in the United States
and Canada.
Pathogenesis
Soil is considered to be the source of infection,
which is acquired by inhalation. Human infection
is initiated in the lungs.
1. Asymptomatic
2. Chronic pneumonia
3. Disseminated diseases: They form multiple
abscesses in various parts of the body.
4. Cutaneous blastomycosis: The cutaneous
disease is usually on the skin of the face or other
exposed parts of the body.
Morphology
Blastomyces dermatitidis is a dimorphic fungus. In
tissue and in cultures at 37C, the fungus appears
as budding yeast cells, which are large (720 m)
and spherical, with thick, double-contoured walls.
Each cell carries only a single broad-based bud
(Fig. 74.1). At room temperature, the culture is
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens: Sputum or pus, exudates, urine
and biopsy lesions.
B. Microcopic examination: Potassium hydroxide
(10%) mount of specimens may show char
acteristic thick-walled yeast cells with a single
broadbased bud.
C. Culture: Colonies usually develop on Sabourauds
dextrose agar or enriched blood agar at 30C
within 2 weeks.
D. Serology: Antibodies can be measured by
complement fixation (CF) test, immunodiffusion
(ID) tests and enzyme immunoassay (EIA).
Treatment: Severe cases of blastomycosis are
treated with amphotericin B.
2. Paracoccidioidomycosis
This is a chronic granulomatous disease of the skin,
mucosa, lymph nodes and internal organs. As the
Pathogenesis
It is characterized by primary pulmonary infection
that spreads by hematogenous route to mucosa
of the nose, mouth and the gastrointestinal tract,
skin, lymphatic system, and the internal organs
producing chronic granulomatous reaction.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens: Sputum or pus, crusts and biopsies
from granulomatous lesions.
2. Direct microscopy: Microscopy of sputum or
pus, crusts and biopsies from granulomatous
lesions usually reveals numerous yeast cells (10
60 m) with multiple buds, which is diagnostic
(Figs 74.2A and B). Tissue sections should be
stained with H and E, PAS and GMS.
3. Culture: P. brasiliensis grows in the mycelial
phase in culture at 2530C, and in the yeast
phase in tissue or at 37C. Blood agar (without
cyclohexim ide) and incubation at 37C is
recommended for isolation of the yeast phase
(tissue form). Mycelial (mold) phase of the
fungus develops on SDA incubated at 2530C.
3. Coccidioidomycosis
This is primarily an infection of the lungs caused by
Coccidioides immitis, a dimorphic fungus found in
the soil of semi-arid areas, mainly in the south-west
USA and northern Mexico.
Clinical Features
1. Asymptomatic
2. Primary pulmonary disease: This condition is
called valley fever, San Joaquin Valley fever or
desert rheumatism.
Morphology
The fungus is dimorphic. The mycelial phase consists
of hyphae which fragment into arthrospores which
are highly infectious. In culture and in soil C. immitis
grows as a mould, producing large numbers of barrelshaped arthrospores (4 6 m diameter) which are
highly infectious. They characteristically alternate
with smaller intervening empty cells (Fig. 74.3A).
The yeast form is a spherule (1575 m diameter)
with a thick, doubly refractile wall and filled with
endospores. Endospores develop to form new
spherules in adjacent tissue or elsewhere in the
body (Fig. 74.3B).
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
Sputum, pus and biopsy material.
2. Microscopic Examination
Diagnosis may be made by microscopic exami
nation of specimens.
3. Culture
Specimen is inoculated on SDA medium in the test
tube and incubated at 2530C. The arthroconidia
are highly infectious. Consequently, Petri dishes
should never be used for isolation of the organism.
4. Serological Tests
Serological tests, such as precipitin test, latex
agglutination test and complement fixation test
play an important part in diagnosis.
5. Skin Tests
Skin test is done with coccidioidin, a culture filtrate
antigen from fungus. The test becomes positive
between 3 and 21 days of symptoms.
4. HISTOPLASMOSIS
Histoplasmosis is an intracellular infection of
the reticuloendothelial system caused by the
dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum.
Pathogenesis
Infection is acquired by inhalation. Most infections
are asymptomatic. Some infected persons develop
pulmonary disease which resembles tuberculosis.
1. Pulmonary Infection
A chronic form of histoplasmosis occurs mainly
in adults. The clinical picture- closely resembles
tuberculosis.
2. Disseminated Histoplasmosis
Disseminated infection occurs most often in old
age and infancy, or in individuals with impaired
immune responses. The reticuloendothelial system
is involved with resultant lymphadenopathy,
hepatosplenomegaly, fever, anemia and a high
rate of fatality.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
Blood films, bone marrow slides, and biopsy
specimens may be examined microscopically.
Specimens for culture include sputum, urine,
scrapings from superficial lesions, bone marrow
aspirates, and buffy coat blood cells.
2. Microscopic Examination
Microscopy of smears of sputum or pus should be
stained by the Wright or Giemsa procedure. Liver
or lung biopsies stained with PAS or methenaminesilver may provide a rapid diagnosis of disseminated
histoplasmosis in some patients. H. capsulatum
is seen as small, oval yeast cells (24 m in
diameter), typically packed within the cytoplasm
of macrophages or monocytes (Fig. 74.4).
3. Culture
Specimens are cultured in rich media, such
as glucosecysteine blood agar at 37C and on
Sabburauds agar or inhibitory mold agar at
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4. Serological Tests
Serological tests like latex agglutination, precipita
tion and complement fixation become positive two
weeks after infection. Tests for antigen detection
by radioimmunoassay or ELISA are useful, but are
not widely available.
Epidemiology
The disease has a worldwide distribution but is
most common in the USA. Twenty-five authentic
cases of histoplasmosis have been reported from
India. The etiologic agent of histoplasmosis,
H. capsulatum var. capsulatum, grows in soil
with a high nitrogen content, especially in areas
contaminated with the excreta of bats and birds.
Treatment
Amphotericin B is the treatment of choice for
most forms of disseminated histoplasmosis;
this is followed by oral itraconazole in immuno
compromised patients.
African Histoplasmosis
This disease is caused by H. capsulatum val. dub
oisii. H. capsulatum val. duboisii is morphologically
Key Points
Important Questions
1. Enumerate dimorphic fungi. Describe the morphology,
pathogenicity and lab diagnosis of dimorphic fungi.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Blastomycosis
b. Coccidioidomycosis or Coccidioides immitis
c. Histoplasmosis or Darlings disease
d. Paracoccidioidomycosis or Paracoccidioides
brasiliensis
75
Chapter
Opportunistic Mycoses
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe diseases caused by Candida albicans
Describe the following: thrush or oral thrush; Germ
tube test or ReynauldsBraude phenomenon
Discuss laboratory diagnosis of candidiasis
List opportunistic fungi
OPPORTUNISTIC FUNGI
Patients with compromised host defenses, who are
susceptible to ubiquitous fungi, are referred to as
opportunistic fungi. Healthy people, if exposed to
ubiquitous fungi are usually resistant.
Discuss cryptococcosis
Discuss laboratory diagnosis of Cryptococcus
neoformans
Describe species of Asperillus
Describe the following: Aspergillosis; mucormycosis;
pneumocystosis; otomycosis; mycotic keratitis.
Species of Candida
Important species of Candida found in man are:
(i) C. albicans; (ii) C. stellatoidea; (iii) C. tropicalis;
(iv) C. krusei; (v) C. guilliermondii; (vi) C. parapsilosis;
(vii) C. glabrata (viii) C. viswanathii
Pathogensis
A. Superficial (cutaneous or mucosal) candidiasis
B. Systemic candidiasis
A. Superficial (cutaneous or mucosal) candidiasis
Morphology
In culture or tissue, Candida species grow as oval,
budding yeast cells (36 m in size). They also form
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a. Mucocutaneous Lesions
Laboratory Tests
Diagnosis can be established by microscopy and
culture.
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Treatment
Management of candidosis is mainly by removing the
predisposing causes. All Candida strains are sensitive
to Nystatin. Amphotericin B, 5-fluorocytosine
and clotrimazole may be used for disseminated
candidosis.
Cryptococcosis
Cryptococcosis (torulosis, European blastmycosis,
BusseBuschke disease) is subacute or chronic
infection caused by the capsulate yeast Cryptococcus
neoformans. It is most frequently recognized as a
disease of the central nervous system (CNS), although
the primary site of infection is the lungs. The disease
occurs sporadically throughout the world but it is now
seen most often in patients with AIDS.
Morphology
In culture, C. neojormans produces a whitish mucoid
colony in 23 days. Microscopically, in culture
or clinical material, C. neoformans is a spherical
budding yeast (510 m in diameter), surrounded
by a thick polysaccharide capsule (Fig. 75.6).
Serotypes
Adsorbed antisera have defined five serotypes
(AD and AD) and three varietiesC. neoformans
vargrubii (serotype A), C. neoformans var neofor
mans (serotype D), and C. neoformans var gattii
(serotype B or C). Most infections are caused by C.
neoformans var. neoformans, which is commonly
found in the excreta of wild and domesticated birds
throughout the world.
Epidemiology
Cryptococcosis is worldwide in distribution.
Bird droppings (particularly pigeon droppings)
enrich for the growth of C. neoformans and serve
as a reservoir of infection. The organism grows
luxuriantly in pigeon excreta. The birds themselves
Chap-75.indd 521
Pathogenesis
Infection is usually acquired by inhalation but may
sometimes be through skin or mucosa. The primary
pulmonary infection may be asymptomatic or may
mimic an influenza-like respiratory infection, often
resolving spontaneously. Pulmonary cryptoccoc
osisis may lead to a mild pneumonitis. In patients
who are compromised, the yeasts may multiply
and disseminate to other parts of the body but
preferent ially to the central nervous system,
causing cryptococcal meningoencephalitis. Other
common sites of dissemination include the skin,
eye, and prostate gland.
Cryptococcal meningitis
Cryptococcal meningitis is the most serious type
of infection and can resemble tuberculous or other
chronic types of meningitis.
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Laboratory Diagnosis
Treatment
A. Specimens
Specimens include spinal fluid, tissue, exudates,
sputum, blood and urine.
B. Micrscopic Examination
India ink or nigrosine preparation: In unstained,
wet preparations of CSF mixed with a drop of
India ink or nigrosine, the capsule can be seen
as a clear halo around the yeast cells (Fig. 75.6).
The yeast cells of C. neoformans are round,
510 m in diameter, and are surrounded by a
mucopolysaccharide capsule.
Tissue sections: For examination of tissue sections,
it is best to use a specific fungal stain such as PAS.
Alciari blue and mucicarmine which stain the
capsular material.
C. Culture
On Sabouraud agar (without cycloheximide)
cultured at 2530C and 37C, colonies normally
appear within 23 days. In culture, C. neoformans
appears as smooth, mucoid, cream colored
colonies. Cultures can be identified by growth at
37C and detection of urease.
Niger seed (bird seed) agar is a differential
medium for presumptive identification of C.
neoformans. It produces brown colonies on this
medium within one week when incubated at
30C. C. neoformans produces phenoloxidase,
which oxidises the caffeic acid in the niger seed
into melanin.
D. Serological Tests
Cryptococcal capsular polysaccharide antigen can
be detected in CSF and blood by latex agglutination
and ELISA test. A whole-cell agglutination test
for serum antibody is positive in less than 50% of
proven cases of cryptococcal meningitis
E. Animal Inoculation Test
Intracerebral or intraperitoneal inoculation into mice
leads to a fatal infection in case of C. neoformans.
Capsulated budding yeast cells can be demonstrated
in the brain of the infected mice.
Differentiation of pathogenic (C. neoformans)
from other nonpathogenic cryptococci
Pathogenic C. neoformans can be differentiated
from nonpathogenic species by its ability to:
1. Grow at 37C.
2. Hydrolyze urea.
Chap-75.indd 522
B. FILAMENTOUS FUNGI
Aspergillosis
Aspergillus species are ubiquitous saprophytes in
nature, and aspergillosis occurs worldwide. The
most important species are A. fumigatus, A. niger,
A. flavus, A. terreus and A. nidulans.
Pathogenesis
Following inhalation of conidia, atopic individuals
often develop severe allergic reactions to the
conidial antigens. In imm unocompromized
patients, the conidia may germinate to produce
hyphae that invade the lungs and other tissues.
A. Localized infections
Sinusitis: A. flavus and A. fumigatus.
Mycotic keratits: A. flavus and A. fumigatus.
Otomycosis: A niger.
B. Systemic aspergillosis
1. Pulmonary aspergillosis
a. Allergic asthma: In some atopic individuals,
dev elopment of IgE antibodies to the
surface antigens of aspergillus conidia
elicits an immediate asthmatic reaction
upon subsequent exposure.
b. Bronchopulmonary asp ergillosis: The
conidia germinate and hyphae colonize
the bronchial tree without invading the
lung parenchyma. This phenomenon
is characteristic of allergic broncho
pulmonary aspergillosis.
c. Colonizing aspergillosis (aspergilloma):
Colonizing aspergillosis usually develops
in preexisting pulmonary cavities, such as
in tuberculosis or cystic disease. It is also
referred to as fungus ball. The fungus grows
into large balls (aspergilloma). Cases of
aspergilloma rarely become invasive.
2. Invasive aspergillosis: This form occurs in
severely immunocompromised individuals.
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Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimens: Sputum, other respiratory speci
mens, or lung biopsy tissue provide good specimens.
B. Microscopic examination: On direct exami
nation of sputum with KOH or calcofluor white
or in histologic sections, the fungus appears
as nonpigmented septate mycelium, 35 m
in diameter, with characterist ic dichotomous
branching and an irregular outline.
In tissue sections, Aspergillus species are best
seen after staining with PAS or methenamine-silver.
C. Culture: Aspergillus species grow readily on
Sabouraud agar without cycloheximide at 2537C.
Colonies appear after 12 days.
Species are identified according to the
morphology of their conidial structures. Asexual
conidia are arranged in chains, carried on elongated
cells called sterigmata, borne on the expanded
ends (vesicles) of conidiophores (Fig. 75.7).
D. Skin tests: Skin tests with A. fumigatus antigen
are useful for the diagnosis of allergic aspergillosis.
E. Serological tests: Immunodiffusion, CIE and
ELISA are widely used for the detection of antibodies
in the diagnosis of all forms of aspergillosis.
For diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis, antigen
detection has also been used successfully by
techniques such as ELISA and latex agglutination.
F. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-1: This is
now increasingly used for diagnosis of invasive
aspergillosis.
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Mucormycoses (Zygomycosis)
Mucormycosis is an opportunistic mycosis caused
by a number of molds classified in the order
Mucorales of the class Zygomycetes. The leading
pathogens among this group of fungi are species
of the genera Rhizopus, Rhizomucor, Abs idia,
Cunninghamella and Mucor. These fungi are ubiq
uitous, thermotolerant saprophytes.
The conditions that place patients at risk include
acidosisespecially that associated with diabetes
meIlitus-leukemias, lymphoma, corticosteroid
treatment, severe burns, immunodeficiencies, and
other debilitating diseases as well as dialysis with
the iron chelator deferoxamine.
Clinical Manifestations
There are a number of different clinical varieties
of mucormycosis
1. Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: The major
clinical form is rhinocerebral mucormycosis,
a rapidly fulminating infection. It results from
germination of the sporangiospores in the nasal
passages and invasion of the hyphae into the
blood vessels. The disease can progress rapidly
with invasion of the sinuses, eyes, cranial bones
and brain.
2. Thoracic mucormycosis: Thoracic mucor
mycosis follows inhalation of the sporangio
spores with invasion of the lung parenchyma
and vasculature.
3. Other sites of invasion: Primary cutaneous
infections have also been reported, but these
are extremely rare. Subcutaneous forms of
zygomycosis are less serious.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens: Material, such as nasal discharge
or sputum seldom contains much fungal material
and examination of a biopsy is usually necessary
for a firm diagnosis.
2. Microscopy: Direct examination of curetted or
biopsy material in potassium hydroxide (KOH) may
reveal the characteristic broad, aseptate, branched
mycelium and sometimes distorted hyphae.
However, they are seen much more clearly when
stained with methenamine-silver. The hyphae of
these fungi do not stain with PAS.
3. Culture: The fungi are readily isolated on
Sabouraud agar without cycloheximide at 37C
producing abundant cottony colonies.
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Treatment
Treatment consists of aggressive surgical debride
ment, rapid administration of amphotericin B, and
control of the underlying disease.
Penicilliosis
There are more than 150 known species of the
genus Penicillium. Infections are caused by
Penicillium marnefei.
Pathogenesis
It causes penicillosis, keratitis, otomycosis and
rarely deep infections. Penicillium marneffei causes
serious disseminated disease with characteristic
papular skin lesions in AIDS patients in SouthEast Asia. Cutaneous lesions and subcutaneous
abscesses have been reported.
Identification
Fungi belonging to this genus are characterized by
producing conidiophores at the tips of branching
septate hyphae, which in turn may produce
secondary structures termed metulae, from which
flask-shaped structures called phialides bearing
smooth or rough shaped conidia are produced in
chains, giving the entire structure a brush-like or
broom-like appearance (Fig. 75.9).
Chap-75.indd 524
Pneumocystis jiroveci
Until recently, P. jeroveci was thought to be a proto
zoan. Molecular studies indicate that Pneumocystis
carinii is a fungus with a close relationship to
ascomycetes. It has yet to be fully embraced by
mycologists.
Morphology
P. carinii has three stages:
Trophozoites thinwalled (14 m).
Precyst: It is 58 m.
Cysts: Cysts are thick-walled and spherical (46 m)
and contains 4 to 8 nuclei.
Pathogenesis
P. jiroveci is normally a commensal in the lung, spread
by respiratory droplets. In immunocompetent
individuals, infection is asymptomatic. However,
in inimunocompromised patients, serious lifethreatening pneumonia can develop (Fig. 75.10).
Until the AIDS epidemic, human disease was
confined to interstitial plasma cell pneumonia
in malnourished or premature infants and
immunosuppressed patients. Since the early 1980s,
it has remained one of the primary opportunistic
infections found in patients with AIDS.
The multiplication of the parasite in the lungs
induces a hyaline or foamy alveolar exudate. In
stained sections, the exudate filling the alveoli
shows a characteristic honeycomb pattern. Chest
radiographs may be normal or show a diffuse
interstitial infiltrate.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens: Traditionally, diagnosis was made
by finding the cyst or trophozoite in tissue
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|525
Otomycosis
Otomycosis is a fungal infection of the external ear.
It is a very common disease and is usually caused
by species of A. niger, A. fumigatus, Penicillium,
Candida albicans, C. tropicalis and C. krusei.
The symptoms are itching, pain and deafness.
Secondary bacterial infection, commonly due to
Pseudomonas and Proteus, causes suppuration.
Diagnosis can be made by demonstration of the
fungi in scrapings and by culture.
Treatment
Acute cases of pneumocystis pneumonia are treated
with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ)
or pentamidine isethionate. Prophylaxis can be
achieved with daily TMP-SMZ or aerosolized
pentamidine.
Chap-75.indd 525
Causes
It is most frequently caused by A. fumigatus, A.
flavus, A. glaucus and A. niger. In addition, species
of Fusarium, Curvularia, Candida, Acremonium,
Paecilomyces, Penicillium, Alternaria, Fonsecea,
Pseudallescheria, Drechslera and Aureobasidium
may also cause keratomycosis.
Pathogenesis
It usually follows trauma. Fungal spores colonize the
injured tissue and initiate an inflammatory reaction
leading to hypopyon, ulcer and endophthalmitis.
Increased incidence of keratomycosis is due to
widespread use of corticosteroids.
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis can be made by microscopic examination
and culture of scrapings taken from the base or edge
of the ulcer. Local application of amphotericin B,
Nystatin and Pimaricin (Natamycin) may be useful.
Key Points
Candidiasis
Candidosis (candidiasis, moniliasis) is an infection of
the skin, mucosa, and rarely of the internal organs,
caused by a yeast-like fungus Candida albicans,
and occasionally by other Candida species. It
causes (a) Mucocutaneous lesions (Oral thrush); 2.
Vulvovaginitis, conjunctivitis keratitis; Skin and nail
infections
Gram-stained smear of the exudates or tissue
shows gram- positive, oval, budding yeast and
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IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Describe the morphology, pathogenicity and
laboratory diagnosis of Candida albicans.
2. Describe the morphology, cultural characters and
laboratory diagnosis of Cryptococcus neoformans
3. Write short Notes on:
a. Candidiasis, candidosis or moniliasis
b. Cryptococcosis
c. Opportunistic systemic mycoses
d. Aspergillosis
Chap-75.indd 526
e. Opportunistic fungi
f. Mucormycosis or zygomycosis
g. Pneumocystosis
h. Pneumocystis carinii (jiroveci)
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76
Chapter
Mycotoxicosis
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe mycotic poisoning
Mycetism
A fungus which is eaten for itself causes toxic
effects. Mycetism may cause gastrointestinal
disease, dermatitis or death.
Mycotoxicosis
The diseases that result from ingestion of food
or feed that contains mycotoxins are known as
mycotoxicoses.
A variety of mycotoxins are produced by
mushrooms (e.g. Amanita species), and their
ingestion results in a dose-related disease called
mycetismus.
Other Mycotoxicoses
Classic examples of human diseases caused
by Fusarium mycotoxins include alimentary
toxic aleukia, Urov or KashinBeck disease and
Akakabibye (scabby grain intoxication). Two
of these are yellow rice toxicosis in Japan and
alimentary toxic aleukia in the former Soviet Union.
There are also other fungi responsible for
mycotoxicosis (Table 76.1).
Mycotoxin-producing fungi
Aflatoxin
Ascladiol
A. clavatus
Butenolide
Ergot alkaloid
Claviceps sp.
Fumigatin
A. fumigatus
Chlorine-containing
peptide
P. islandicum
Muscarine, etc.
Ochratoxin A
A. ochraceus
Patulin
P. urticae, A. clavatus, P.
claviforme, P. expansum, A.
giganteus, etc.
Penicillic acid
P. puberculum, P. cyclopium, P.
thomii, etc
Phalloidine
Amanita phalloides
Psilocybine
Psilocybe sp.
Ergot Alkaloids
Psoralens
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
Rubratoxin B
P. rubrum, P. purpurogenum
Scirpenols (nivalenol,
fusarenon)
F. nivale, F. tricinctum
Aflatoxin
One of the most potent is aflatoxin, which is
elaborated by Aspergillus flavus and is a frequent
contaminant of peanuts, corn, grains and other
foods.
Effect of aflatoxin: It is highly toxic to animals and
birds, and probably to human beings as well. It
can cause hepatomas in ducklings and rats, and its
possible carcinogenic effect in human beings has
caused great concern.
Psychotropic agents
Toxic metabolites produced by fungi have been
used by primitive tribes for religious, magical
and social purposes. The hallucinogenic agents
(d-lysergic acid, psilocybin) are produced by the
Psilocybe species and other fungi. In the 20th
century, problems involving toxins of fungi were
seen with the recreational use of psychotropic
agents such as psilocybin and psilocin, as well
as the semisynthetic derivative lysergic acid die
thylamide (LSD).
Key Points
Mycotic poisoning is of two types:
1.Mycetism
2. Mycotoxicosis
Aflatoxin is elaborated by Aspergillus flavus and
related molds
Ergot alkaloids: Ergotoxicosis (ergotism) is due to
the toxic alkaloids produced by the fungus Claviceps
purpurea
|529
Important Question
rite short notes on:
W
a. Mycotoxicosis
b. Aflatoxin
Section 6: Miscellaneous
77
Chapter
Introduction
The term normal microbial flora denotes the
population of microorganisms that inhabit the
skin and mucous membranes of healthy normal
persons. The skin and mucous membranes always
harbor a variety of micro-organisms that can be
arranged into two groups:
1. Resident Flora
The resident flora consists of relatively fixed types
of microorganisms regularly found in a given area
at a given age.
2. Transient Flora
The transient flora consists of nonpathogenic
or potentially pathogenic microorganisms that
inhabit the skin or mucous membranes for hours,
days or weeks. Members of the transient flora are
generally of little significance so long as the normal
resident flora remains intact.
|531
Normal adult: In the normal adult, the microorganisms on the surface of the esophageal wall
are those swallowed with saliva and food. Because
of the low pH of the stomach, it is virtually sterile
except soon after eating. The stomachs acidity
keeps the number of microorganisms at a mini
mum (l03105/g of contents) unless obstruction at
the pylorus favors the proliferation of gram-positive
cocci and bacilli.
As the pH of intestinal contents becomes
alkaline, the resident flora gradually increases. The
number of bacteria increases progressively beyond
the duodenum to the colon, being comparatively
Key Points
The term normal microbial flora denotes the
population of microorganisms that inhabit the
skin and mucous membrane of normal healthy
individuals
The resident flora consists of relatively fixed types
of micro-organisms regularly found in a given area
at a given age. and cannot be removed permanently
The transient flora inhabit the skin or mucous
membranes and does not produce disease, and
does not establish itself permanently on the surface.
The normal flora is composed principally of bacteria
A resident, actively proliferating, microbial flora
occurs in the skin, nose and oropharynx, the mouth
and large intestine, the anterior parts of the urethra
and the vagina.
Important questions
1. What is normal microbial flora of the human body?
Write briefly on beneficial and harmful effects of
normal flora.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Normal bacterial flora.
b. Difference between resident and transient flora.
c. Normal flora of the skin.
d. Normal flora of the intestine.
e. Normal flora in the mouth and upper respiratory
tract.
f. Normal flora of the genitourinary tract.
78
Chapter
Infective Syndromes*
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Define bacteremia, septicemia, pyemia and
endotoxemia
List causative organisms of septicemia, infective
endocarditis and subacute endocarditis
Discuss laboratory diagnosis of subacute endocarditis
List causative organisms of meningitis
Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of acute pyogenic
meningitis
Describe characterstics features of cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) in different forms of meningitis
List causative organisms of urinary tract infection
Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of urinary tract
infection
Describe characterstics features of cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) in different forms of meningitis
Describe the following: aseptic meningitis; tuber
culous meningitis
List causative organisms of sore throat
Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of sore throat
*This chapter was contributed by Dr Savita Kumari, Professor, Department of Internal Medicine, Postgraduate
Institute and Medical Research (PGIMER), Chandigarh-160 012, India.
(A) Bacteria
Viridans group of streptococci- responsible for 6080%
of cases?
Streptococcus sanguis
Str. mutans
Str. mitis
Enterococcus faecalis
Staph. epidermidis
Coxiella burnetii
Chlamydia psittaci
(B) Fungi
Candida albicans
Aspergillus spp.
1. Acute Endocarditis
Virulent species such as Staphylococcus aureus and
Streptococcus pneumoniae are usually the cause,
and they infect both normal and abnormal heart
valves. They can often produce a rapidly progressive
disease, often with valve destruction and formation
of abscesses in the heart muscle, leading to heart
failure.
2. Subacute Endocarditis
Subacute bacterial endocarditis is usually caused
by organisms with little virulence. These organisms
of relatively low virulence cause infection on
damaged or defective valve cusps, and large firm
Laboratory Diagnosis
Diagnosis of infective endocarditis depends on
isolation of the causative agent from blood. Blood
culture is the most important test for diagnosing
infective endocarditis
1. Specimen
Three to six samples of blood, 10 mL each should
be collected from antecubital vein over 24 hours.
Samples should be collected before antimicrobial
therapy is administered. Each sample should be
inoculated into 50100 mL of glucose broth.
Large amount of blood is required because the
number of organisms in the blood may be very few.
In addition, blood provides nutrition for the growth
of organisms. Repeated blood cultures are made
because the bacteremia is intermittent.
2. Cultures
Cultures are incubated at 37C for at least 3 weeks.
Subcultures are made on solid media such as blood
agar and MacConkey agar after 24 hours, 48 hours
3. Identification
The isolated organism is identified by colony
morphology, Gram staining, biochemical reactions
and serological tests. Refer to the corresponding
chapters for details of these agents.
Treatment
The antibiotic treatment regimen for infective
endocarditis depends upon the infecting organism
For penicillin-susceptible streptococci, highdose penicillin is the treatment of choice. Patients
with a good history of penicillin allergy can be
treated with clindamycin or with a macrolide.
|535
Prevention
No scientifically proven preventive methods are
available.
i. Importance of maintaining good dental hygiene.
ii. Prophylactic antibioticthe accepted practice
is to give prophylactic antibiotic before dental
extraction and other surgical procedures.
Key Points
Important Questions
1. Define bacteremia, septicemia, pyaemia and
endotoxemia. Name various organisms causing
septicemia. How will you diagnose it in the
laboratory?
2. Enumerate causative. agents of infective endocar
ditis. How will you proceed to diagnose it in the
laboratory?
3. Write short notes on subacute endocarditis.
2. Meningitis
Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes
surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Most cases
of meningitis fall into one of the two categories:
purulent meningitis and aseptic meningitis. The
causative agents of these types are given in Table
78.4.
Purulent meningitis
Neisseria meningitidis
Streptococcus
pneumoniae
Haemophilus
influenzae
Escherichia coli
Group B streptococci
Pseudomonas
Salmonellae
Staphylococcus aureus
S. epidermidis
Listeria
monocytogenes
Klebsiella
Anaerobic cocci
Bacteroides
In neonates and
infants
E. coli
Group B streptococci
Pseudomonads,
salmonellae
Staph. aureus
H. influenzae
Listeria monocytogenes
Streptococcus
pneumoniae
Klebsiella spp.
Aseptic meningitis
A. Viruses
Enteroviruses
(echoviruses, polioviruses,
coxsackieviruses)
Mumps
Herpes simplex
Varicella-zoster
Measles
Adenoviruses
Arboviruses
B. Spiral bacteria
Syphilis (Treponema
pallidum)
Leptospira
Interrogans serovars
Icterohaemorrhagiae and
canicola
C. Other bacteria
Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium
tuberculosis)
Partially treated with
antibiotics
Brain abscess
D. Fungi
Cryptococcus neoformans
Candida albicans
E. Protozoa
Acanthameba
Naegleria
Toxoplasma gondli
F. Noninfective
Lymphoma
Leukemias
Metastatic and primary
neoplasms
Collagen-vascular disease
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Collection of Specimens
The principal specimen to be examined is of CSF
collected by lumbar puncture under strict aseptic
conditions. Only 35 mL of fluid should be collected
in a fresh sterile screw-capped containers. The
specimen must be dispatched to the laboratory as
quickly as possible, for delay may result in the death
of delicate pathogens, such as meningococci, and the
disintegration of leukocytes. It should not be kept in a
refrigerator, which tends to kill H. influenzae. If delay
for a few hours is unavoidable, the specimen is best
kept in an incubator at 37C.
Dilution
CSF that is clear or only slightly turbid should be
examined undiluted but when the specimen is
highly turbid and its cell count very high, it may
be necessary to dilute it 1 in 10 or 1 in 100 before
examination.
Culture
i. CSF Culture
Immediately after centrifugation of the CSF and the
removal of some of the deposit for the Gram film, the
remainder of the deposit should be seeded heavily
on to culture media, blood agar and chocolate agar
for incubation in humid air plus 510%, CO2 and
a-tube of cooked-meat broth. A further blood agar
plate should be seeded for incubation for 25 days
in an anerobic atmosphere with 5-10% CO2.
The cultures should be inspected after overnight
incubation. The isolated organisms are identified
by colony morphology, Gram staining from
colonies, biochemical reactions and/or serological
tests. Tests with appropriate antibiotics should be
done on the isolate.
If no growth is apparent after overnight
incubation, the plates should at once be reincubated
for another day and then again inspected for growth.
|537
Normal CSF
Acute pyogenic
meningitis
I. Pressure
Normal
Highly increased
Moderately increased
Slightly increased
1.
Total cell
(per cu. mm
13
1,00020,000
50500
10500
Lymphocytes
Neutrophils (9095%)
Lymphocytes (90%)
Lymphocytes
B. Biochemical analysis
A. Cell count
2. Predominant
1.
Total
proteins
(mg%)
3045
100600 (Highly
increased)
80120 (moderately
increased)
6080 (slightly
increased)
4080
Diminished or absent
(1020)
Diminished (3050)
Normal
2. Sugars
(mg%)
A. Microsocopy
1.
Gram
staining
Nil
Gram-negative cocci,
Gram-positive cocci,
Gram-negative bacilli
or gram-positive bacilli
may be found depending
upon the causative agent
responsible.
2. Ziehl
Neelsen
staining
Nil
Nil
B. Culture
Nil
According to the
causative agent, specific
organism may grow on
appropriate media.
Viruses may be
grown on cell
cultures
Agglutination
Biochemical Tests
The supernate from the centrifuged CSF should
be tested for its content of glucose and protein
(Table 78.5).
Antigen Detection
The supernatant part of CSF contains antigen,
which may be demonstrated by the performance
of a latex agglutination test or coagglutination or
counter-immunoelectrophoresis (CIEP) test. These
2. Aseptic Meningitis
In aseptic meningitis, the CSF is clear or only
slightly turbid and contains only moderate
numbers of leucocytes, e.g. 10500/mm3, most of
Laboratory Diagnosis
2. Microscopy
The centrifuged deposit of the CSF should be
examined in an auramine or ZiehlNeelsen-stained
film for acidfast bacilli.
3. Culture
Centrifuged deposit of CSF is inoculated on Lowen
steinJensen (LJ) media and incubated at 37C
for 68 weeks. Identification of M. tuberculosis
depends on colony morphology, ZN staining from
colonies and biochemical reactions.
If facilities are available, some of the CSF should
be inoculated into a guinea-pig. As in purulent
meningitis, the glucose cont ent of the CSF is
reduced and the protein content increased.
Key Points
3. Tuberculous meningitis
The CSF findings often resemble those of aseptic
meningitis, but the cell count is usually slightly
higher, e.g. 100500 leucocytes/mm 3 , mostly
lymphocytes, and a veil clot (fibrin web) often
develops when the CSF is allowed to stand
undisturbed (Table 78.5).
When a tuberculous infection is suspected, the
centrifuged deposit of the CSF should be examined
in an auramine or ZiehlNeelsen-stained film for
acidfast bacilli and cultured on one or two slopes
of LowensteinJensen medium.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimen
Important Questions
Types of UTI
Acute infections of UTI can be subdivided into two
anatomic categories:
1. Lower UTI
i. Urethritis
ii. Cystitis
iii. Prostatitis
Lower UTI is due to ascending infection.
2. Upper UTI
i. Acute pyelitisinfection of pelvis of kidney
ii. Acute pyelonephritisinfection of parenchyma
of kidney.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Clinical Features
1. Asymptomatic bacteuria: Symptomless
urinary tract infection is not uncommon and
can be detected only by urine culture.
2. Symptomatic: The common symptoms of
urinary tract infection are urgency and frequency
of micturition, with associated discomfort or
pain.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimen Collection
1. Midstream specimen of urine (MSU): Speci
mens of urine are generally collected in plastic
universal containers.
|539
B. Transport of Specimen
Once collected, a specimen of urine must be
transported to the laboratory without delay, for
urine is an excellent culture medium. If a delay
of more than 12 hours storage is done in a
refrigerator at 4C.
C. Laboratory Methods
Part of the specimen is used for bacteriological
culture and the rest is examined immediately
under the microscope.
1. Microscopy
The deposit of the centrifuged urine can be examined
under microscope to find out the presence of pus
cells, red blood cells and bacteria in it. Presence
of more than 3 pus cells per high- power field is
suggestive of infection.
Nowadays centrifugation is not recommended.
Wet film examination: The finding of 1 leucocyte
per 7 high-power fields corresponds with 10 4
leukocytes per mL and the larger number than
this indicates significant pyuria. Therefore,
centrifugation is not recommended.
2. Culture
A. Quantitative
It is too laborious for routine use and thus not used
routinely.
Interpretation of Results
Kass (1957) gave a criterion of active bacterial
infection of urinary tract as follows:
i. Count more than 10 5 bacteria of single
species per mL: significant bacteriuria which
indicates active UTI.
ii. Less than 104 organisms/mL and usually less
than 103/mL accounts contamination.
Screening Techniques
Several screening techniques have been introduced
for the presumptive diagnosis of significant
bacteriuria. These include the following:
i. Griess nitrite test: It is based on nitritereducing enzymes produced by bacteria
present in urine. The presence of nitrite,
detectable by a simple test, indicates the
presence of nitrite-reducing bacteria in urine.
ii. Catalase test: The presence of catalase as
evidenced by frothing on addition of hydrogen
peroxide indicates bacteriuria, though a
positive result is obtained also in hematuria.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimen
Excretion of M. tuberculosis from kidney is
intermittent. Hence, midstream urine specimen
is not useful. Early morning urine specimens
should be collected in sterile container on three
consecutive days.
3. Culture
Culture is performed on LowensteinJensen
medium and incubated for 68 weeks. Growth
is identified by ZiehlNeelsen staining and
biochemical tests.
Key Points
Urinary tract infection (UTI) may be defined as the
presence of bacteria undergoing multiplication in
urine within the urinary drainage system
Lower UTI includes) Urethritis, cystitis and prostatitis
and due to ascending infection
Upper UTI includes acute pyelitis and acute pyelone
phritis.
|541
Important Questions
1. Name the various organisms causing urinary tract
infection. Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of this
condition.
2. Write short notes on:
Midstream specimen of urine (MSU).
4. Sore throat
Sore throat is essentially an acute tonsillitis
or pharyngitis. It is characterized by redness
and edema of mucosa, exudation of tonsils,
pseudomembrane formation, edema of uvula,
grey coating of tongue and enlargement of cervical
lymph nodes. Causative agents of sore throat are
given in Table 78.7.
Pseudomembrane formation: Corynebacterium
diphtheriae, Candida albicans, -hemolytic group A
Streptococcus, Treponema vincentii and Leptotrichia
buccalis may lead to pseudomembrane formation.
Laboratory Diagnosis
The signs and symptoms of sore throat (pharyngitis)
caused by streptococci and viruses are similar.
A. Specimen
For bacteriological sampling, a plain, albumencoated or charcoal-coated cotton-wool swab should
be used to collect as much exudate as possible from
the tonsils, posterior pharyngeal wall and any other
area that is inflamed or bears exudate. Two throat
swabs are collected. If it cannot be delivered to the
laboratory within about 1 hour, it should be placed
in a refrigerator at 4C until delivery.
B. Direct Microscopy
From one swab, make two smears for Gram
staining and Albert-staining.
1. Gram Staining
It is not helpful unless Vincents organisms or
Candida albicans are suspected. Vincents infection
shows gram-negative spirochaetes (Borrelia
vincentii) and gram-negative fusiform bacilli
(Fusobacterium spp.). When Candida albicans is
suspected, it appears as gram-positive oval budding
yeast cells.
2. Albert Staining
It shows green-colored, V and L-shaped (Chinese
letter pattern) bacilli with bluish-black metachromatic
granules in infection due to C. diphtheriae. Albertstaining is helpful for presumptive diagnosis of C.
diphtheriae.
D. Identification
1. Morphology
i. Str. pyogenes: Colnies are small (pin-point),
circular, semitransparent, low convex discs
having -hemolysis.
ii. C. diphtheriae: On potassium tellurite blood
agar, gray or black coloured round colonies
are seen.
iii. Candida albicans: White or cream colored
colonies may be seen.
E. Antibiotic Sensitivity
All -hemolytic group A streptococci are sensitive to
penicillin G, and most are sensitive to erythromycin.
C. diphtheriae is sensitive to penicillin.
Pneumonia
Pneumonia may be defined as inflammation and
consolidation of the lung substance. Bacterial
causes for pneumonia are listed in Table 78.8.
A. Community-acquired pneumonia
Common organisms
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Chlamydophila pneumoniae
Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Legionella pneumophila
Uncommon organisms
Haemophilus influenzae
Staphylococcus aureus
Chlamydophila psittaci
Coxiella burnetii
Kleb. pneumoniae
Actinomyces israillae
Primary viral pneumonia
Influenza, parainfluenza virus and measles
Respiratory syncytial virus in infancy
Varicella (chickenpox)
B. Hospital-acquired pneumonia
Gram-negative bacilli (60%)
Escherichia, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella species
Gram-positive organisms (16%)
Staph. aureus
Anaerobes
Legionella spp.
C. Pneumonia in immunocompromised patients
Pnemocystis carinii
Gram-negative bacteriaPs. aeruginosa
Mycobacteruim tuberculosis
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Haemophilus influenzae
Candida albicans
Aspergillus fumigatus
VirusesCytomegalovirus
1. Classification
A. Community-acquired Pneumonia
Community-acquired pneumonia has been thought
to present as either of the two syndromestypical
or atypical.
B. Hospital-acquired Pneumonia
Hospital-acquired or nosocomial pneumonia
refers to a new episode of pneumonia occurring
at least two days after admission in the hospital.
C. Pneumonia in lmmunocompromized
Patients
The common causative agents include Pneumocystis
carinii, Staph. aureus, Ps. aeruginosa, viral
infections (CMV and herpes) and M. tuberculosis.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Specimen
Sputum; blood; pleural fluid; blood for serological
tests.
B. Direct Microscopy
1. Gram Staining: Adequate number of pus
cells alongwith the presence of predominant
organisms gives a clue to the probable pathogen.
2. ZiehlNeelsen staining: Presence of acid-fast
bacilli (AFB) gives a presumptive diagnosis of
tuberculosis.
|543
C. Culture
Sputum, blood and pleural fluid can be cultured
on blood agar and chocolate agar. Purulent portion
of sputum is best for culture. If the sputum is too
viscid, it may be homogenized.
1. Blood agar: It is incubated aerobically at 37C
under 510% CO2.
2. Chocolate agar: It is also incubated at 37C
with 510 percent CO2.
3. LowensteinJensen (LJ) medium: Three
specimens of sputum are collected on three
successive days for culture on LJ media which
are then incubated at 37C for 68 weeks.
4. Selective media are required for culture of L.
pneumophila (see Chapter 37).
5. Isolation of chlamydia can be done on cell-lines.
E. Serology
1. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
Complement fixation test (CFT)
Cold agglutinin test
2. Chlamydia pneumoniae
Microimmunofluorescence
TWAR antigen
CFT
Immunofluorescent antibody test
4. Coxiella burnetii
CFT
Key Points
Sore throat is essentially an acute tonsillitis or
pharyngitis
Laboratory diagnosis of sore throat caused by
bacteria depends on direct microscopy and culture.
For bacteriological sampling, two throat swabs are
collected
Pneumonia may be defined as inflammation and
consolidation of the lung substance, which may
be classified as community-acquired pneumonia,
hospital-acquired pneumonia and pneumonia in
immunocompromized patients
Laboratory diagnosis of pneumonia depends on
direct microscopy and culture.
Important Questions
1. Name the various organisms causing sore throat.
How will you diagnose it in the laboratory?
2. Name the various bacterial causes of pneumonia.
Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of pneumococcal
pneumonia.
B. Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis may be defined as inflammation of
the mucous membrane of stomach and intestine
resulting in frequent loose motions with or without
mucus and with or without blood, pain abdomen
and with or without fever. It is often used as a
synonym for acute diarrhea, especially when
associated with vomiting.
C. Dysentery
Dysentery is a disease marked by frequent
watery stools, often with blood and mucus, and
characterized clinically by cramping abdominal
pain, tenesmus, fever and dehydration.
For all practical purposes, the terms diarrhea,
gastroenteritis and dysentery are collectively
included as diarrheal diseases.
D. Travellers Diarrhea
Persons from the developed countries visiting
endemic areas may acquire various exotic intestinal
pathogens and cause diarrheal illness soon after
the traveller has returned by aira condition
known as Travellers diarrhea.
Diarrhea
Causative agents of diarrhea are shown in Table
78.9.
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Bacteria
1. Vibrios
i.
Vibrio cholerae
ii. Vibrio parahaemolyticus
iii. Other halophilic vibrios
V. mimicus and V. vulnificus cause sporadic
cases of diarrheal disease.
a. Specimen: Feces
b. Culture: Selective media, such as TCBS or bile
salt agar are used. Plates are incubated at 37C
for 2448 hours. Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a
halophilic vibrio, in media containing sodium
chloride.
c. Identification: Colony morphology, biochemical
reactions and slide agglutination test.
2. E. coli
i. ETEC
ii. EPEC
C. Protozoa
Entamoeba histolytica
Giardia lamblia
Cryptosporidium parvum
Isospora belli
D. Cestodes
Hymenolepis nana
E. Nematodes
Trichuris trichiura
Strongyloides stercoralis
Ascaris lumbricoides
Hookworms
F. Trematodes
Schistosoma mansoni
iii. EIEC
iv. EAEC
a. Specimen: Feces
b. Culture: On blood agar and MacConkeys agar.
These media are incubated at 37C for 24 hours.
c. Identification
Colony morphology, biochemical reactions, slide
agglutination with antisera.
Sereny test is used for the identification of
EIEC strains. Invasion of cultured HeLa cells is
another method for identification of these strains.
Production of verocytotoxin (VT) is confirmed by
testing the strains on Vero cells, in which they cause
cytopathic effects.
3. Salmonellae
S. Typhimurium, S. Enteritidis, S. Dublin, S.
Cholerae-suis, S. Heidelberg and S. Thompson.
Laboratory diagnosis
i. Specimen: Feces or any suspected foodstuff.
ii. Culture: Specimen is inoculated in enrichment
medium and on the selective media, such as
MacConkeys agar, deoxycholate agar (DCA)
and XLD agar. Wilson and Blairs medium may
also be used.
Selective media are incubated at 37C for 24
hours. After 6 hours incubation of enrichment
medium, subculture is made onto the selective
medium. Pale nonlactose fermenting colonies
develop on MacConkeys agar and DCA or
4. Shigellae
All four serogroups of shigellae (Shigella dysenteriae,
S. fiexneri, S. boydii and S. sonnei) cause bacillary
dysentery.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimens: Feces
ii. Culture: on MacConkeys agar and DCA
medium. S. sonnei is a late lactose
iii. Identification
It depends on Colony morphology, biochemical
reactions and agglutination test by group specific
polyvalent antisera.
5. Campylobacter jejuni
C. jejuni occurs in intestinal flora of many animals,
especially poultry which probably serves as
the major source of human infection. Milk and
waterborne outbreaks of diarrhea have been
reported. Incubation period varies from 3 to 10
days. The disease is sometimes associated with
vomiting and bloody mucoid stools.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimen: Feces
ii. Culture
Selective medium containing vancomycin and
polymyxin. The inoculated culture medium is
Incubated at 43C under microaerophilic
conditions. C. jejuni and C. coli selectively
grow against other faecal bacteria.
iii. Identification
Curved, Gram-negative bacilli exhibiting
darting motility oxidase positive.
6. Yersinia enterocolitica
Y. enterocolitica has been identified as an important
cause of diarrhea. Sources of infection are birds and
animals. Foodborne outbreaks have been reported.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimens: Feces, blood
ii. Culture: Isolated from faeces or blood
cultures. Non-lactose fermenting (NLF).
7. Clostridium perfringens
Cl. perfringens gastroenteritis or food poisoning
is characterised by diarrhea and abdominal pain
|545
Laboratory Diagnosis
Since Cl. perfringens type A forms a part of normal
flora in 530% of the population, it is difficult to
interpret its causative role. When the same serotype
is isolated from large number of the victims of
an outbreak and from the suspected food, a
presumptive diagnosis can be made.
i. Specimens: Feces, food
ii. Culture: Culture is done on blood agar and
incubated anaerobically at 37C for 24 hours.
iii. Identification: Colonies are either betahemolytic or nonhemolytic.
Gram staining: Gram-positive bacillus with
subterminal spore.
Further identified by Naegler reaction and
serotyped by agglutination test.
8. Clostridium difficile
Cl. difficile is associated with antibiotic-associated
diarrhea and pseudomem.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimen: Feces
ii. Culture: Feces is cultured on selective media
with subsequent toxigenicity test.
iii. Demonstration of toxin:
Toxin-characteristic effects on HEp-2 and
human diploid cell cultures, or by ELISA.
Toxin is specifically neutralized by antiserum.
9. Staphylococcus aureus
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimens: Vomit, feces, suspected food.
ii. Culture: On selective medium (mannitol salt
agar) or on ordinary media.
iii. Identification:
Colony morphology, Gram staining, catalase
test and coagulase test. Phage-typing may be
done for epidemiological purposes.
iv. Demonstration of enterotoxin: Reverse passive
latex agglutination assay (RPLA) or ELISA.
B. Viruses
1. Rotavirus
2. Norwalk virus
3. Adenoviruses
4. Other viruses:
Astroviruses and caliciviruses.
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimen: Feces
ii. Electron microscopy
iii. Fluorescent antibody test and ELISA.
C. Protozoa
1.
2.
3.
4.
Entamoeba histolytica
Giardia lamblia
Cryptosporidium parvum
Balantidium coli: This is a rare cause of chronic
recurrent diarrhea, with dysenteric episodes in
some.
D. Fungus
There have been reports of diarrhea associated
with Candida albicans.
Dysentery
Dysentery is a disease marked by frequent
watery stools, often with blood and mucus, and
characterized clinically by cramping abdominal
pain, tenesmus (painful straining when passing the
stools), fever and dehydration. Dysentery results
from enteroinvasive microorganisms (Table 78.10).
that penetrate through the mucosa and cause
inflammation of the intestinal wall. The differences
between protozoal (amebic) and bacterial (bacillary)
dysentery are given in Table 78.10. For laboratory
diagnosis, see under Diarrhea.
Key Points
Laboratory Diagnosis
i. Specimen: Feces
ii. Microscopy
b. Acid-fast Staining
Feces smear shows acid-fast oocyst of Crypto
sporidium parvum.
iii. Serological tests: Indirect hemagglutination
assay (lHA) and ELISA are used to detect
antibody titer in sera of patients with amebiasis.
Important questions
1. Enumerate the different causes of diarrhea. How will
you diagnose a case of diarrhea in the laboratory.
2. Enumerate the etiological agents of dysentery.
Discuss in detail the laboratory diagnosis of
dysentery.
3. Write short notes on:
a. Travellers diarrhea
b. Viral diarrhea
|547
6. Food poisoning
The term bacterial food poisoning is restricted to
acute gastroenteritis due to the presence of bacteria,
usually in large numbers, or their products in food.
It is of three types (Table 78.11).
A. Infective Type
In this type, multiplication of bacteria occurs in
vivo when infective doses of microorganisms are
ingested with food. Incubation period is generally
Salmonella Typhimurium
S. Enteritidis
S. Heidelberg
S. Indiana
S. Newport
S. Dublin
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Campylobacter jejuni
Staphylococcus aureus
Clostridium botulinum
3. Infectlve-toxic type
C. Infective-toxic Type
In this type, bacteria release the toxin in the bowel.
The incubation period is 612 hours. The typical
example is Cl. perfringens food poisoning.
For the laboratory diagnosis, refer to the corres
ponding chapters. It has also been described under
Laboratory diagnosis of diarehea.
Bacillus cereus
B. Toxic Type
Key Points
2. Toxic type
Clostridium perfringens
Important questions
1.
Name the various organisms causing food
poisoning. Describe briefly the laboratory diagnosis
of this condition.
2. Write short notes on food-borne botulism.
Etiology
Organisms causing sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs) and their clinical presentations are shown
in Table 78.12.
Laboratory Diagnoses
Laboratory diagnoses of these diseases has already
been described in the corresponding chapters.
However, the salient features of laboratory
diagnoses of important STDs are mentioned here.
A. Syphilis
Syphilis is caused by Treponema pallidum.
1. Specimens
(i) Fluid from chancre; (ii) Scrapings from ulcerated
secondary lesions; (iii) Blood for serology.
2. Microscopy
Dark-ground microscopy or phase-contrast micro
scopy is used for demonstration of T. pallidum in
exudate. The direct fluorescent antibody test for T.
pallidum (DF ATP) is a better and safer method for
microscopic diagnosis.
3. Serological tests
i. Nonspecific tests:
a. VDRL test
b. Rapid plasma reagin (RPR) test
ii. Specific tests:
a. TPHA (Treponema pallidum hemagglutin
ation assay).
D. Vaginal discharge
Gonorrhea
NGU
Trichomoniasis
Vaginitis
Vulva-vaginal
candidiasis
Organisms
Treponema pallidum
Chlamydia trachomatis
Calymmatobacterium
granulomatis
Haemophilus ducreyi
Herpes simplex viruses
(HSV) type 2 and 1
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Chlamydia trachomatis
(types D-K)
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Mycoplasma genitalium
M. hominis
N. gonorrhoeae
C. trachomatis
M. hominis
Trichomonas vaginalis
Gardnerella vaginalis
Mobiluncus sp.
Candida albicans
E. Genital warts
F. No genital lesions
but only systemic
manifestations
G. Miscellaneous
Group B streptococci
Molluscum contagiosum
virus
Cytomegalovirus
Phthirus pubis
Sarcoptes scabei
Shigella sp.
Campylobacter sp.
Giardia lamblia
Entamoeba histolytica
C. Donovanosis
Donovanosis is caused by Calymmatobacterium
granulomatis.
1. Specimen: Tissue smear from the ulcer
2. Staining: Diagnosis can be made by demon
stration of Donovan bodies in Wright-Giemsastained impression smears from the lesions.
They show bipolar condensation of chromatin,
giving a closed safety pin appearance in stained
smears. Capsules are usually seen as dense
acidophilic areas around the bacilli.
D. Chancroid
Chancroid or soft chancre is caused by H. ducreyi.
1. Specimen: Exudate
2. Gram staining: Gram-negative coccobacilli are
seen in Gram staining.
3. Culture: Exudate is cultured onto chocolate agar
enriched with isovitalex and fetal calf serum,
and containing vancomycin as a selective agent.
Culture plates are incubated at 35C under 10
percent CO2 and in high humidity in 28 days.
4. Identification: For identification of the organism,
colony morphology and Gram staining are
useful.
i.
Colony morphology: H. ducreyi forms small,
gray, translucent colonies.
ii.
Gram-staining: It shows gram-negative
coccobacilli.
E. Herpes genitalis
F. Gonorrhea
It is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
1. Specimens: Specimens used are: (i) Urethral
discharge; (ii) An endocervical swab; (iii) In
chronic cases; (iv) Rectal swab.
2. Direct Gram-staining: Gram-stain of the penile
exudate shows characteristic and diagnostic
gram-negative intracellular diplococci (GNID)
in granulocytes.
3. Culture: Commonly used selective media are
modified ThayerMartin and MartinLewis
plates. Inoculated plates should immediately
be placed in an incubator at 37C for 2448
hours in the presence of CO2. Cultures with no
visible growth must be held for 72 hours before
discarding.
4. Identification: Identification of an organism
is based on colony morphology, Gram staining
from colonies and biochemical reactions.
i.
Colony morpholo g y: Small, gray,
translucent, raised colonies.
ii.
Gram-staining: Gram-negative diplococci
iii.
Biochemical reactions: They are oxidase
positive and produce acid from glucose but
not lactose, maltose or sucrose.
iv. Direct detection methods, such as
fluorescent antibody and agglutination
tests, are also available.
v. Nucleic acid probes for the direct detection
of N. gonorrhoeae from clinical specimens.
Laboratory Diagnosis
1. Specimens
(i) Swabs from exudate of urethra; (ii) Cervical
discharge.
2. Direct examination
i. Giemsa stain: It shows intracytoplasmic
inclusion bodies suggestive of C. tracho
matis.
ii.
Antigen detection: For detection of ele
mentary bodies of C. trachomatis, smears
are made from exudate and examined by
|549
H. Trichomoniasis
It is caused by Trichomonas vaginalis.
1. Specimen: Swab of vaginal discharge is exami
ned freshly. Specimen should be collected in
stuarts transport medium if delay in transport
is inevitable.
2. Direct microscopy: Direct wet film shows
motile trichomonads. Direct microscopy is at
least 80 percent as positive as culture.
3. Culture: Finebergs medium is used for culture
of specimen and it is incubated for 5 days and
examined for motile protozoa.
J. Vulvovaginal Candidiasis
It is caused by various species of Candida but C.
albicans accounts for 80% of cases.
1. Specimen: Swab from vaginal secretions
2. Direct microscopy
i.
KOH mount: It shows yeast cells.
ii.
Gram-staining: Gram staining shows
characteristic gram-positive budding yeast
cells and pseudohyphae.
3. Culture: Sabourauds dextrose agar (SDA) is
inoculated with the specimen and incubated
at 37C for 48 hours.
4. Identification
i.
Colony morphology: Colonies are creamy
white and smooth.
K. Genital Warts
Genital warts, also known as condyloma acuminata,
are common in sexually active adults. These are
usually due to human papillomavirus (HPV) types
6 and 11.
For detection of inclusion bodies of HPV,
cytological or histological examination of cells in
urine is used.
For diagnosis of Shigella sp, Campylobacter spp,
Group B streptococci, refer to the corresponding
chapters.
Key Points
The sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are a group
of communicable diseases which are transmitted
predominantly or entirely by sexual contact. The
causative organisms include a wide range of
bacterial, viral. protozoal and fungal agents
For laboratory diagnosis and treatment according
to the suspected organism responsible for the
manifestations of that particular STD.
Important Questions
1. Name the various organisms causing sexually
transmitted diseases. Discuss the laboratory
diagnosis of syphilis.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Laboratory diagnosis of gonorrhea
b. Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU)
c. Chancroid
d. Lymphogranulum venereum (LGV)
e. Donovanosis
f. Vulvovaginal candidiasis.
8. Wound Infection
Wound infections may be endogenous or exogenous.
It may be caused by a variety of aerobic and
anerobic species of bacteria (Table 78.13).
Laboratory Diagnosis
A. Naked-eye Examination
A. Aerobes
Staphylococcus aureus
-haemolytic streptococci
Enterococcus spp
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Escherichia coli
Other coliform bacilli
Proteus spp
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Mycobacterium marinum
Nocardia spp
B. Anerobes
Peptostreptococci
Bacteroides spp
Clostridium perfringens and other clostridia.
Actinomyces israelii
B. Microscopy
Smear Stained by Grams Method
Gram-positive cocci in typical clusters may
suggest a staphylococcal infection,
In chains, streptococcal infection.
Gram-positive diplococci may be given by either
pneumococci or enterococci.
Gram-variable filaments of Actinomyces may
appear like chains of cocci and their fragments as
diphtheroid bacilli.
Examination of a wet film may reveal the presence
of fungi or motile bacteria.
C. Culture
The specimen should be inoculated onto two
plates of blood agar, the one for incubation at
37C aerobically, preferably in air plus 510% CO2,
the other for incubation anaerobically in nitrogen
hydrogen plus 510% CO2, It should also be plated
for aerobic incubation on MacConkey agar or
CLED agar and be inoculated into a tube of cookedmeat broth for the enrichment of exacting aerobes
and anerobes. The culture plates are examined
after overnight incubation at 37C for 1824 hours.
If at 24 or 48 hours there is growth in the
cooked-meat broth, but no growth on the plates,
the broth should be filmed and subcultured, both
aerobically and anerobically. If tuberculous or
fungal infection is suspected, the specimen should
be cultured by the appropriate methods on the
appropriate special media.
D. Identification of Isolates
After the bacteria cultured have been obtained
in pure subcultures, any further necessary tests
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E. Antibiotic Sensitivity
At the same time, the pure cultures should be tested
for sensitivity to an extended range of antibiotics
useful in therapy.
Key Points
Wound infections may be caused by a variety of
aerobic and anerobic species of bacteria
Laboratory Diagnosis: Pus or exudate is often
submitted on a swab for laboratory investigation.
The basic procedures usually include a nakedeye examination of the specimen, microscopical
examination of a Gram film, and culture on aerobic
and anerobic blood agar plates, on MacConkey agar
and in cooked-meat broth. Gas chromatography
may be performed directly on liquid specimens to
indicate the presence of anerobes.
Important questions
1. Name the various microorganisms causing wound
infection. Write briefly on laboratory diagnosis of
wound infection.
Causes of PUO
Infection is the most common cause of PUO.
However, there are important non-infectious causes
of fever. The causes of PUO are given in Table 78.14.
A. Bacterial Infections
1. Specimens
Blood: for blood culture, peripheral blood smear,
haematology, serology and other tests.
Urine, Sputum, Pus.
2. Collection
These specimens must be collected in sterile
containers under aseptic conditions. Blood is
collected in blood culture bottles for culture and in
a sterile vial for serology. Blood culture should be
collected before antibiotics are given. Midstream
urine specimen of urine (MSU) should be collected
in a sterile universal container.
3. Culture
i. Blood culture
For blood culture, 5 mL of blood is collected in
each bottle of 50 mL glucose broth and 50 mL
taurocholate broth. These broths are incubated at
37C for 24 hours and then subcultures are made on
blood agar (from glucose broth) and MacConkey
agar (from taurocholate broth). Blood agar and
MacConkey agar plates are incubated at 37C for
24 hours.
ii. Urine culture
A calibrated volume of midstream urine specimen
is inoculated on blood agar and MacConkey agar.
These media are incubated at 37C for 24 hours.
4. Identification
Organisms may be identified on the basis of
colony morphology, Gram-staining, biochemical
reactions and agglutination, etc. ZiehlNeelsen
(ZN) staining is performed to detect acid-fast
bacilli (AFB) for M. tuberculosis. This is further
confirmed by culture and biochemical reactions.
For details of individual organisms, refer to
corresponding chapters.
B. Noninfective causes
a. Neoplasms
Hodgkins lymphoma
Non-Hodgkins lymphoma
Leukemia
Hypernephroma
Hepatoma
Disseminated malignancy
b. Connective tissue disorders
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
Polyarteritis nodosa
Temporal arteritis
c. Granulomatous diseases
Sarcoidosis
Crohns disease
Granulomatous hepatitis
d. Drug reactions
Drug-induced fevers
5. Serology
Paired sera should be collected for serological
tests for antibody responses to a range of possible
pathogens, e.g. cytomegalovirus, hepatitis B
virus, Coxiella, Salmonella, Brucella, Leptospira,
Toxoplasma, Aspergillus and Entamoeba. HIV
infection should also be considered. The anti
streptolysin-O (ASO) test should be done for
cryptic Streptococcus pyogenes infection.
B. Parasitic Infections
Stained peripheral blood films smears (thin
and thick) will help in diagnosis of malaria,
leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis and filariasis.
Wet blood film may show microfilaria in cases of
filariasis. Serology is useful in amebiasis.
C. Viral Infections
Peripheral blood smear may be helpful in infectious
mononucleosis. Viral infections may be detected
either by tissue culture or by serology. PaulBunnel
test is useful in infectious mononucleosis.
D. Fungal Infections
Specimens may be cultured on Sabourauds
dextrose agar or brainheart infusion agar.
2. Hematological Investigations
Hematological investigations should be done
to detect leukocytosis, suggestive of a cryptic
abscess; eosinophilia, suggestive of helminthiasis;
and atypical lymphocytes, suggestive of infectious
mononucleosis.
3. Immunologic Tests
LE cell phenomenon and antinuclear antibody
test in SLE.
4. Biopsy
Biopsy of liver and bone marrow and other tissues
such as skin, lymph nodes and kidney.
Key Points
Pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO) may be defined
as (a) any febrile illness (body temperature greater
than 38C) on several occasions, (b) duration of
fever of more than 3 weeks, and (c) failure to reach a
diagnosis despite 1 week of inpatient investigation.
It is also known as fever of unknown origin (FUO)
The causes of PUO include infections bacterial, parasitic
and viral) neoplasms, connective tissue disorders,
granulomatous diseases and drug reactions
Tests should first be done for the more likely infec
tions and then, if these are negative, tests for the less
likely should be done.
Important Question
Define and enumerate the causes of pyrexia of unknown
origin (PUO). Discuss the laboratory diagnosis of PUO.
|553
79
Chapter
Hospital-acquired Infection
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Define hospital-associated infection
List of routes of transmission of hospital-associated
infections
Introduction
The terms hospital infection, hospital-acquired
infection or nosocomial infection (from nosoco
meion, meaning hospital) are applied to infections
developing in hospitalized patients, not present or
in incubation at the time of their admission.
Sources of infections
Hospital infection may be exogenous or endogen
ous in origin.
A. Exogenous
Exogenous source may be another person in the
hospital (cross-infection) or a contaminated item
of equipment or building service (environmental
infection).
1. Contact with other patients and staff.
2. Environmental sources: These include inani
mate objects, air, water and food in the hospital.
B. Endogenous
A high proportion of clinically apparent hospital
infections are endogenous (self-infection), the
infecting organism being derived from the patients
own skin, gastrointestinal or upper respiratory flora.
ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION
1. Contact
Direct contact: Spread from person to person
(staphylococcal and streptococcal sepsis).
Indirect contact: Spread via contaminated
hands or equipment (enterobacterial diarrhoea,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa sepsis).
2. Airborne spread
i. Droplets
ii. Dust: Dust from bedding, floors; exudate
dispersed from a wound during dressing
and from the skin by natural shedding of
Common hospital-acquired
infection
2. Respiratory Infections
Aspiration in unconscious patients and pulmonary
ventilation or instrumentation may lead to
nosocomial pneumonia, particularly in those
with preexisting cardiopulmonary disease. The
major pathogens include Staph. aureus, Klebsiella
spp., Enterobacter, Serratia, Proteus, Esch. coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter, Legionella
pneumophila and respiratory viruses.
4. Gastrointestinal Infections
Food poisoning and neonatal septicemia in hospital
have been reported. These infections are mainly
associated with salmonella and Shigella sonnei.
5. Burns
Staph. aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ,
Acinetobacter and Strept. pyogenes are responsible
for hospital-acquired infections in cases of burns.
|557
Prevention
The hospital-acquired infections can be prevented
by following means:
1. Sterilization: The provision of sterile
instruments, dressings, surgical gloves, facemasks, theater clothing and fluids.
2. Cleaning and disinfection: The general
hospital environment can be kept in good
order by attention to basic cleaning, waste
disposal and laundry. The use of chemical
disinfectants for walls, floors and furniture is
necessary only in special instances.
3. Skin disinfection and antiseptics: Procedures
for preoperative disinfection of the patients
skin and for surgical scrubs are mandatory
within the operating theater.
4. Rational antibiotic prophylaxis
5. Protective clothing
6. Isolation source isolation and protective
isolation.
7. Hospital building and design: The routine
maintenance.
8. Equipment
9. Personnel: Hepatitis B vaccine should be
given to all health care workers.
10. Monitoring: Monitoring of the physical
performance of air-conditioning plants
and machinery used for disinfection and
sterilization is essential.
11. Surveillance and the role of the laboratory:
The detection and characterization of hospital
infection incidents or outbreaks rely on
laboratory data.
Important questions
1. Define hospital-associated infection. Enumerate
organisms causing it. What are the factors which
influence development of this infection?
2. Write short notes on:
a. Routes of transmission of hospital-associated
infections
b. Diagnosis and control of hospital-associated
infections
80
Chapter
Laboratory Control of Antimicrobial Therapy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
List different methods of antibiotic sensitivity
testing
Describe disk diffusion methods
Explain Stokes disk diffusion method and its reporting
Differentiate between Stokes disk diffusion and
modified Stokes disk diffusion method
INTRODUCTION
Medium
Chap-80.indd 559
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Control strain
KirbyBauer
Stokes
Coliform
organisms
E. coli NCTC
10418
Pseudomonas
P. aeruginosa
ATCC 27853
P. aeruginosa
NCTC 10662
Haemophilus
spp
H. influenzae
ATCC 49247
H. influenzae
NCTC 11931
Gonococci
N. gonorrhoeae
ATCC 49226
N. gonorrhoeae
(sensitive strain)
Enterococci
E. faecalis ATCC
29212
E. faecalis
NCTC 12697
S.aureus
NCTC 6571
Diluent
Chloramphenicol
Ethanol
Control Strains
Rifampicin
Ethanol
Erythromycin
Ethanol
Nitrofurantoin
NaOH solution
Sulfonamides
NaOH solution
Antibiotic Disks
Trimethoprim
Acetic acid
Amoxicillin
NaHCO3 (saturated)
Ceftazidime
NaHCO3 (saturated)
Chap-80.indd 560
B. Testing of Antibiotics
The appropriate antimicrobial-impregnated disks
are placed on the surface of the agar, using either
sterile forceps or multidisk dispenser. Disks must
be evenly distributed on the agar so that they are
no closer than 24 mm from center to center. On
a plate of 100 mm diameter, seven disks may be
applied, one in the center and six in the periphery
(Fig. 80.2). The plates are then incubated at
35C for 1618 hours (24 hours when testing
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|561
2 IU (1.2 mg)
0.25 IU (0.15 mg)
10 mg
2 mg
20 mg/10 mg
2 mg/1 mg
Piperacillin
30 mg
Mezlocillin
30 mg
Azlocillin
30 mg
Cephalothin
30 mg
Cephalexin
30 mg
Cephadroxil
30 mg
Cephradine
Cefuroxime
30 mg
30 mg
Ceftazidime
Cefotaxime
10 mg
10 mg
Cefsulodin
30 mg
Methicillin
5 mg
Carbenicillin
100 mg
Ticarcillin
75 mg
Imipenem
10 mg
Gentamicin
10 mg
Amikacin
30 mg
Tobramycin
10 mg
Neomycin
30 mg
Netilmicin
10 mg
Erythromycin
5 mg
Clindamycin
2 mg
Tetracycline
10 mg
Fusidic acid
10 mg
Chloramphenicol
Enterobacteriaceae
haemophili, pneumococci and
meningococci
30 mg
10 mg
Colistin
10 mg
Nalidixic acid
30 mg
Nitrofurantoin
50 mg
Sulfafurazole
Enterobacteriaceae and
enterococci
meningococci
100 mg
25 mg
Trimethoprim
2.5 mg
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole
1.2 mg/23.8 mg
Spectinomycin
100 mg
Vancomycin
30 mg
Rifampicin
5 mg
Ciprofloxacin
1 mg
Mupirocin
5 mg
Chap-80.indd 561
C. Interpretation
Examine the plates after overnight incubation. With
the use of sliding calipers, a ruler, or a template,
the zones of complete growth inhibition around
each of the disks are carefully measured to within
the nearest millimeter. The diameter of the disk is
included in this measurement.
The interpretation of zone size into susceptible
(infection treatable with nonnal dosage), moderately
susceptible (infection that may respond to therapy
with higher dosage) or resistant (not treatable with
this agent) is based on the interpretation chart
(Table 80.4). Reference strains of S. aureus, E. coli,
P. aeruginosa, etc. should be tested each time a new
batch of disks or agar is used.
KirbyBauer test results are interpreted using
a table that relates zone diameter to the degree of
microbial resistance.
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Intermediate sensitive
Sensitive
28
29
1013
14
Gentamicin
12
13
Amikacin
14
1516
17
Erythromycin
13
1417
18
Tetracycline
14
1518
19
Chloramphenicol
12
1317
18
Nalidixic acid
13
1418
19
Trimethoprim
10
1115
16
Ciprofloxacin
15
1620
21
Benzylpenicillin
Ampicillin
Methicillin
Carbenicillin
Exceptions
1. Penicillinase-producing strain of Staphylo
coccus: It will show an inhibition zone but, it will
be smaller and colonies at the edge are large and
well developed and there is no gradual fading of
growth towards the disk. These penicillinaseproducing staphylococci show heapedup zone
edges in tests of penicillins; accordingly they
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Epsilometer or E-test
The E-test, a modification of the disk diffusion
test, utilizes a strip impregnated with a gradient of
concentrations of an antimicrobial drug. Multiple
strips, each containing a different drug, are placed
on the surface of an agar medium that has been
uniformly inoculated with the test organism so that
they extend out radially from the center (Fig. 80.4).
Each strip contains a gradient of an antibiotic
and is labeled with a scale of minimal inhibitory
concentration values. The lowest concentration in
the strip lies at the center of the plate. After 2448
hours of incubation, an elliptical zone of inhibition
appears. The MIC is determined by reading a
number off the numerical scale printed on the strip
at the point where the bacterial growth intersects it.
Chap-80.indd 563
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DILUTION METHODS
Dilution tests may be done by the tube dilution or
agar dilution methods.
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Key Points
Antibiotic susceptibility tests are of two types:
Diffusion tests and dilution tests
Diffusion tests consists of KirbyBauer and Stokes
disk method. Stokes disk method incorporates built
Chap-80.indd 564
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Name different methods of antibiotic sensitivity
testing. Discuss in detail KirbyBauer disk diffusion
method for antimicrobial sensitivity testing.
2. Write short notes on:
a. KirbyBauer disk diffusion method
b. Stokes disk diffusion method
c. Minimum inhibitory concentration of antimi
crobial agents.
d. Minimum bactericidal concentration of antimicrobial agents.
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81
Chapter
Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe mechanism of action of antibacterial
drugs
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT
Antimicrobial agent is a chemical substance
inhibiting the growth or causing the death of a
microorganism.
ANTIBIOTIC
Antibiotic as originally defined was a chemical
substance produced by various species of micro
organisms that was capable of inhibiting the
growth or causing death of other microorganisms
in low concentration.
CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS
Chemotherapeutic agents are the chemical
substances used to kill or inhibit the growth of
microorganisms already established in the tissues
of the body. Nowadays the term antibiotic is
used loosely to describe agents (mainly, but not
exclusively, antibacterial agents) used to treat
systemic infection.
Antimicrobial agent (AMA): The term Anti
microbial agent (AMA) is to designate synthetic
as well as naturally obtained drugs that attenuate
microorganisms.
Antiseptics or disinfectants: Antimicrobial
substances that are too toxic to be used other
than in topical therapy or for environmental
decontamination are referred to as antiseptics or
disinfectants.
ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS
The principal types of antibacterial agents are
listed in Table 81.1. These have been grouped
according to their site of action.
Chap-81.indd 565
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A. b-Iactam Agents
This group includes penicillins, cephalosporins
and other compounds that feature a b-lactam ring
in their structure. All these compounds bind to
proteins situated at the cell wallcell membrane
interface. These penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs)
are involved in cell wall construction, including
the cross-linking of the peptidoglycan strands that
gives the wall its strength. Opening of the b-lactam
ring by hydrolytic enzymes, collectively called
b-lactamases, abolishes antibacterial activity. Many
such enzymes are found in bacteria.
Cephalosporins
Cephalosporins are a family of antibiotics and
their b-lactam structure is very similar to that of
the penicillins (Figs 81.1A and B). In place of
6-aminopenicillanic acid, they have a nucleus of
7-aminocephalosporanic acid. They are broadspectrum drugs frequently given to patients with
penicillin allergies.
They are grouped as the first, second, third, and
fourth generation cephalosporins. These include
cephalexin and cephradine (first generation),
cefaclor and cefprozil (second gene ration),
cefixime and ceftbuten (third generation), and
cefepime (fourth generation) (Table 81.2).
First-generation cephalosporins are more
effective against Gram-positive than gram-negative
Penicillins
Penicillins are a group of antimicrobial substances,
all of which possess a common chemical nucleus
(6-aminopenicillanic acid) which contains a
b-lactam ring essential to their biologic activity. A
side chain is attached to the b-lactam ring which
determines many of the antibacterial and pharma
cological characteristics of a particular type of
penicillin.
All b-lactam antibiotics inhibit formation of
bacterial cell wall. They particularly block the
final transpeptidation reaction in the synthesis of
cell wall peptidoglycan and also activate autolytic
enzymes in the cell wall.
Penicillins can be divided into several groups:
1. Those with highest activity against gram-posi
tive organisms but susceptible to hydrolysis by
b-lactamases:
Penicillin-G
Penicillin-V
Chap-81.indd 566
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|567
Compounds
Antibacterial spectrum
First generation
Cephalothin
Cephalexin
Second generation
Cefamandole
Cefotaxime
Third generation
Cefotaxime
Cefoperazone
Cefepime
Cefpirome
Fourth generation
Carbapenems
The carbapenems are effective against a wide range
of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Two
types are available, imipenem and meropenem.
Glycopeptides
Two glycopeptides, vancomycin and teicoplanin,
are in clinical use. Their chief importance resides
in their action against gram-positive cocci with
multiple resistance to other drugs. They are mainly
used in serious infections with staphylococci and
enterococci that are resistant to other drugs.
Chap-81.indd 567
Rifamycins
Rifamycins inhibit bacterial growth by binding
strongly to the DNA-dependent RNA polymerase of
bacteria thus inhibiting transcription of RNA from
DNA. This group of antibiotics is characterized
by excellent activity against mycobacteria.
Staphylococci in particular are exquisitely sensitive.
Rifampicin and rifabutin are most widely used.
Nitroimidazoles
Azole derivatives have wide-ranging antimicrobial
activity against fungi, protozoa, helminths, as well
as bacteria. Those that exhibit antibacterial activity
are 5-nitroimidazoles which are active only against
anaerobic bacteria and anaerobic protozoa. The
representative of the group most commonly used
clinically is metronidazole, but similar derivatives
include tinidazole, ornidazole and nimorazole.
They are primarily antiprotozoal agents, but they
exhibit potent activity against anaerobic bacteria.
Nitrofurans
Various nitrofuran derivatives are in use around
the world as antibacterial agents. These include
nitrofurantoin and furazolidone.
Nitrofurantoin: It is bactericidal to most urinary
pathogens at concentrations achievable in urine.
Furazolidone: Furazolidone is used in enteric
infections. The mode of action of nitrofurans
has not been elucidated, but it is probable that
a reduced metabolite acts on DNA in a manner
analogous to that of the nitroimidazoles
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Macrolides
Aminoglycosides
The aminoglycosides irreversibly bind to the
30S ribosomal subunit, causing it to distort and
malfunction. This blocks the initiation of translation
and causes misreading of mRNA by ribosomes that
have already passed the initiation step. Examples of
aminoglycosides include streptomycin, kanamycin,
neomycin, gentamicin, tobramycin, amikacin, etc.
Use: They are bactericidal compounds, and some,
notably gentamicin and tobramycin, exhibit good
activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The
group also has in common a tendency to damage
the eighth cranial nerve (ototoxicity) and the
kidney (nephrotoxicity).
Chloramphenicol
Chloramphenicol binds to the 50S ribosomal
subunit. It is mainly bacteriostatic.
Use: Use of chloramphenicol has been limited to
typhoid fever, meningitis and a few other clinical
indications because of the occurrence of a rare but
fatal side-effect, aplastic anemia.
Lincosamides
Lincosamides bind to the 50S ribosomal subunit
and resemble macrolides in binding site,
antibacterial activity, and mode of action.
Fusidic Acid
It blocks factor G, which is involved in peptide
elongation. It has excellent activity against
staphylococci, good activity against Corynebacterium
diphtheriae and modest activity against streptococci,
Gram-negative anaerobes, Nocardia asteroides, and
Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Streptogramins
Derivatives suitable for parenteral administration,
quinupristin and dalfopristin, have been developed
as a combination product. The combination is
effective against a variety of gram-positive bacteria,
including some of those that are resistant to
b-lactam drugs and vancomycin.
Mupirocin
This is an antibiotic, produced by Pseudomonas
fluorescens. Its useful activity is restricted to
staphylococci and streptococci and used only in
topical preparations.
5. Metabolic Antagonism
Antibacterial medications that inhibit metabolic
pathways.
Tetracyclines
Chap-81.indd 568
Mechanism of Action of
Sulfonamides (Fig. 81.2)
Sulfonamides are analogs of para-aminobenzoic
acid. Bec ause of their similar structures
(Fig. 81.3), there occurs competition between the
sulfonamides and the PABA for the active site on
the surface of the enzyme initiating the conversion
of PABA to dihydrofolic acid. When sulfonamides
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|569
ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
Understanding the mechanisms and the spread
of antimicrobial resistance is an important step in
curtailing the problem.
Chap-81.indd 569
1. Drug-inactivating Enzymes
Some organisms produce enzymes that chemically
modify a specific drug in such a way as to render it
ineffective.
i. Penicillinase: The best-known example is
the hydrolysis of the -lactam ring of many
penicillins by the enzyme penicillinase.
ii. Chloramphenicol acetyl transferase: The
enzyme chloramphenicol acetyl transferase
chemically alters the antibiotic chloram
phenicol.
2. Alteration in the Target Molecule
Examples
i. Alterations in the penicillin-binding proteins
prevent b-lactam drugs from binding to them.
ii. Similarly, a change in the ribosomal RNA, the
target for the macrolides, prevents those drugs
from interfering with ribosome function.
3. Decreased Uptake of the Drug
Many gram-negative bacteria are unaffected
by penicillin G because it cannot penetrate
the envelopes outer membrane. A decrease in
permeability can lead to sulfonamide resistance.
Mycobacteria resist many drugs because of the high
content of mycolic acids in a complex lipid layer out
side their peptidoglycan.
4. Increased Elimination of the Drug
The systems that bacteria use to transport detrimental
compounds out of a cell are called efflux pumps. This
resistance strategy is to pump the drug out of the cell
after it has entered.
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Key Points
Chap-81.indd 570
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Define the terms antimicrobial agent, chemothera
peutic agent and antibiotic. Describe the various
mechanisms of action of antibiotics with examples.
2. Describe the structure and functions of bacterial
cell wall. Name various antibiotics which affect cell
wall synthesis.
3. Write short notes on:
a.
Antibiotics inhibiting bacterial cytoplasmic
membrane function.
b. Antibiotics inhibiting bacterial nucleic acid
synthesis.
c. Antibiotics that act as metabolic antagonists.
4. Discuss genetic basis of drug resistance in bacteria.
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82
Chapter
Immunoprophylaxis
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
List of immunizing agents
Describe the following: live attenuated vaccines;
killed vaccines; toxoids
Introduction
An important contribution of microbiology to
medicine has been immunization, which is one of
the most effective methods of controlling infectious
diseases.
Immunizing Agents
The immunizing agents may be classified as:
A. Vaccines.
B. Immunoglobulins.
A. VACCINES
A vaccine (Latin vacca, cow) is a preparation
from an infectious agent that is administered to
humans and other animals to induce protective
immunity against a given disease. It stimulates
the production of protective antibody and other
immune mechanisms. Vaccines may be prepared
from live modified organisms, inactivated or killed
organisms, extracted cellular fractions, toxoids or
combination of these. More recent preparations
are subunit vaccines and recombinant vaccines.
Types of Vaccines
1. Live Vaccines
Live vaccines are prepared from live (generally
attenuated) organisms. In general, live vaccines
are more potent immunizing agents than killed
vaccines. Live attenuated example are BCG,
smallpox vaccine, oral polio vaccine (OPV),
mumps, measles and rubella (MMR) vaccine and
yellow feller vaccine.
3. Toxoids
Certain organisms produce exotoxins, e.g.
diphtheria and tetanus bacilli. The toxins produced
by these organisms are detoxicated and used in
the preparation of vaccines. In general, toxoid
preparations are highly efficacious and safe
immunizing agents.
4. Cellular Fractions
Vaccines, in certain instances, are prepared from
extracted cellular fractions, e.g. meningococcal
Immunization Schedules
National Immunization Schedule
The National Immunization Schedule is given in
Table 82.1. The first visit may be made when the
infant is 6 weeks old; the second and third visits,
at intervals of 12 months. Oral polio vaccine may
be given concurrently with OPT. BCG can be given
with any of the three doses but the site for the
injection should be different. The schedule also
covers immunization of women during pregnancy
against tetanus.
6. Recombinant-vector Vaccines
7. DNA Vaccines
A DNA vaccine elicits protective immunity against
a microbial pathogen by activating both branches
of the immune system: humoral and cellular.
Examples: At present, there are human trials
under way with several different DNA vaccines
against malaria, AIDS, influenza, hepatitis B, and
herpesvirus. Vaccines against a number of cancers
(lymphomas, prostate, colon) are also being tested.
B. Passive Immunization
IMMUNIZATION
A. Active Immunization
b. At 1624 months
c. At 56 years
d. At 10 and 16 years
e. For pregnant
women
Early in
pregnancy
TT-1 or Booster
|573
3. Antisera
The term antiserum is applied to materials prepared
in animals. Originally passive immunization
was achieved by the administration of antisera
or antitoxins prepared from nonhuman sources
such as horses. Since human immunoglobulin
preparations exist only for a small number of
diseases, antitoxins prepared from nonhuman
sources (against tetanus, diphtheria, botulism, gas
gangrene and snake bite) are still the mainstay of
passive immunization.
Administration of antisera may occasionally
give rise to serum sickness and anaphylactic shock
due to abnormal sensitivity of the recipient. The
current trend is in favor of using immunoglobulins
wherever possible.
Individual Immunization
Vaccine
Birth
6 weeks
10 weeks
14 weeks
9 months
Measles
Key Points
Important question
rite short notes on:
W
a. Vaccines
b. Live attenuated vaccines
c. Killed vaccines
d. Toxoids
e. National Immunization Schedule
f. WHO EPI Immunization Schedule.
83
83
Chapter
Bacteriology of Water, Milk and Air
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe bacteriological examination of water
Discuss bacteriological examination of milk
BACTERIOLOGY OF WATER
Introduction
Safe and wholesome water is defined as water that
is free from pathogenic agents, free from harmful
chemical substances, pleasant to the taste and usable
for domestic purposes. The aim of microbiological
examination of water supplies is to detect whether
pollution of the water by pathogenic organisms has
occurred or not. Reliance is placed on testing the
supply for microorganisms which indicate that fecal
pollution has taken place.
Soil bacteria
Sewage bacteria
Intestinal bacteria
Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens, Salmonella Typhi and Vibrio
cholerae
Sewage bacteria
proper
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF
WATER
The following tests are generally done for routine
bacteriological analysis of water.
Water-borne Pathogens
Transport
Stopper the bottle, label it with full details of the
source of the water and time and date of collec
tion, and deliver it to the laboratory as quickly as
possible, at least within 6 hours, keeping it in a cool
container and protected from light.
5 10 mL
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
4
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5 1 mL
0
1
2
0
1
2
0
1
2
0
1
0
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
0
1
2
3
4
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
MPN/100mL
<1
1
2
1
2
3
2
3
4
3
5
5
1
3
4
6
3
5
7
9
5
7
10
12
8
11
14
18
21
13
17
22
28
35
43
24
35
54
92
161
> 180
2. Eijkman Test
Some spore-bearing bacteria give false-positive
reactions in the presumptive coliform test. It is
necessary, therefore, to confirm the presence of
true (fecal) coliform bacilli.
The Eijkman test is usually employed to
find out whether the coliform bacilli detected in
the presumptive test are E. coli. After the usual
presumptive test, subcultures are made from all
the tubes/bottles showing acid and gas to fresh
tubes of single strength MacConkeys medium
already warmed to 44C. Incubation at 44C should
be carried out in thermostatically controlled
water baths. Those showing gas in Durhams
tubes contain E. coli. Further confirmation of the
presence of E. coli can be obtained by testing for
indole production and citrate utilization.
|577
BACTERIOLOGY OF MILK
Human infections may be caused by the ingestion of
animal milk which contains microorganisms derived
either from the animal, e.g. by contamination with
Milk-borne Diseases
Milk is a goodmedium for bacteria and good
vehicle for many pathogens. Milk-borne diseases
are shown in Table 83.4.
3. Chemical Tests
Table 83.4 Milk-borne diseases
1. Infections of animals that can be transmitted to
man
Primary importance
Tuberculosis
Brucellosis
Streptococcal infections
Staphylococcal enterotoxin poisoning
Salmonellosis
Q fever
Lesser importance
Cowpox
Foot and mouth disease
Anthrax
Leptospirosis
Tick-borne encephalitistransmitted through goat
milk
2. Infections primary to man that can be transmitted
through milk
Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers
Shigellosis
Cholera
Enteropathogenic Escherichi coli (EEC)
Nondiarrheal diseases
a. Streptococcal infections
b. Staphylococcal food poisoning
c. Diphtheria
d. Tuberculosis
e. Enteroviruses
f. Viral hepatitis
EXAMINATION OF AIR
A person inhales over 15 cubic meters of air in the
course of a day. Hence the bacterial content of the
air one breathes is important, particularly when it
Key Points
Methods of water analysis include presumptive
coliform count, differential coliform count,
membrane filtration method, and detection of fecal
streptococci and C. perfringens
Pathogenic microorganisms in milk can transmit
milk-borne dise ases such as tuberculosis, and
typhoid fever
Bacteriological examination of milk can be carried
out by colony counts, coliform counts; chemical tests
such as methylene blue reduction test, phosphatase
test, and turbidity test; and detection of specific
pathogens
Settle plate method and slit sampler methods are
used for bacteriological examination of air.
|579
Important question
rite short notes on:
W
a. Bacterial flora in water
b. Water-borne pathogens
c. Bacteriological analysis of water
d. Bacteriology of milk
e. Presumptive coliform count
f. Eijkman test
g. Bacteriology of air.
84
Chapter
Hospital Waste Management
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe universal precautions
Describe the following: Categories of biomedical
Let the wastes of the sick not contaminate the lives of the healthy
INTRODUCTION
Hospitals regularly generate waste which may be
a potential health hazard to health care workers,
the general public and the environment. Therefore,
adequate management and disposal of waste is
essential.
UNIVERSAL PRECAUTIONS
Concerns about transmission of the hepatitis
B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) led to the introduction of universal
precautions, to minimize the infections in medical
laboratory workers and health care personnel.
These universal precautions include:
1. Assume that all specimens/patients are
potentially infectious for HIV and other blood
borne pathogens.
2. All blood specimens or body fluids should
be placed in a leak-proof impervious bags for
transporation to the laboratory.
3. Use gloves while handling blood and body
fluid specimens and other objects exposed
to them. If there is a likelihood of spattering,
use face masks with glasses or goggles.
4. Wear laboratory coats or gowns while working
in the laboratory. Wrap-around gowns should
be preferred. These should not be taken
outside.
5. Never pipette by mouth. Mechanical pipetting
devices should be used.
Chap-84.indd 580
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WASTE SEGREGATION
It is important that hazardous waste component is
separated from non hazardous waste and to collect
these in appropriate receptacles. Mixing of waste
will render the entire waste potentially hazardous.
The wastes are segregated preferably at the point
of generation. This is the most important step to
safeguard the occupational health of healthcare
personnel. Waste should be segregated in bags of
different colors to facilitate appropriate treatment
and disposal (Table 84.1).
Yellow Bags
Infectious non-sharp waste should be put in yellow
bags.
Red Bags
Red bags may be used for non-sharp waste (except
anatomical tissues) if microwaving/ autoclaving/
chemical treatment followed by landfill is the
disposal option.
|581
Black
Incineration ash and solid chemical waste such as
discarded medicines should be collected in black
bags for disposal in secured landfill.
Proper segregation will minimise the waste
stream needing special treatment i.e. infectious
waste. This practice also helps in safe handling and
transporation of waste.
Blue/White Translucent
1. Incineration
Advantage of incinerator
The incinerator has an advantage of dealing with
all pathological and cytotoxic wastes. Body parts,
animal waste, microbiological waste and soiled
dressings can be treated with this technique.
Disadvantage of incinerator
1. It generates highly toxic gases (e.g. dioxins and
furans, if PVC plastics are present).
2. It adversely affects the health of the community.
3. Recycling and reprocessing of materials cannot
be done.
4. Burning of plastic waste or sharps is also not
recommended.
Table 84.1 Color coding and type of container for disposal of biomedical wastes
Color coding
Type of container
Waste category
Yellow
Plastic bag
1, 2, and 5, Cat. 6
Incineration/deep burial
Red
Disinfected container/plastic
bag
3, 4, 7
Autoclaving/microwaving/
chemical treatment
Blue/white translucent
Black
Plastic bag
Chap-84.indd 581
Autoclaving/microwaving/
chemical treatment and
destruction/shredding
Cat. 5 and Cat. 9 and Cat.
10 (solid)
15-03-2016 11:28:48
2. Autoclaving
Autoclaving, at 121C for 60 minutes, is an effective
method for treating infectious waste before disposal.
A separate autoclave dedicated for waste treatment
should be used. Waste arising from microbiology
and biotechnology laboratories including cultures
and stocks must be autoclaved before disposal by
incineration. Plastic disposables including blood
bags, urine bags, etc. should be autoclaved followed
by shredding. It is not recommended for pathological
waste. Autoclaved material is typically land-filled,
therefore, it has a large strain on land fill capacity.
Types of autoclaves: There are two kinds of
autoclaves:
i. Prevacuum type: In the prevacuum type,
steam is created outside the chamber loaded
with waste. Air in the chamber is then gradually
removed and steam is injected in. This type of
autoclave eliminate cold spots and air pockets
(where the steam is unable to penetrate) by
creating this vacuum. This ensures quicker
heating. A temperature of 121C and pressure
of 15 pounds per square inch is used.
ii. Gravity autoclave: For gravity autoclave,
the waste material should be subjected to
autoclave residence time of not less than 60
minutes, while in a vacuum autoclave time
period should not be less than 45 minutes.
Biological (Bacillus stearothermophilus
spores) or chemical indicators (strips/tapes)
should be used for validation test of autoclave.
3. Chemical Disinfection
The most economical and effective disinfectant
is hypochlorite. For clean conditions available
Chap-84.indd 582
5. Microwave Irradiation
Most microorganisms are destroyed by the
action of microwave of a frequency of about 2450
MHz and a wave length of 12.24 cm. The water
contained within the waste is rapidly heated by
the microwaves and the infectious components
are destroyed by heat conduction. This cannot be
used for animal or human body parts, metal items
or toxic or radioactive material.
6. Inertization
The process of inertization involves mixing waste
with cement and other substances before disposal,
in order to minimize the risk of toxic substances
contained in the wastes migrating into the surface
water or ground water.
DISPOSAL
Land filling, deep burial and sewage are used for
disposal. Infectious waste after treatment can be
disposed of by land-filling or deep burial. Liquid
waste can be disposed in sewage drains. Besides
treatment, incineration is also a method of disposal.
Treatment methods used for different types of
infectious wastes are shown in Table 81.1.
Key Points
15-03-2016 11:28:48
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. Describe various techniques used for the treatment
and disposal of hospital waste.
2. Write short notes on:
a. Universal precautions.
b. Segregation of waste.
c. Hospital waste management of biomedical
waste.
Chap-84.indd 583
|583
15-03-2016 11:28:48
85
Chapter
Vehicles and Vectors
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Role of various vehicles and vectors in disease spread.
Introduction
To maintain an active infectious disease in a human
population, the pathogen must be transmitted
from one host or source to another. Transmission
is the third link in the infectious disease cycle and
occurs by four main routes: airborne, contact,
vehicle, and vector-borne.
Cholera
Poliomyelitis
Hepatitis A virus infection
Food poisoning
Intestinal parasitic infestation.
Hepatitis B
Human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV)
Human T cell lymphotropic viruses
Infectious mononucleosis
Cytomegalovirus
2. Bacteria
Modes of transmission
A. Direct: Transmitted by direct contact between
reservoir and host.
B. Indirect: Transmitted to host (human host)
via intervening agent(s) such as vectors
(animals, insects, other humans and vehicles
(water, food, air, medical devices, various other
inanimate objects).
1. Vehicle-borne
Vehicle-borne transmission implies transmission
of the infectious agent through the agency of water,
food, ice, blood, serum plasma or other biological
products such as tissues and organs. Of these
water and food are the most frequent vehicles of
transmission, because they are used by everyone.
A. Mechanical Transmission
Acute diarrheas
Typhoid fever
Syphilis
Brucellosis
3. Parasites
Malaria
Trypansomiasis (Chagas disease)
Trypanosoma cruzi.
2. Vector-borne
B. Biological Transmission
The infectious agent undergoing replication
or development or both in vector and require
incubation period before vector can transmit,
biological transmission is of three types:
a. Propagative: When the disease agent
undergoes no cyclical change, but multiplies
in the body of the vector, transmission is said
to be propagative, e.g. plague bacilli in rat fleas.
b. Cyclopropagative: The disease agent under
goes cyclical change, and multiplies in the
body of the arthropod, e.g. malaria parasite in
anopheles mosquito.
|585
Medical Entomology
A study of the arthropods of medical importance
is known as medical entomology which is an
important branch of preventive medicine.
Arthropods act as vectors or carriers of diseases
(Table 85.1).
Key Points
Arthropod
Diseases transmitted
1. Mosquito
2. Housefly
3. Sandfly
Important questions
4. Tsetse fly
Sleeping sickness
5. Louse
6. Rat flea
7. Blackfly
Onchocerciasis
8. Reduviid
bug
Chagas disease
9. Hard tick
11. Trombiculid
mite
12. Itch-mite
Scabies
13. Cyclops
14. Cockroaches
Enteric pathogens
86
Chapter
Emerging and Re-emerging
Infectious Diseases
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the following: Emerging infectious diseases; re-emerging infectious diseases.
Introduction
Sometimes infectious agents that have not
been previously recognized appear. Emerging
infectious diseases are those whose incidence in
humans has increased during the last two decades
or which threaten to increase in the near future.
The term also refers to newly-appearing infectious
diseases, or diseases that are spreading to new
geographical areassuch as cholera in South
America and yellow fever in Kenya. During the past
20 years, at least 30 new diseases have emerged
to threaten the health of hundreds of millions of
people. For many of these diseases there is no
treatment, cure or vaccine and the possibility of
preventing or controlling them is limited.
Re-emerging, or resurging
diseases
Reemerging, or resurging, diseases are those that
have been around for decades or centuries, but
have come back in a different form or a different
|587
Agent
Type
Disease/comments
1973
Rotavirus
Virus
1975
Parvovirus B19
Virus
1976
Cryptosporidium parvum
Parasite
1977
Ebola virus
Virus
1977
Legionella pneumophila
Bacterium
Legionnaires' disease
1977
Hantaan virus
Virus
1977
Campylobacter jejuni
Bacterium
1980
Virus
T-cell lymphoma-leukemia
1981
Toxin-producing strains of
Staphylococcus aureus
Bacterium
1982
Bacterium
1982
Borrelia burgdorferi
Bacterium
Lyme disease
1982
HTLV-2
Virus
1983
Virus
1983
Helicobacter pylori
Bacterium
1985
Enterocytozoon bieneusi
Parasite
Persistent diarrhea
1986
Cyclospora cayetanensis
Parasite
Persistent diarrhea
1986
BSE agent?
Nonconventional
agent
1988
Virus
Exanthem subitum
1988
Hepatitis E virus
Virus
1989
Ehrlichia chaffeensis
Bacterium
Human ehrlichiosis
1989
Hepatitis C virus
Virus
1991
Guanarito virus
Virus
1991
Encephalitozoon hellem
Parasite
1991
Parasite
Atypical babesiosis
1992
Bacterium
1992
Bartonella henselae
Bacterium
1993
Virus
1993
Encephalitozoon cuniculi
Parasite
Disseminated disease
1994
Sabia virus
Virus
1995
Human herpesvirus 8
Virus
1996
Virus
1997
H5N1
Virus
1999
Nipah virus
Virus
2003
Corona virus
Virus
SARS
Typhoid fever
Causative agent
Multidrug resistant
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Multidrug resistant
Salmonella Typhi
Leptospirosis
Leptospira interrogans
Melioidosis
Burkholderia
(Pseudomonas)
pseudomallei
Anthrax
Bacillus anthracis
Plague
Yersinia pestis
B. Parasitic
Malaria
Drug resistant
Plasmodium falciparum
Leishmaniasis
Leishmania donovani
Wuchereria bancrofti,
Brugia malayi and B. timori
Lymphatic filariasis
Key Points
Emerging infectious diseases are those whose
incidence in humans has increased during the last
two decades or which threaten to increase in the
near future
Re-emerging, or resurging, diseases are those that
have been around for decades or centuries, but have
come back in a different form or a different location.
Resistance by disease-causing organisms to
antimicrobial drugs and other agents is a major
public health problem worldwide.
Antimicrobial Resistance
Resistance by disease-causing organisms to
antimicrobial drugs and other agents is a major
public health problem worldw ide. It is having
a deadly impact on the control of diseases
such as tuberculosis, malaria, enterococci,
staphylococci, streptococci, pneumococci and
Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae,
Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella Typhi.
Factors responsible for emergence and
re-emergence of infectious diseases
1. Economic development and land use,
unplanned and under-planned urbanization.
2. Overcrowding and rapid population growth.
3. Poor sanitation.
4. Inadequate public health infrastructure.
5. Resistance to antibiotics.
6. Increased exposure of humans to disease
vectors and reservoirs of infection in nature,
and
7. Rapid and intense international travel.
Responding to Epidemics
The strategy for controlling re-emerging diseases is
through available cost-effective interventions such
as early diagnosis and prompt treatment, vector
control measures and the prevention of epidemics,
for malaria ; and DOTSdirectly observed
treatment, short-coursefor tuberculosis; by
launching research initiatives for treatment
regimens and improved diagnostics, drugs
Important Questions
1. Write an essay on emerging and re-emerging
infections.
2. Discuss various factors responsible for the emer
gence and re-emergence of infectious diseases.
87
Chapter
Introduction
The deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic
acid (RNA), or proteins of an infectious agent in
a clinical sample can be used to help identify the
agent. Molecular methods have been found to be
advantageous in situations in which conventional
methods are slow, insensitive, expensive or not
available. Additionally, nonnucleic acid-based
analytic methods that detect phenotypic traits
not detectable by conventional strategies (e.g.
cell wall components) have been developed to
enhance bacterial detection, identification, and
characterization.
Molecular Methods
Molecular methods are classified into three
categories:
A. Hybridization
B. Amplification
C. Sequencing and enzymatic digestion of nucleic
acids.
B. Amplified Methods
1. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
2. Transcription mediated amplification (TMA)
3. Nucleic acid sequence based amplification
(NASBA)
4. Ligase chain reaction (LCR)
1. Polymerase chain reaction: It is the target
amplification system. The polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) can detect single copies of viral
DNA by amplifying the DNA many million-fold
and is one of the newest techniques of genetic
analysis. The basic principle of polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) and its application in clinical
laboratory for diagnosis of various infectious
agents has been described in Chapter 11.
Besides originally described PCR, other
types of PCR include reverse-transcriptase PCR
(RT-PCR), nested PCR and multiplex PCR.
B o t h T M A a n d NA S BA a re e x a mp l e s
of transcription-mediated amplification.
These isothermal assays use three enzymes:
transcriptase (RT), RNAase H, and T7 DNA
dependent RNA polymerase. Like TMA, it is also
an isothermal RNA amplification method. The
method is similar to TMA. RNA target is reverse
transcribed into cDNA and then RNA copies are
synthesized with the help of RNA polymerase.
It also does not require thermal cycler. NASBA
based kits for detection and quantitation of
HIV-1 RNA and CMV RNA are available.
4. Ligase chain reaction (LCR): Ligase chain
reaction (LCR) is an amplification of probe
nucleic acid rather than target nucleic acid. By
this approach an amplified probe is the final
reaction product to be detected, while the target
sequence is neither amplified nor incorporated
into this product.
The LCR uses two pairs of probes that span
the target sequence of interest, Once annealed
to the target sequence, a space remains between
the probes that is enzymatically closed using a
ligase (i.e. a ligation reaction). On heating, the
joined probes are released as a single strand that
is complementary to the target nucleic acid. These
newly synthesized strands are then used as the
template for subsequent cycles of probe annealing
and ligations. Through the process, probe DNA is
amplified to a level readily detectable using assays
similar to those described for the biotin-avidin
system. Like PCR, LCR also requires thermal cycler.
The LCR based amplification has been used
to detect Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria
gonorrhoeae.
Applications of molecular
methods in clinical laboratory
Molecular methods have a significant role in
the following situations in clinical microbiology
laboratory.
1. Detection of uncultivable growing micro
organisms.
2. Role in clinical virology.
3. Disease prognosis.
4. Response to treatment.
3. Disease Prognosis
Molecular methods are able to quantitate infectious
agent burden directly in patient specimens, an
application that has particular importance for
managing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV
infections). Thus, it provides important information
which may predict disease progression.
Molecular methods can be used for subtyping
of certain viruses which may provide information
about the severity of infection. HPV causes
dysplasia, neoplasia and carcinoma of cervix in
women. HPV types 16 and 18 are associated with a
high risk of progression to neoplasia, whereas HPV
types 6 and 11 have a low risk.
|591
Key Points
Molecular methods are classified into three
categories: A. Hybridization; B. Amplification; C.
Sequencing and enzymatic digestion of nucleic acids
Amplified methods: 1. Polymerase chain reaction
(PCR); 2. Transcription mediated amplification (TMA);
3. Nucleic acid sequence amplification (NASBA); 4.
Ligase chain reaction (LCR).
Molecular methods have a significant role in 1.
Detection of uncultivable growing microorganisms;
2. Role in clinical virology; 3. Disease prognosis; 4.
Response to treatment
Important Question
rite short notes on:
W
a. Detection of microorganisms by molecular methods
b. Nucleic acid probes
c. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in diagnosis of
infectious agents.
d. RT-PCR
e.
Applications of molecular methods in clinical
microbiology
88
Chapter
Staining Methods
Learning Objectives
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe common staining techniques
Introduction
Because most microorganisms appear almost
colorless when viewed through a standard light
microscope, we often must prepare them for
observation. Live bacteria do not show much
structural detail under the light microscope due
to lack of contrast. Hence, it is customary to use
staining techniques to produce color contrast.
Types of Stain
Basic dyes: Stains are salts composed of a positive
and a negative ion, one of which is colored and is
known as the chromophore. The color of so-called
basic dyes is in the positive ion; in acidic dyes, it is
in the negative ion. Bacteria are slightly negatively
charged at pH 7. Thus, the colored positive ion in
a basic dye is attracted to the negatively charged
bacterial cell.
Basic dyes, which include crystal violet,
methylene blue, malachite green, and safranin, are
more commonly used than acidic dyes.
Acidic dyes: Acidic dyes are not attracted to most
types of bacteria because the dyes negative ions are
repelled by the negatively charged bacterial surface,
so the stain colors the background instead. Examples
of acidic dyes are eosin, acid fuchsin, and nigrosin.
Negative staining: Preparing colorless bacteria
against a colored background is called negative
staining. It is valuable in the observation of overall
cell shapes, sizes, and capsules because the cells
are made highly visible against a contrasting dark
background. Distortions of cell size and shape are
minimized because heat fixing is not necessary and
the cells do not pick up the stain.
To apply acidic or basic dyes, microbiologists
use three kinds of staining techniques: simple,
differential, and special.
A. Stained preparations
Staining simply means coloring the microorganisms
with a dye that emphasizes certain structures.
Simple stains
Differential stains
a. Gram stain
b. Acid-fast stain (ZiehlNeelsen staining of
acid fast bacilli)
C. Special stains
a. Negative staining for capsules
b. Endospore (spore) staining
c. Flagella staining.
A. Simple stains
A single stain is used in simple staining. A simple stain
is an aqueous or alcohol solution of a single basic dye.
Some of the simple stains commonly used in
the laboratory are methylene blue, carbol fuchsin,
crystal violet, and safranin.
1. Loefflers methylene blue: The films are
stained for 3 min, then are washed with water.
This preparation does not readily over-stain.
Sections are stained for 5 min or longer.
Loefflers methylene blue is generally the
most useful of the many preparations of this
dye. It shows the characteristic morphology of
polymorphs, lymphocytes and other cells more
clearly than do stronger stains such as the Gram
stain or ZN staining (dilute carbol fuchsin.)
2. Polychrome methylene blue: The preparation is
used in a manner similar to Loefflers methylene
blue. It is also employed in McFadyeans reaction
for the identification of anthrax bacilli in blood
films.
3. Dilute carbol fuchsin: Dilute carbol fuchsin
is made by diluting ZiehlNeelsens stain with
1020 times its volume of water. Stain for 1025
seconds and wash well with water.
B. Differential stains
These stains impart different colors to different
bacteria or bacterial structures. Gram stain and the
acid fast stain are two most widely used differential
stains.
a. Gram Stain
Gram stain is the principal stain used for
microscopic examination of bacteria. It was first
|593
Method
The staining technique consists of four steps:
1. Primary staining with a basic pararosaniline
(triphenylmethane) violet dye.
2. Application of a dilute solution of iodine.
3. Decolorization.
4. Counterstaining.
Principle
Some bacteria, such as mycobacteria are resistant
to aniline dyes and do not readily penetrate the
substance of the tubercle bacillus and are therefore
unsuitable for staining it. The dye can be made
to penetrate the bacillus by the use of a powerful
staining solution that contains phenol, and the
application of heat. Once stained the tubercle
bacillus cannot be decolorized even with powerful
decolorizing agents for a considerable time and
thus still retains the stain when everything else in
the microscopic preparation has been decolorized.
Hence, they are called Acidfast bacilli (AFB).
The stain used consists of basic fuchsin, with
phenol (acts as a-mordant) added. The dye is basic
and its combination with a mineral acid used as
decolorizer produces a compound that is yellowish
brown in color which is readily dissolved out of
all structures except acid-fast bacteria. Any strong
acid can be used as a decolorizing agent, but 20%
sulfuric acid (by volume) is usually employed. In
order to show structures and cells, including nonacid-fast bacteria, that have been decolorized, and
to form a contrast with the red-stained bacilli, the
preparation is counterstained with methylene blue
or malachite green.
Acid fastness has been ascribed to the high
content and variety of lipids, fatty acids and higher
alcohols found in tubercle bacilli. A lipid peculiar
to acid fast bacilli, a high molecular weight hydroxy
acid wax containing carboxyl groups (mycolic
acid) is acid fast in the free state. Acid-fastness
depends also on the integrity of the cell wall
besides lipid contents.
C. Special Stains
Special stains are used to color and isolate specific
parts of microorganisms, such as endospores and
flagella, and to reveal the presence of capsules.
3. Flagella Staining
Bacterial flagella are too small to be seen with a
light microscope without staining. A tedious and
delicate staining procedure uses a mordant and
1. Alberts Stain
It is used for routine use (See chapter 89, page 599).
2. Neissers Stain
By this method the bacilli exhibit deep blue
granules and the bacterial protoplasm takes pink
color.
3. Ponders Stain
The volutin granules stain dark blue, whereas the
Bacillus pale blue.
4. Pughs Stain
The volutin granules stain reddish purple and the
remainder of the organism light blue.
Key Points
Staining means coloring a microorganism with a dye
to make some structures more visible.
Fixing uses heat or alcohol to kill and attach
microorganisms to a slide.
|595
Important questions
Answers (MCQs)
1. d; 2. d
89
Chapter
Practical Microbiology for MBBS Students
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading and studying this chapter, you should
be able to:
Describe various spots for practical examination
with identification with relevant questions to answer
Prepare exercises for practical in microbiology for
undergraduate students
INTRODUCTION
Practical examination in microbiology for MBBS
(2nd Prof.) may include the following exercises:
1. Spots
2. Staining
3. Identification of bacterial culture
4. Stool/feces examination
1. Spots: Five different spots in the form of
specimens-slides, glassware, media, etc. are
kept for identification with relevant questions
to answer in one or two sentences.
2. Staining: Two smears are provided for staining
i.e. one for ZiehlNeelsen (ZN) staining and
other for Alberts staining.
3. Identification of bacterial culture: Bacterial
growth is provided for identification on a
culture plate as well as in liquid medium.
4. Stool/feces examination: Feces specimen is
given for isolation and identification of two
pathogenic findings i.e. ova and/or cysts.
1. SPOTS
Question for spotsIdentify the spots displayed.
In general, five spots are displayed for identification
in the MBBS 2nd Professional microbiology
practical examination. At times one question
pertaining to the spot is also asked. There is
no specific pattern for the spots.Therfore, the
spots may be from bacteriology (in the form of
culture media without growth and with growth,
biochemical reactions, animal pathogenicity
tests), parasitology (specimens of parasites,
wet preparation of stool specimen Microscopic
slides), mycology (fungal growth and, microscopic
slides), glassware, equipments, swabs and some
miscellaneous items such as anaerobic jar, chrome
wire or loop, microtiter plate, VDRL slide, agar-agar
shreds, etc. It is not possible to give a complete list
Table 89.1 Specimen Practical question paper of Microbiology for MBBS 2nd Professional examination
Total Marks:25
Ques. No. 1 Identify the spots displayed.
(2 2 + 3 1) = 7
Ques. No. 2 (a) Stain smears A by ZiehlNeelsen technique. Draw and comment on this smear and show your findings
to the examiner.
(3)
(b) Stain smear B by Alberts technique. Draw and comment on this smear and show your findings tto the examiner. (2)
Ques. No. 3 You have been provided with a pure bacterial culture on plate and in broth. Do Grams staining from plate
and hanging drop preparation for motility from broth. Comment on the growth and mention other tests needed to
identify this bacterium. Show your findings to the examiner.
9(3+3+3)
Ques. No. 4 Identify and draw two abnormal findings (ova and cysts) in the given specimen of feces. Show your findings
to the examiner.
4(2+2)
Chap-89.indd 596
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|597
II. Parsitology
a.
b.
4. Egg of Taenia
5.
Trichuris trichiura
6. Egg of Enterobius vermicularis
7. Egg of hookworm
8. Egg of Hymenolepsis nana
c. Microscopic slides
1. Different stages of Plasmodium vivax or P. falciparum
2. LD bodies
3.
Microfilaria bancrofti
III. Mycology
a. Fungal Growth
1. Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA)
2. Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA) with growth of
Candida sp.
3. Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA) with growth of
Cryptococcus neofrmans
4. Sabouraud's dextrose agar (SDA) with growth of
Aspergillus, sp (Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus
Aspergillus fumigatus)
5. Slide culture test used in mycology
b. Microscopic slides
1.
Candida albicans,
2. Germ tube of Candida albicans
3.
Cryptococcus neofrmans
4. Histoplasmosis
5. Rhinosporidiosis
IV. Virology
1. Hemagglutination plate
2. Specimen of pocks on chorioallantoic membrane
(CAM)
Microscopic slides
Negri bodies
V. Glassware
1. Bijou bottle
2. Desiccator
3. Glass syringe
4. Graduated pipette
5. Pasteur pipette
6.
7.
8.
9.
Petri dish
Tuberculin syringe
Universal container
Medically flat bottle or McCartney bottle
Contd...
Chap-89.indd 597
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1.
2.
3.
4.
1. Incubator
2. Hot air oven
3. Autoclave
4. Centrifuge
1. Agar-Agar shreds
2. Gas-Pak
3. Craigie's tube
4. McIntosh-Filde's jar
5. Nichrome wire loop
6. Seitz filter
7. NIH swab
1. Mosquito
i. Anopheles
ii. Aedes
iii. Culex
2. Housefly
3. Sandfly
4. Louse
5. Fleas
5. Counter immunoelectrophoresis
6. HIV-Comb test
7. HIV-Tri-dot test
VIII. Equipments/instruments
5. Water bath
6. VDRL rotator
7. Lovibond comaparator
Procedure
1. The slide containing fixed smear is covered with
carbol fuchsin. The carbol fuchsin is left on the
slide for 510 minutes with intermittent heating
during that period. Heat the slide until the steam
rises, but without boiling. (Do not allow the stain
to dry, to counteract drying more solution of stain
is added to the slide and the slide reheated).
2. Wash in tap water.
Chap-89.indd 598
6. Ticks
i. Hard tick
ii. Soft tick
7. Mite
i. Trombiculid mite
ii. Itch mite
8. Cyclops
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Acid-fast Organisms
1. All mycobacteria are acid-fast e.g. Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacter
ium leprae, atypical mycobacteria.
2. Nocardia asteroides, Nocardia braziliensis.
3. Cryptosporidium-a protozoan coccidian
parasite, which causes opportunistic infections
in AIDS, is acid-fast.
4. Bacterial spores are weakly acid-fast.
|599
B. Alberts stain
A fixed smear is provided for Alberts staining. If the
smear is unfixed, it is fixed by passing the dried slide,
film downwards, three times slowly through the
flame, or by heating through the glass slide (the slide
is held, film upwards) in the top of the Bunsen flame
for a few seconds so that the slide becomes hot.
Staining Solution
A. Albert 1 or Albert stain
1. Toluidine blue
2. Malachite green
3. Glacial acetic acid
4. Alcohol (95% ethanol)
5. Distilled water
B. Albert II or Alberts iodine
Iodine
Potassium iodide
Distilled water.
1.5 g
2g
10 mL
20 mL
1 liter
6g
9g
900 mL
Procedure
1. Make film, dry in air, and fix by heat.
2. Cover slide with Alberts stain (Alberts solution
A) and allow to act for 35 min.
Chap-89.indd 599
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Reagents
A. Violet Dye
Crystal violet or methyl violet is used at concentra
tions of 0.52%. Solution is facilitated if the dye is first
dissolved in alcohol and then added to the water.
1. Crystal violet or methyl violet 6B
10 g
2. Absolute alcohol (100% ethanol)
100 mL
3. Distilled water
1L
B. Grams Iodine
1. Iodine
2. Potassium iodide
3. Distilled water
10 g
20 g
1L
C. Decolorizer
i. Acetone.
ii. Absolute alcohol (100% ethanol).
iii. Acetone-alcohol. This is a mixture of 1 volume
of acetone with 1 volume of 95% ethanol. It
requires application for about 10 seconds.
D. Safranine Counterstain
Safranine 0.5% in distilled water.
Procedure
1. Heat-fixed smear is covered with a basic purple
dye, usually crystal violet (primary stain) for
one minute. (Other dyes such as gentian violet or
methyl violet may also be used as primary stain).
2. Wash the smear thoroughly with water.
3. Cover the smear with Grams iodine for one
minute.
4. Wash again with water.
5. Decolorize the smear with acetone for 10
seconds or less taking care not to overdecolorise.
(Alcohol can be substituted for acetone).
6. Immediately wash with water to remove the
decoloriser.
7. Cover the slide with dye safranin (counterstain)
for 1 minute. (Dilute carbol fuchsin or neutral
red may also be used as counterstain).
8. Wash off the smear with water, blot and dry.
9. Examine the stained smear under the 100
(oil) immersion objective of the microscope
(Fig. 89.3).
Chap-89.indd 600
Gram-positive Cells
Gram-positive bacteria have a thicker peptido
glycan cell wall than Gram-negative bacteria. The
complex crystal violet-iodine (CV-I) complex is
larger than the crystal violet molecule that entered
the cells, and because of its size, it cannot be washed
out of the intact peptidoglycan layer of gram-positive
cells by acetone/alcohol. Consequently, grampositive cells retain the color of the crystal violet dye.
Gram-negative Cells
Gram-negative bacterial cell walls are thinner, have
a smaller amount of peptidoglycan, less exten
sively cross-linked and contain a high percentage
of lipids. There is a layer of lipopolysaccharide
as part of their cell wall. They dissolve during
treatment with acetone alcohol, forming larger
pores in the cell wall, and the CV-I complex is
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|601
Chap-89.indd 601
Clostridium
Lactobacillus
Mycobacterium
Actinomyces
Nocardia
B. Gram-negative bacteria
1. CocciNeisseria
2. Bacilli
a. Enterobacteria
Escherichia coli
Klebsiella
Salmonella
Shigella
Proteus
Yersinia
b. Vibrio
c. Pseudomonas
d. Parvobacteria
Hemophilus
Bordetella
Brucella
e. Bacteroides.
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on solid media
in liquid media
Identification Scheme
The following scheme of identification should be
adopted.
A. Culture Plate
Culture medium is identified and cultural
characteristics of bacterial growth are noted.
1. Culture Medium
Culture media provided may be nutrient agar,
blood agar or MacConkeys agar.
i. Cultural characteristics: Then the cultural
characteristics (Table 89.3) of bacterial
growth is described. This may help in some
provisional identification of the bacteria.
ii. Gram staining: Gram staining is done from
culture plate and notes the following:
i. Gram reactionGram-positive or gramnegative
ii. MorphologyCocci, bacilli or coccobacilli,
approximate size. If bacilli, then describe
whether these are thin, stout, long or short
bacilli.
B. Liquid Medium
Liquid medium is prepared from the same culture
plate which is given for examination and has the same
bacteria. Therefore, first identify the liquid culture
medium and describe the characteristics of growth
(Table 89.4). Hanging drop preparation is made
from this liquid media for motility and morphology
of the bacteria.
Chap-89.indd 602
Procedure
1. A hollow ground slide, (a glass slide with a
shallow, circular concavity in its center) is used
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
C. Provisional Diagnosis
A provisional diagnosis can be made on the basis of
culture media and liquid medium findings. Further
tests such as fermentation and other biochemical
reactions, serology, etc. should be used to confirm
the identification of bacteria.
Chap-89.indd 603
|603
1. Nutrient Agar
It is often difficult to identify the organism by
examining only the morphology of colony on
nutrient agar plate. In general, bacterial growth
with green pigment on nutrient agar is provided
for examination along with liquid broth.
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Chap-89.indd 604
1. Oxidativefermentation
medium of Hugh
and Leifson
(OF medium)
Oxidative
2. Glucose Oxidatively with the
production of acid
only
3. Lactose
Negative
4. Maltose
Negative
5. Indole
Negative
6. MR
Negative
7. VP
Negative
H2S
Negative
8. Oxidase reaction (within 30 seconds)
9. It reduces nitrates to nitrites and further to
gaseous nitrogen.
10. It is catalase, arginine dihydrolase and gelatinase
positive
11. Lysine decarboxylase Negative
12. Aesculian hydrolysis Negative
Note your observations on your answer sheet
with well labeled diagrams of your observations
with color pencils and show to the examiner.
2. Blood Agar
Blood agar supports the growth of a variety of
fastidious and nonfastidious organisms, grampositive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria. Grampositive cocci (Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus
pyogenes) or gram-negative bacilli such as Proteus
species may also be provided on blood agar plate
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Staphylococcus
Observations
A. Solid Media
1. Medium: Blood agar
2. Colony morphology: Colonies are 24
mm in diameter (pin-head size), surface
smooth glistening, edge entire, a soft butyrous
consistency and an opaque and easily emulsi
fiable, pigmented appearance surrounded by a
zone of -hemolysis (Fig. 89.6).
B. Liquid Media
Growth in broth: (in peptone water): Uniform
turbidity.
Chap-89.indd 605
|605
Streptococcus pyogenes
After observing the colony morphology on solid
medium, growth in liquid medium, Grams staining
and hanging drop preparation, findings should be
recorded as follows:
Observations
A. Solid Media
1. Culture Medium: Blood agar
2. Colony morphology: Colonies are small,
0.51.0 mm in diameter (pin-point in contrast
to pin-head size of Staphylococcus), circular,
semi-transparent, low convex discs surrounded
by a wide zone of b-hemolysis) (Fig. 89.7).
B. Liquid Media
i. Growth in broth: (in glucose or serum):
Granular turbidity with powdery deposite.
D. Presumptive Diagnosis
Streptococcus sp.
E. Confirmatory Tests
i. Catalase test-Negative. (It differentiates
Streptococcus from Staphylococcus).
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A. Solid Media
1. Culture medium: Blood agar (Fig. 89.8)
2. Colony morphology: Swarming appearance on
noninhibitory solid media, such as nutrient agar
and blood agar with characteristic putrefactive
odor (fishy or seminal) then genus Proteus is
B. Liquid Media
Growth in broth (in peptone water): Uniform
turbidity with slight powdery deposit and an
ammonical odor in liquid medium (peptone water).
D. Presumptive Diagnosis
Proteus sp.
E. Confirmatory Tests
Keeping in view all the observations your
presumptive diagnosis is Proteus sp. It is confirmed
with the following tests.
i. Phenyl pyruvic acid (PPA) test: Positive
ii. Urease test: Positive
iii. Glucose: A/G (acid/gas)
iv. Lactose: Negative
v. Malonate utilization: Negative
vi. Indole test : Positive in P. vulgaris but is
negative in P. mirabilis.
vii. MR: Positive
viii. VP: Negative.
ix. H2S: Positive in P. vulgaris and P. mirabilis.
x. Ornithine decarboxylase: Positive in P.
mirabilis but negative in P. vulgaris
F. Final Diagnosis
The given bacterium may be identified as P. vulgaris
or P. mirabilis depending on biochemical reactions.
Typing methods (phage typing, bacteriocin typing
and serotyping schemes) have been developed for
Proteus species. Swarming Proteus strains exhibit the
Dienes phenomenon and this forms the basis for a
precise method of differentiation among such strains.
3. MacConkeys Agar
Chap-89.indd 606
15-03-2016 11:29:22
|607
B. Liquid Broth
i.
Growth in broth: General turbidity and a
heavy deposit or uniform turbidity.
D. Identification
The bacteria may be identified by correlating the
colony characters, Gram staining and hanging
drop preparation and then by various biochemical
reactions.
E. Presumptive Diagnosis
Presumptive diagnosis of Esch. coli or Klebsiella sp.
can be made on the basis of above features.
Chap-89.indd 607
15-03-2016 11:29:23
Escherichia coli
Klebsiella sp
3. Gram staining
5. Biochemical reactions
1. Acid from glucose
2. Lactose
Mannitol
Sucrose
Variable
Indole
VogesProskauer (VP)
Citrate
Urease
Growth in KCN
A. Solid Media
D. Presumptive Diagnosis
B. Liquid Broth
Growth in broth: Abundant growth with uniform
turbidity.
Chap-89.indd 608
E. Confirmatory Tests
Confirmatory tests of Salmonella sp. and Shigella
sp: The fermentation of carbohydrates and other
15-03-2016 11:29:24
|609
Shigella sp
Salmonella sp.
1. C
olony morphology on MacConkeys
agar
3. Gram staining
Nonmotile bacilli
Motile bacilli
Subgroup
Species
Sh.
dysenteriae
Sh.
flexneri
Sh.
boydii
Sh.
sonnei
Mannitol
Lactose
A (Late)
Sucrose
A (Late)
Dulcitol
Indole
Ornithine
decarboxylase
Serotypes
6+
variants
15
Only
one
10
A = Acid; d = Variable
Chap-89.indd 609
4. STOOL/FECES EXAMINATION
In this exercise, stool specimen is provided to
isolate two pathogenic parasitic findings. Stool
examination is done to find out ova and cysts of
different parasites.
15-03-2016 11:29:24
S. Typhi
S. Paratyphi A
S. Paratyphi B
S. Paratyphi C
Catalase
Oxidase
Urease
Glucose
AG
AG
AG
Mannitol
AG
AG
AG
Maltose
AG
AG
AG
Lactose
Sucrose
Indole
Methyl red
Voges- Proskauer(VP)
Citrate
H2 S production
Method
Wet preparations of stool specimen are prepared
as follows (Fig. 89.13):
1. Saline preparation as well as iodine preparation
of stool are made on the same glass slide.
2. A drop of physiologic saline (0.9%) is placed at
one end and a drop of iodine at the other end
the same slide.
3. A small amount (2 mg) of feces is added to each
drop and mixed well with the help of a small
wooden stick to make a uniform suspension.
4. Each preparation (saline and iodine) should
be covered with a square coverslip, taking care
that no air bubble forms.
5. The film should not be too thick. A convenient
rule of thumb is to prepare the film just thin
enough so that ordinary newsprint can easily be
read through it and should not overflow beyond
the edges of the coverslip.
6. Examination (Fig. 89.14): Examine the
preparation under low power objective lens of
microscope (10X).
i. Examine both the preparations (saline and
iodine) under low power objective (10X),
starting at one corner and following a
systematic vertical or horizontal pattern until
the entire preparation has been examined.
A high-power objective is used to identify
Chap-89.indd 610
Caution
1. It is easier to identify eggs of cestodes (Taenia
sp.), helminthes (roundworm, hookworm,
Enterobius vermicularis, Hymenolepsis nana)
and protozoa (cyst of Giardia lamblia, Therefore,
always prefer to search for these abnormal
findings.
15-03-2016 11:29:25
Precautions
i. Before adding feces either to saline or iodine
drops, feces in container should be mixed
properly with wooden stick. Sometimes ova
or cysts may settle down in the container,
mixing ensures the uniform distribution of
these within the feces.
ii. If preparation has dried up, prepare another
slide for examination purposes.
|611
A. EggsBile stained
1. Roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides)
Eggs are of two types; fertilized eggs and unfertilized
eggs.
The characteristics of a fertilized egg are as follows:
Fertilized egg (Fig. 89.15A)
It is round or oval in shape measuring 6075 m in
length and 4050 m in breadth.
i. It is bile stained and thus brownish in (golden
brown) color.
ii. It is surrounded by a thick, smooth translucent
shell with an outer albuminous coat in
the form of rugosities. This outer coat is
sometimes lost (decorticated egg).
iii. It contains a very large unsegmented ovum
with a clear crescentric area at each pole.
Unfertilized Egg (Fig. 89.15B)
i. It is narrower and longer measuring 80 m in
length and 55 m in breadth.
ii. It is bile stained (brownish in color)
iii. It has a thinner shell with an irregular coating
of albumin.
iv. It contains a small atrophied ovum with
a mass of disorganized, highly refractile
granules of various sizes.
Chap-89.indd 611
15-03-2016 11:29:26
Chap-89.indd 612
Cysts
Entamoeba histolytica (Fig. 89.21)
i. It is spherical, 10 to 15 m in diameter and is
surrounded by a highly refractile membrane,
called the cyst wall.
15-03-2016 11:29:29
Key Points
Practical examination in microbiology for MBBS (2nd
Prof.) examination may include the exercises: 1. Spots;
2. Staining; 3. Identification of bacterial culture; 4. Stool/
feces examination
1. Spots: There is no specific pattern for the spots.
Therfore, the spots may be from bacteriology,
Chap-89.indd 613
|613
15-03-2016 11:29:30
Chap-89.indd 614
Method
i. A drop of physiologic saline is placed at one end and
a drop of iodine at the other end the same slide.
ii. A small amount of feces is added to each drop and
mixed well with the help of a small wooden stick to
make a uniform suspension.
iii. Each preparation (saline and iodine) should be covered
with a square coverslip.
iv. The film should not be too thick.
v. Examination
a. Examine both the preparations (saline and iodine)
under low power objective (IOX). A high-power object
ive is used to identify any suspicious structures for
identification/ confirmation of the ova, trophozoites
or cysts.
b. Saline preparationis useful for detection of
helminth eggs or larvae, motile trophozoites and
refractile protozoan cysts.
c. Iodine preparation-Iodine stains the cysts of amebae
(e.g. Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia.) and other
protozoa, revealing some details that cannot be seen
in the unstained preparation but kills trophozoites.
15-03-2016 11:29:30
Index
Page numbers followed by f and t refer to figure and table, respectively.
A
ABO antigens 159
ABO hemolytic disease 161
Acid fast stain 593
Acinetobacter 358
treatment 358
Acinetobacter baumannii 358
Acinetobacter lowffi 358
Acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome 476
Actinomyces 223
Actinomyces israillae 542t
Acute poststreptococcal
glomerulonephritis/AGN 177
pathogenesis 177
Acute rheumatic fever/ARF 177
Acyclovir 400
Adenosine deaminase (ADA)
deficiency 72
Adenoviruses 418, 497, 500
associated viruses 420
classification of 418t
disease associated with 419t
Adhesins 78
Adjuvant 129
Aedes aegypti 77, 449, 451, 452, 455
Aerobic culture 44
Aeromonas 295
Aflatoxin 528
African histoplasmosis 517
Agar
bile salt 40
blood 39t, 39, 40f
chocolate 39t, 39, 40f
deoxycholate citrate 40
dilution method 564
firm 39
MacConkey 41
media 39t
nutrient 39, 39f, 39t
semisolid 39
Agglutination
passive 107
reactions 106
slide 106
tube 106
Alberts stain 594, 599, 599f
Alcaligenes faecalis 17, 357, 360
Allergy 5, 142
Allograft 154, 158
fetus 156
Forssman 89
histocompatibility 88
human erythrocyte 88
sequestrated 88
Antigenantibody interactions 101
primary stage 101
secondary stage 101
tertiary stage 101
Antigenantibody reactions,
general characteristics 102
Antigen-binding site 91
Antigenicity, determinants of 87
Antigen-presenting cells 89
Antiglobulin (Coombs) test 107
Antioncogenes 502
Antirabies treatment,
indications for 462
Antiseptics 25
Antisera 5, 573
Antistreptolysin O/ASO test 107, 178
Antiviral compounds 400t
Arboviruses 446
associated clinical
syndromes 448t
classification 446
families of 447
properties of 446t
Arenaviruses 493
Arthritis 89
Arthropod-borne diseases 76
Arthus reaction 147
Arylsulfatase test 230
Ascolis thermoprecipitin test 208
Aspergillosis 522, 526
Astrovirus 497
Ataxia telangiectasia 139
Atopy 145
ATP, generation of 23
Attenuated anthrax vaccine 2
Attenuation 78
Autoclave 28, 28f
sterilization controls 29
Autograft 154, 158
Autoimmune diseases 152, 153t
localized 152
systemic 152
Autoimmunity 151
mechanisms of 151
Autolysins 15
Autotrophs 22
Azidothymidine 400
C
California encephalitis virus 454
Calymmatobacterium
granulomatis 360
Camp test 355
Campylobacter 297
Campylobacter jejuni 545
Candida 519
C. albicans 519, 520, 525
C. glabrata 519
C. guilliermondii 519
C. krusei 519
Index
C. parapsilosis 519
C. stellatoidea 519
C. tropicalis 519
C. viswanathii 519
Candidiasis 519, 525
superficial 519
systemic 519, 520
treatment 521
Candle Jar 44
Capnocytophaga 360
Capsule-swelling reaction 16
Carbapenems 567
Cardiobacterium hominis 360
Carrier 76
Cellulitis, due to H. inflenzae 319
Central dogma of molecular
biology 60
Cephalosporins
antibacterial spectrum 567t
for lyme disease 344
for Pneumococcus 186
Chlamydophila psittaci 542t
Chediak-Higashi syndrome 140
Chemotactic factors 145
eosinophil 145
neutrophil 145
Chemotherapy 5
Chicken cholera vaccine 2
Chickenpox 412
Chick-Martin test 34
Chigger-borne typhus 365
Chikungunya virus 449, 455
Chlamydia 371
antigenic structure 373
classification 371
C. pecorum 371
C. pneumoniae 371
C. psittaci 371
differences between
chlamydiae and viruses 371
growth cycle 372, 372f
Chlamydia and chlamydophila;
diseases caused by 372t
Chlamydia pneumonia 375, 543
Chlamydia trachomatis 371, 373
biovars of 373
genital infections 374
inclusion conjunctivitis 373
infections 377
trachoma 373
Chlamydophila pneumoniae 372,
375, 377
Chlamydophila psittaci 371, 375, 377
Chloramphenicol
for Neisseria meningitidis 190
for plague 313
for Pneumococcus 186
Chlorhexidine 31
Chlorine 32
Chloroxylenol 31
Cholera 291
prophylaxis 294
treatment 293
|617
E
Eastern equine encephalitis/EEE
448t, 455
Ebola virus 494
Sudan strain 494
Zaire strain 494
Echoviruses 430
clinical features 430
Ectothrix 510
Edward jenner 7
Ehrlichia 366
Ehrlichia chaffeensis 366
Ehrlichia ewingii 366
Eijkman test 577
Eikenella corrodens 359 360
treatment 360
Electroimmunodiffusion 105
countercurrent eletrophoresis/
CIEP 105
counterimmuno electrophoresis/CIE 105
one-dimensional double 105
one-dimensional single 105
Electrophoresis
Laurells two-dimensional 106,
106f
Elisa 112f
cassette-based
membrane-bound 114
competitive 112
indirect 112, 113
sandwich 112, 113
uses of 113
Endemic 80
Endemic typhus 363, 369
Endocarditis
acute 534
subacute 534
Endospore (spore) staining 594
Endospores 19
Endothrix 510
Endotoxemia 533
Endotoxins 78t, 79
Entamoeba histolytica, cysts 612
Enteric fever 279
Enterobacter spp 534
Enterobius vermicularis 597,
611,612
Enterococcus/enterococci 174,
180,181
characteristics of 180
clinical infections 180
differences between group d
streptococci and
Enterococcus spp 180
identification 180
treatment 180
Enterococcus avium 180
Enterococcus casseliflavus 180
Enterococcus durans 180
Enterococcus faecalis 174, 180
Enterococcus gallinarum 180
Enterococcus raffinosus 180
Enterotoxins, of Staphylococcus
aureus 166
Enteroviruses 394, 398, 426
Enzyme immunoassay/EIA 338, 339
Enzymes 79
Epidemic 80
Epidemic typhus 363
Epidermolytic toxins/exfoliative
toxins 166
Epiglottitis, due to H. influenzae 319
Epitome 87
Epsilometer or E-test 563
Epsteinbarr virus 413, 416, 500
associated malignancies 414
infectious mononucleosis 414
specific antibodies 415
Erwinia 269
Erysipelas 177
Erysipelothrix 357
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae 356,
360
human infection 357
Erythro virus 424
Erythromycin, for Pneumococcus 186
Escherichia coli 534t
differentiating features of
Escherichia coli and
Klebsiella sp 608t
Ethylene oxide 33
Eubacterium 222
Eukaryotic cells 11
differentition from
prokaryotes 11t
Exaltation 78
Exons 59
Exotoxins 78t, 78
F
Fab fragments 90
Farmers lung 147
Fatal familial insomnia/FFI 490
Favus 510, 511
FC fragment 90, 91
functions of 92
Fertility factor 66
Fever 83
Filamentous fungi 503, 519
Filamentous hemagglutinin
adhesin/FHA 324
Filoviruses 494
Filters 29
asbestos 29
earthware 29
membrane 29
sintered glass 29
Filtration 29
Fimbria 17
Fixed virus 458, 460, 464
Flagella 16
demonstration of 17
Flagellin 16
Flagellum 16f
Flavobacterium meningosepticum
357, 360
Flocculation 102
Flocculation tests, types of 103
Fluctuation test 63, 63f
Fluorescent treponemal antibody/
FTA test 339
Index
Fluorochrome staining 594
Food poisoning 547
Foot-and-mouth disease of cattle 4
Formaldehyde 33
Formalin 33
Fort bragg fever 345t
F-prime 66
Fragment-crystallizable See FC
Frambesia 341
Francisella tularensis 315
morphology 315
prophylaxis 315
Freis test 375, 377
French neurotropic vaccine 451
Fungal keratitis 525, 526
Fungi 503
classification of 503, 503fc
general properties of 503
identification of 506
Fusidic acid 568
Fusobacterium 223
G
Gamma () hemolysin 165
Gardnerella vaginalis 360
Gas gangrene 214
Gaspak 45
Gastroenteritis 544
due to Salmonella infection 280
Gastrointestinal tract 82
Gene expression 59
Gene therapy 72
applications 72
Genetic engineering 68
basic tools of 69
procedure 69, 69f
Genetics 58
Genital chlamydiasis 374
Genitourinary tract, role in
immunity 82
Genome 58, 59
Genomics 58
Gentamicin, for plague 313
German measles 492
GerstmannStrausslerScheinker/
GSS disease 490
Giardia lamblia 613
Glomerulonephritis 177
distinguishing features
of rheumatic fever and
glomerulonephritis 177t
Glomerulonephritis, due to Str.
pyogene 176
Glucose nonfermenters 305
characteristics of 306t
Glutaraldehyde 33
Glycopeptides 567
Gonorrhea 192
prophylaxis 193
treatment 193
Grafts 154
Graft-versus-host reaction 156
Gram stain 48, 593
Gram staining 599, 601f
interpretation of 600
mechanism 600
Gram-negative bacteria 601
Gram-positive bacteria 601
Granuloma inguinale 358
Granulomatosis infantiseptica 356
Griffith typing 173
Gut-associated lymphoid tissue 119
H
H antigen 159, 302
Hacek group bacteria 321
Haemophilus aphrophilus 317
Haemophilus ducreyi 317, 320, 322
Haemophilus haemolyticus 321, 322
Haemophilus influenzae 317, 318t,
322, 534
antigenic structure 318
characters of six biotypes of 318t
cultural characteristics 317
growth characteristics of 317
invasive infections 319
laboratory diagnosis 319
morphology 317
noninvasive disease 319
prophylaxis 320
resistance 318
treatment 320
Haemophilus parainfluenzae 321
Halberstaedter-Prowazek/HP
bodies 373
Halophilic vibrios 294
Hand-foot-and-mouth
disease 430, 431t
Hansens disease 228, 242 See also
leprosy
Hantavirus 454
Haptens 87, 89
complex 87
simple 87
HbcAg 470
HbeAg 470
HbsAg 470, 474
Heavy chain disease 95
Hemolysins 175
Hemolytic disease of newborn 146,
160, 162
Hemophilia 72
Hemorrhagic fever with renal
syndrome 454, 455
Hemorrhagic viral fevers 497
Hendra viruses 444
Henipavirus 440
Hepadnaviruses 382
Heparin 144
|619
I
IgA, functions of 93
IgA, secretory 93
IgA, serum 93
IgG, functions of 92
Ilheus virus 450
Immune complex disease
local 147
systemic 147
Immunodiffusion 103
Immunodiffusion tests, types of 104
Immunoelectron microscopic
tests 102
Immunoelectrophoresis 104
Immunoenzyme test 115
Immunofluorescence 110
direct 111, 111f
indirect 111, 111f
Immunoglobulin A/IgA 92
Immunoglobulin classes 92, 92t
Immunoglobulin D/IgD 94
Immunoglobulin deficiencies,
selective 138
Immunoglobulin domain 92
Immunoglobulin E/IgE 94
Immunoglobulin G/IgG 92
Immunoglobulin M/IgM 94, 94f
Immunoglobulin preparations 85
Immunoglobulin/Ig 90, 91
abnormal 94
H-chains 91
human 85
human serum 93t
L-chains 91
nonhuman 85
Immunological response 395
Immunological tolerance 134; 135
acquired tolerance 134
natural tolerance 134
Immunosuppressive agents 130
Immunotherapy
active 157
of cancer 157
passive 158
Impetigo 177
Inactivated polio vaccine/IPV 428
Inactivators 99
Incineration 26
Incomplete immunogen 87
Indole test 50f
Kovacs reagent 50
Indonesian Weils disease 345t
Infant death syndrome 444
Infections 75
atypical 76
cross 76
iatrogenic 76
inapparent 76
latent 76
local 76
modes of transmission of 77
nosocomial 76
primary 75
route of 80
secondary 76
subclinical 76
Infectious disease 75
types of 80
Infective endocarditis 533, 535
treatment 535
Inflammation 83
Index
Influenza
chemoprophylaxis 438
complications 436
diagnosis of; immunity
against 437
pandemic 586
vaccines 438
uncomplicated 436
Inhibitors 99
Inspissation 27
Interferons 132t, 133, 395
biological effects of 396
synthesis of 395
types of 395
Interleukins 131, 132t
Intestinal candidosis 520
Introns 59
Iodophors 32
Isoantigens 88
Isograft 154, 158
Isolation, virus 398
Isospecificities 88
J
Japanese B encephalitis 450
Japanese encephalitis 446t, 448t,
449, 450
JarischHerxheimer reaction 341
JC virus 422,490, 500t
Jobs syndrome 140
Joseph Lister 3
K
Kaposis sarcoma 476
Kaposis sarcoma-associated
herpesvirus 500
Kawasaki syndrome 89
Kelsey-Sykes test 34
Keratomycosis 525, 526
Kerion 511
Killed viral vaccines 399
Kingella 195
KirbyBauer disk diffusion
method 559, 560, 561f
interpretation chart 562t
Kissing disease 414, 416
Klebsiella granulomatis 357
Klebsiella pneumoniae 534, 542t
Koch and Arnold steamer 27
Kochs phenomenon 3, 235
Kochs postulates 3
Koch-Weeks bacillus 320
treatment 320
Kuru 489
Kyasanur forest disease 453
L
LA crosse virus 454
Lac operon 61
of Escherichia coli 60f
|621
Listeriosis 355
clinical features 356
Live-virus vaccines 399
advantages of 399
disadvantages 399
Loefflers methylene blue 593
Lopinavir 485
Louis Pasteur 2, 7
contributions in microbiology 2
Louse-borne typhus 363
Lowenstein-Jensen medium 40, 40f
Lyme disease 343
stages of 343
treatment 344
Lymphadenitis 250
Lymphatic recirculation 119
Lymphocytes 119
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis
virus 493
Lymphogranuloma venereum 374,
548
clinical manifestations 374
Lymphoid cells 119
Lymphokine-activated killer/LAK
cells 121
Lysogenic conversion 65
Lysozyme 15
Lyssavirus sera 463t
M
MacConkeys agar 606
Macrolides 568
Macrophages 83, 121
functions of 122
polymorphonuclear 122
Maedi 489
Magic bullet 5
Major histocompatibility
complex 88
Malignancy
immune response in 157
immunology of 156
Mallein test 305
MALT See mucosa-associated
lymphoid tissue
Marburg virus 494
Mareks disease 500
McCrady probability table 577t
Measles 443
clinical features 443
complications 443
morphology; prophylaxis 444
Membrane attack complex 98
Meningitis 535
aseptic 537
causative agent 536t, 537t
CSF findings in 537
due to H. influenzae 319
examination of CSF 536
purulent 535, 538
tuberculous 538
N
Naglers reaction 220, 213f
Nairovirus 389, 453, 454
Index
Nucleic acid sequence based
amplification/NASBA 589
Nucleic acid structure 58
Nucleotides 58
Null cells 121
Nutrient agar 38
Nutrient broth 38
O
Oncogenic viruses 499, 500t, 502
DNA viruses 499
RNA viruses 500
Onychomycosis 520
Onyong-nyong virus 449
Ophthalmic neonatorum 192
Opportunist mycobacterial
disease 249t
Opportunistic fungi 519
Opsonization 99, 102, 100, 110
Oral hairy leukoplakia 414
Oral polio vaccine/OPV 428
differences between killed/IPV
and live polio
vaccines/OPV 429
Orbivirus 498
Orthomyxovirus 434
differences between
orthomyxovirus and
paramyxovirus 434t
properties of434
Orthopoxvirus 406t
Orthoreovirus 454, 496
Oseltamivir, for influenza 438
Otomycosis 525, 526
Oxidase test 52
P
Pandemic 80
Papillomatosis
oral 421
recurrent respiratory 421
Papillomaviruses 421
Papovaviruses 499
Paracoccidioides brasiliensis 516
Paracoccidioidomycosis 515
Parainfluenza viruses 441
Paramyxoviruses 440
morphology 440
Parapoxvirus 406t
Parasites 75
Paratyphoid bacilli 275
Paratyphoid fever 279
Parvovirus 424, 587t
Pasteurella multocida 314, 315
morphology 314
Pasteurization 2
Pathogens
opportunist 75
primary 75
types of 75
|623
differential characters of
pneumococci and viridans
streptococci 186t
laboratory diagnosis 185
meningitis 185
pathogenesis 185
pneumonia 185
prophylaxis 186
resistance 184
treatment 186
virulence factors 185
Pneumocystis carinii
pneumonia 476
Pneumocystis jiroveci 519, 524, 526
life cycle of 525f
Pneumonia 542
community-acquired 543
due to H influenzae 319
hospital-acquired 542
in immunocompromized
patients 543
Pneumonia syndrome
atypical 543
typical 543
Pneumovirus 440, 444
Poliomyelitis
abortive 427
global eradication 429
nonparalytic 427
paralytic 427
progressive
postpoliomyelitis 427
Poliovirus 427, 432
antigenic properties 427
clinical features 427
resistance 427
Polychrome methylene blue 593
Polymerase chain reaction 71, 72f,
589
Polyomaviruses 388, 421, 422
Ponders stain 594
Pontiac fever 308
Porphyromonas 223
Potassium cyanide test 53
Pour-plate culture 44
Poxvirus 382, 406, 500
antigenic structure 407
morphology 406
PrausnitzKustner/PK reaction 146
Precipitation 102
mechanism of 103
reaction 103
types of 103
Primary sensitivity tests 563
Primary tuberculosis 231
Prion diseases 489
Prions 35, 390
Progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy/
PML 490
Prokaryotes 11
differentiation from eukaryotic 11t
Q
Q fever 367
Quaternary ammonium
compounds/QUATS 31
Quellung-Ger swelling 16
R
R plasmids 67, 79, 570
Rabies 4, 459
clinical features 459
postexposure prophylaxis 460,
462, 463
preexposure prophylaxis 460,
462, 463
vaccines 3, 461
Rabies virus 457, 459f
antigenic properties 458
resistance 458
Radiations 29
ionizing 30
non-ionizing 29
Radioimmunoassay 111
Rapid plasma reagin/RPR
tests 337, 338
Rat-bite fever 358
Reagents 600
Redox potential 24
Reiter protein complement
fixation/RPCF test 338
Reiters syndrome 374
Relapsing fever 342
endemic
or louse-borne 342
or tick-borne 342
Reoviridae 496
classification 496
Reovirus 498
Replica plating 63
Resistance factors/R factors 67
characteristics of 67
features of 67
Resistance transfer factor /RTF 67
Resolution 8
Respiration
aerobic 23
anaerobic 23
Respiratory syncytial virus 440,
441, 444
clinical features 444
treatment 445
Respirovirus 440, 441t
Retroviruses 476
genes 477, 478t
structure 476
Retroviruses 477t, 501
Reyes syndrome 436
Rh (rhesus) blood group
system 160
Rh antigens 162
Rh compatibility 160
Rh factor 160
Rhabdoviridae 455
Rhabdoviruses 457
Rheumatic fever 89
due to STR Pyogene 176
Rhinosporidiosis 513
Rhinoviruses 432
clinical syndromes 432
Rh-isoimmunization 161
prevention of 161
Ribavirin 496
Ribonucleic acid 58
structure 59
Ribosomes 59
Rickettsia 362
antigenic structure 363
morphology 362
resistance 363
Rickettsia akari 365, 369
Rickettsia conorii 365, 369
Rickettsia mooseri 369
Rickettsia prowazekii 369
Rickettsia rickettsii 369
Rickettsia typhi 363
differences between R. typhi
(R. mooseri) and
R. prowazekii 364
Rickettsial diseases 365
treatment 366
Rickettsial pox 365
Rideal-Walker test 34
Rifamycins 567
Rimantadine 400
Ring test 103
Ritonavir 485
Robert Koch 3, 5t, 7
Rocky mountain spotted
fever 364, 365
S
S. delphini 169
S. dysenteriae 271
S. epidermidis 163
clinical infection 169
S. haemolyticus 169
S. hyicus 169
S. intermedius 168
S. lutrae 169
S. saprophyticus 163
S. sonnei 271
Salmonella 274, 285
antigenic structure of 275, 275f
morphology 274
syndromes due to 279
Salmonella gastroenteritis 285
Salmonella septicemia 285
Salmonella Typhi 534t
Salvarsan 4, 5
Saprophytes 75
Saprophytic mycobacteria 249
Sarcoma, in fowls 4
SARS See Severe acute
respiratory syndrome
Satellitism 318, 318f, 322
Scarlet fever 176
Schultz-Dale phenomenon 144
Schwartzman reaction 149
Scotochromogens 248
Scrapie 489
Semliki forest virus 449
Sensitivity 102
Septic shock syndrome 149
Septicemia 80, 533
Serotherapy 5
Serotonin 144
Serum opacity factor 176
Serum sickness 147
Severe acute respiratory
syndrome 495, 497, 498
Severe combined
immunodeficiency disease/
SCID 72
Sexduction 66
Sexually transmitted diseases/
STDs 547
organisms causing 548t
Shanghai fever 303
Shigella 270
cultural characteristics 270
laboratory diagnosis 272
Index
Shigella boydii 271
Shigella flexneri 271
Shock organs 143
Shwachmans disease 140
Silver nitrate 32
Sindbis virus 449
Skin, role in immunity 82
Slide test 103
Slides 592
Slot-blot and dot-blot assays 114
Slow virus disease 488, 490
classification 488
Smallpox 406
control of 407
Sore mouth 408
Sore throat 541
causative agents of 541t
South American hemorrhagic
fevers 493
Specificity 102
antigenic 88
autospecificity 88
heterogenetic 88
organ 88
species 88
Spirilla 12, 12f
Spirillum minus 359
morphology 359
treatment 359
Spirochetes 12, 12f, 333
classification 333
diseases caused by 334
Spleen 119
functions of 119
Spontaneous generation 1
Sporotrichosis 513
Spotted fever group 364
Stab culture 44
Stain
differential 593
special 594
types of 592, 593
Staphylococcal diseases 167
cutaneous infections 167
deep infections 167
toxin-mediated diseases 167
Staphylococcus 163, 605
bacteriophage typing 167
differentiation between
staphylococci and
micrococci 170
epidemiology 167
Staphylococcus aureus 163, 170, 535
biochemical reactions 164
cell surface proteins 165
cell-associated polymers 165
cultural characteristics 164
enzymes 165
methicillin-resistant 170
morphology 163, 163f
resistance 165
sensitivity to antibiotics 169
toxins 165
|625
Stroke culture 44
Subacute endocarditis 181
causative agents of 534t
Subacute sclerosing
panencephalitis/SSPE 393, 490
Subcutaneous phycomycosis 514
Sugar fermentation 49, 49f
Sulfonamides, mechanism of
action of 568
Superantigens 89, 130
Superinfection immunity 404
Suppurative streptococcal disease 176
Surface-active agents 31
Swimming pool granuloma 250
Swineherds disease 345t
Syphilis 334, 335, 547
acquired nonvenereally 336
associated with human
immunodeficiency virus/
HIV infections 340
congenital 336
diagnosis 109
diagnostic tests for 337t
endemic 334
immunity in 340
latent 335
primary 335
prophylaxis in 340
secondary 335
tertiary 336
treatment 341
venereal 334
T
Taenia sp. 612
Taxonomy 56
T-cell activation 127
T-cells 119, 120
basis of functions 120
basis of surface markers 120
blast transformation 119
cytotoxic 120
delayed type hypersensitivity 120
differentiation from B-cells 119
regulatory 120
suppressor 120
types of 120
TEGO compounds 31
Tetanolysin 216
Tetanospasmin 216
Tetanus 216
laboratory diagnosis 216
prophylaxis 217
treatment 217
Tetanus toxin 216, 220
Tetracycline, for plague 313
TGF See tumor necrosis factors
Th1 cells 120
Th2 120
Thioglycollate broth 41, 46
U
Ulcerative gingivostomatitis 343
Urease test 52, 52f
Urinary tract infection 538
causes of 539t
clinical features 539
differentiation of upper UTI and
lower UTI 540
lower 538
tuberculosis of kidney and
urinary tract 540
upper 538
V
V factor 318
Vaccines 2, 84, 571
attenuated anthrax 2
bacterial 84
cellular fractions 571
chicken cholera 2
killed 84, 85, 571
live 4, 84, 571
mixed or combined 572
multiple 129
recombinant-vector 572
subunit 84
toxoids 571
viral 84
Vaccinia virus 407
Vancomycin
for Clostridium difficle 219
for Pneumococcus 186
Varicella 412
Varicella-zoster
immunoglobulin 413
Varicella-zoster virus 393, 411, 416
properties of 412
prophylaxis and treatment 413
Vectors 76, 77, 584
Vectors-borne diseases 584
Vehicles 584
Veillonella 222
Veneral disease research
laboratory/VDRL test 337
Venezuelan equine encephalitis/
VEE 446t, 449, 455
Vertical transmission 77
Vesicoureteral reflux 539
Vibrio cholerae 287, 290, 544
morphology 287
pathogenesis 291
resistance 288
subtypes of 290
Vibrio parahaemolyticus 294, 544
Vibrio vulnificus 295
Vibrios 12, 12f
Vincents angina 343
Viral assay 386
Viral capsid 379
Viral diseases
immunoprophylaxis of 399
pathogenesis of 393
Viral envelope 379
Viral genetics 387
Viral hemagglutination 381
Viral hemorrhagic fevers 493
Viral hepatitis 465
Viral infections
indications for 397
laboratory diagnosis of 397
Viral nucleic acids 380
Viral oncogenes 502
Viral oncogenesis 4
Viral proteins, detection of 398
Viral replication 381
Viral vaccines, in common use 399t
Viridans streptococci 180
classification 181
clinical infections 181
Viroids 390
Virulence 78
determinants of 78
Virus diseases
chemoprophylaxis and
chemotherapy of 400
Virus infections 395
antibody-mediated
immunity 395
cell-mediated immunity 395
immunological response 395
nonimmunological
responses 395
Index
Virus neutralization 98
Virus symmetry 379
complex symmetry 379
helical symmetry 379
icosahedral symmetry 379
Viruses 4, 390, 378
baltimore classification of 382
cultivation of 383
direct detection of 397
discovery of 4
DNA, double stranded 382
double stranded 382
incubation period of 394
morphology of 378
properties of 378
RNA 389, 389f
single stranded 382
Visna 488
Vitronectin 99
Voges-Proskauer/VP test 50, 51f
W
Waldenstroms
macroglobulinemia 95
Warts 421
anogenital 421
cutaneous 421
X
Xenograft 154, 158
X-linked agammaglobulinemia 137
X-linked hyper-IgM syndrome 138
Y
Yatapoxvirus 406t
|627
Yaws 334
Yeast 519, 503
Yeast-like fungi 503, 519
Yeasts 503
Yellow fever 4
Yellow fever virus 449, 451, 455
Yersinia 309
Yersinia enterocolitica 314, 315, 545
Yersinia pestis 309
biotypes of 310f
morphology 309
resistance 310
toxins 310
virulence factors 310
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis 313
treatment 314
Yersiniosis 313
Z
Zaire strain 494
Zanamivir, for influenza 439
Zidovudine 400, 485
Ziehl-Neelsen staining 48, 593, 598
Zone phenomenon 102
Zoonosis 76
Zygomycosis 523, 526