Ever-Evolving: The Relationship of Religion and Culture on Ethics

Culture has become a societal buzzword, one frequently used in explanations for
behavior, ethical decisions, and historical phenomenon- but it should not be considered in
isolation from religion. The relationship between culture and religion is complex and constantly
changing with context and diversity, but its influence on ethics is significant. Due to cultures
ever-evolving yet intertwined relationship with religion, the distinction between cosmology and
practices may indicate how culture impacts judgment.
Both subjects of this paper, culture and religion, are broad terms, leaving room for
misunderstanding. Thus, narrowed definitions will permit further clarity. Kiss, Bow, or Shake
Hands (Morrison, Conaway & Borden, 1997) describes culture as a groups cognitive styles
(ways of organizing and processing information), negotiation strategies (means of identifying
truth), and value systems (basis for behavior and decision making, including relationships with
others and the physical world). This definitions focus on thought and behavior will be used,
rather than focusing on physical artifacts (art, architecture, food).
Lincoln (2010) constructs a flexible definition of religion to avoid dismissing or
prioritizing certain belief systems. He argues that a religion must have a discourse with
transcendent authority, practices aiming to create a proper world, a community who ties its
identity to both its discourse and practices, and a regulating institution. This paper also
recognizes the distinction between ones religious identity, cosmology (beliefs about the
universe), and practices. Due to variability among these three, scholars are faced with two
perspectives towards religion: reported, and lived.
Studies link both cultural dimensions and religious beliefs to decision making as
somewhat independent factors. Husted and Allen (2008) argue that a cultures individualism or

collectivism will influence a persons business decisions. They propose that perceived moral
domains of collectivistic cultures and individualistic cultures will vary on issues affecting the ingroup, individual, or relationships among employees. They also suggest individualist and
collectivist cultures make decisions relying on justice-based and relationship-based reasoning,
respectively (Husted & Allen, 2008). Robertson and Fadil (2008) further these proposals by
asserting that the situational and individual factors which affect ethical behavior are influenced
by national culture. Thus, one would expect value systems to vary across cultures, especially in
regards to the importance of relationship. No one exists in a culture-free culture- therefore, each
individual resides in a context, influencing their approach to ethical decisions.
This is not to say that the role of religion is small. A study done by Randhawa (1998)
found that Asian minorities in the UK opted out of organ donation, largely because they were
unsure of their religions perspective on donation. Although neither culture nor religion were
found to prevent religious adherents from organ donation, they found that participants (especially
Muslims) felt they needed to know their religions stance in order to make an informed decision
(Randhawa, 1998). As religion is defined as requiring a set of practices and discourse, most
religious institutions set a moral standard for adherents to follow. For example, Theravada
Buddhists may take five precepts, or rules of a moral code, while monks take 227. Both the
Torah and the Quran provide a blueprint for living, and the institutions of these religions
provide contexts to learn and practice these rules. Thus, while its influence and prescriptions may
vary among belief systems and individuals, religion does influence ethical decision making.
However, it is naive to assess the impact of culture and religion independently, as the
degree of their influence in relation to the other fluctuates between contexts. Engs, Hanson,
Gliksman and Smythe (1990), in their cross-cultural study on religious affiliation and alcohol

consumption, argue that religion has a greater impact on cohesive groups, while culture has
leading influence on the less cohesive. In cohesive groups, which provide community, one may
be more comfortable sticking to religious practices or the morals taught by their religions
discourse than those lacking community. In the context of America, a highly individualistic
nation, we find a complicated relationship between church and state. Although it lacks an
established or sanctioned religion, traditional Protestant values still make regular appearances in
ethical political discourse. However, American Protestants tend to identify less with community
relationship, tradition, and ritual than American Jews and Catholics (Cohen & Hill, 2007). Thus,
culture and religion play varying roles cross culturally on ethical decision making.
Though we have shown the importance of both religion and culture across contexts,
diversity complicates their relationship. In nearly every country, minority religions will exist,
where individuals and groups will either create a more religiously compatible subculture, or live
within the greater community. Those identifying with a minority religion may experience
discrimination, or struggle relating to peers and building friendships. In these circumstances,
peer pressure - not religion - may affect their decisions and perception on ethical issues. Further,
under a single religious identity, there is great diversity of beliefs and practices, leading to
varying interpretations of moral prescriptions. Therefore, it is fallacious to assume that culture
and religion will have a direct relationship, and naive to simplify or overgeneralize the impacts
of one or the other on ethics.
Instead, culture and religion have a constantly evolving relationship, lending to evolving
influence on ethical decision making. Cultures change rapidly despite connection to ancient
religions- and often, new belief systems emerge. Houtman and Mascini (2002) describes the
Dutch trend towards individualism as an explanation for the movement away from Christianity

and towards New Age religions and non-religiosity. Bahai, a religion emphasizing the unity of
all world religions, has gained momentum as cultures becomes more pluralistic and emphasis is
placed on tolerance. Additionally, the practice of veiling in Islam traditionally signaled religious
affiliation- but it is not a necessary Muslim practice, nor did it originate in Islam. Now, there are
a number of reasons women elect to veil- an ethical and personal decision with ties to both
religion and political statements. In other cases, culture is influenced by globalization and
technology, lending to altered religious traditions. For example, Christmas images are seen
around the world in countries (such as Buddhist Thailand), and many worship services now
incorporate technology. As cultures change, religions respond.
Other times, religion is introduced first, and the culture adapts- evolving systems of
ethics, as well. When Catholicism was brought to the Philippines, the previously animistic nation
was faced with new terminology, political systems, holidays, and idols (Gripaldo, 2009).
Gripaldo (2009) suggests that a folk Christianity emerged in a compromise which maintained
Filipino festivities while ensuring the survival of Catholicism in the country- effectively moving
their ethics towards Catholic values on divorce, birth control, and marriage. Similarly, the
missionary movement among New Zealands Maori was a path through which their culture was
shaped by literacy and Westernization (Lange, 2000). A culture that previously relied on oral
traditions to identify truth could now utilize written materials, slowly changing their basis of
understanding. Both culture and religion retain a flexibility that allow them to respond to the
others changes, and as these occur, the values that affect ethical decision making inevitably shift
as well.
However, it is important to note the error in simply addressing religious identity.
Statistics citing percentages of religious adherents often ask participants to simply select a

religious affiliation, without reporting their cosmologies or practices. Due to the previously noted
diversity within religions, one cannot clearly explain the influence of religion and culture on
ethics with religious identity alone. For example, Thailand reports a 95% Buddhist population
(Buddhist Statistics: Top 10 Buddhist Countries, Largest Buddhist Populations, 2016), and
monkhood is a significant part of being a good male Buddhist. However, monkhood is not
simply a spiritual experience, but a cultural expectation, an avenue for social mobility and
education, and a rite of passage (Crosby, 2013). This expectation demonstrates the blend of
practice and culture, while shaping ethics by adjusting social hierarchies. Further, with such a
large Buddhist population, many individuals identify with the majority and the traditions they
were raised in, rather than subscribing to the beliefs or practices of the religion. Across the
world, the Pew Research Center (Religious Landscape Study, 2015) found that while 70% of
Americans identify as Christians, only 36% of all Americans report going to religious services
weekly . This illuminates just one discrepancy between religious identity and practice, and
suggests a incongruity regarding belief as well. In both Buddhist Thailand and Christian
America, scholars face a lived religion which differs from that which is reported. If religious
beliefs influence ethics, using religious identity to construct a theory of ethical decision making
is illogical.
Therefore, we are left with a complex picture of the relationship between religion,
culture, and ethics. It is misguided to assume that any of these can exist independently or without
relation to each other. In fact, these relationships will differ cross culturally and within a single
religious or cultural group. They are constantly evolving, and taking shape in different ways
around the world. In evaluating ethical decisions, we are then called to consider the culture,

context, and religious beliefs and practices impacting an individual, and look beyond
overgeneralized identities.

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