3.

1 In the beginning:
Prokaryotic cell: Bacteria and cyanobacteria (photosynthetic bacteria)
They have no nuclei or other membrane-bound cell organelles. Diameter
0.5 and 5

Eukaryotic cells: contain membrane bound organelles- nuclei,

Mitochondria. Larger than a prokaryotic cell.
Diameter 20 or more.
Mitochondria: Inner of its 2 membrane is
folded, form finger like projections called cristae.
Later stages of aerobic respiration.
Nucleus: Contains chromosomes and a
nucleolus. DNA in chromosomes genes that control synthesis of proteins.

Nucleolus: Dense body within the nucleus where ribosomes are made.
RER: System of interconnected membrane-bound flattened sacs.
Ribosome are attached to the outer surface. Proteins made by these
ribosomes are transported to the ER to other parts of the cell.
Ribosomes: Made of RNA & protein, these small organelles are found free
in the cytoplasm or attached to ER. They are the site of protein synthesis.
Cell surface membrane: Phospholipids bilayer containing proteins and
other molecules forming a partially permeable membrane.

SER: Like RER. Does not have any attached ribosomes. SER are make
lipids are steroids. E.g. reproductive hormones.
Golgi apparatus: stacks of flattened, membrane bound sacs formed by
fusion of vesicles from ER. Modifies proteins and packages them in
vesicles for transport.
Lysosomes: Spherical sacs containing digestive enzymes and bound by a
single membrane. Involved in the breakdown of unwanted structures
within the cell, and in destruction of whole cells when old cells are to be
replaced or during development. The acrosome is a specialised lysosome.
Centrioles: Every animal cell has 1 pair of centrioles. Hollow cylinders
made of a ring of nine protein microtubules. Involved in the formation of
spindle during nuclear division.
Gametes:
Mammalian Gametes: Sex cells.
Female: Ovum(egg)
Incapable of independent
movement.
Wafted along oviduct to
uterus by ciliated cells lining
and muscular contractions
the tube.
Cytoplasm of the ovum
contains proteins and lipid
food for a developing
embryo.
Surrounding cell is jelly-like
coating called ZONA
PELLUCIDA.
0.1mm.
Male: Sperm.
Much smaller than ovum and is motile.
Enable to swim, sperm cell has a
flagellum powered by energy released
the mitochondria.
Sperm are attracted to the ovum by
chemicals released from it.
To penetrate the ovum the acrosome
the head of the sperm releases
digestive enzymes, which break down
zona pullucida of the ovum.
Acrosome is a type of lysosome.
Head 5
Plant gametes:

of

by

in
the

Male part : Stamen.

Made of anther attached to the stalk
known as a filament.
Inside anther , cells divide to produce
pollen grains which contain male
gamete nuclei.
Female part: Female ovary
1 or more ovules develop which contain
the female gametes, the ova (singular
ovum)
Gamete cells are unusual:
Human cell: 46 chromosomes. 22 homologous pairs. 1 pair of sex
chromosomes.
Fundemantal difference between sex cells are other cells is the no. of
chromosomes they contain.
How do gametes form: 2 types of cell divison in living organisms. MITOSIS
AND MEIOSIS.
Mitosis produces new body cells as organism grows and develops. This
retains the full no. of chromsosomes called the DIPLOID NO. (2n).
Meiosis produces gametes with only no. of chromos omes called
HPLOID NO (n).
Independent
assortment: Line up
during meiosis 1 is a
source of variation.
This process is
random. Crossing
over: Crossing over
produces
chromosomes that
contain new
combinations of alleles
from both parent.
During meiosis 1
homologous pair. At
points they make
contact called chiasmata, the chromatids break and region. The non-sister
chromatids exchange corresponding sections of DNA. This is called
crossing over.

Fertilisation in flowering plants:

Takes place in the embryo sac within the ovule.
Pollen germinates on the style tube grows down through the style
towards the ovary, with its growth controlled by the tube nucleus.
Pollen grain contains 2 nuclei, the tube nucleus and the generative
nucleus.
Germination of the pollen the generative nucleus divide to form 2
haploid gamete nuclei which move the pollen tube.
Tube grows through a microscopic pore into the embryo sac and the
2 male gametes enter the sac.
1 fuses with the egg cell and forms a diploid zygote.
Other fuses with 2 nuclei in the embryo sac called polar nuclei to
form a triploid cell.
Diploid zygote dived to form an embryo.
Triploid cell divides to form the seeds storage tissue, endosperm.

3.2: From one to many: the cell cycle.

The cell cycle can be divided into 2 distinct parts: interphase and division.
Preparation for division: Interphone:
Time of intense & organised activity during which the cell
synthesizes new cell components such as organelles and
membranes, and new DNA.

Formation of new cellular proteins occurs

thrpughout interphase.
DNA synthesis occurs during the
S phase. The S phase separates the
first gap or G1 from the second gap
G2 phase.
The lengths of interphase differs
depending on the role of the cell.
The S and G2 phases of most cells remain
constant in duration.
G1 is more variable: some cells can take
weeks, moths or even years to complete this phase. E.g. liver cell
may divide only once a year.

Cell division:
End of interphase cell consists of enough cytoplasm, organelles & DNA to
form 2 new cells. Next share out DNA and contents of the cytoplasm so
each new cell can function independently. DNA separated in nuclear
division(mitosis).
Cell division is a continuous process. Cells duplicate. There are 4 stages
known as PROPHASE, METAPHASE, ANAPHASE and TELOPHASE.
PROPHASE:
Chromosomes condense.
Become shorter and thicker which each chromosome visible as 2
strands called chromatids.

Apart from usual mutation both strands

are identical
copies.
They are 2 chromosomes joined at 1
region called
centromere.
Microtubules from the cytoplasm form a
3D structure called spindle.
The centrioles move around the nuclear
envelope and
position themselves at opposite sides of
the cell.
METAPHASE:
The breakdown of the envelope signals
the end of
prophase and the start of metaphase..
The chromosomes centromeres attach
the spindle fibres at the equator.
When this has been completed the cell
has reached
the end of metaphase.
ANAPHASE:
In the next stage of mitosis, anaphase, the
centromeres
split.
The spindle fibres shorten, pulling the
two
halves of each centromere in opposite
directions.
1 chromatid of each chromosome is
pulled to each of the poles.
Anaphase ends when the separated
chromatids
reach poles and the spindle breaks down.
TELOPHASE:
This last stage of mitotic division is
telophase.
This is effectively the reverse of
prophase.
The chromosomes unravel and the
nuclear envelope reforms, so that the 2
set of
the genetic information become enclosed in the separate nuclei.
Cytoplasmic divison:
After nuclear division the final reorgansisation into 2 new cells
occurs, called cytoplasmic division.
In animal cell, the cell surface membrane constricts around the
centre of the cell.
A ring of protein filaments bound to the inside of the cell surface
membrane is though to contract until the cell is
divided into 2 new cells.
Why is mitosis important?
Ensures genetic consistency. This is achieved by:
DNA replication prior to nuclear division
The arrangement of the chromosomes on the spindle
and the separation off chromatids to the poles.
Genetic consistency is important in growth & repair, and also in asexual
reproduction.

Early embryonic development stem cells:

After human zygote has undergone three complete cell cycles, it consists of 8
identical cells. Eache cell is said to be totipotent as it can develop in to a
complete human being.
By 5 days after conception, a hollow ball of cells called the blastocyst has
formed. The outer blastocyst cell layer goes on to form the placenta. The inner
cell mass, of 50 or so cells go on to form the tissues of the developing embryo.
They are known as the pluripotent embryonic stem cells. Each of these cells
can potentially give rise to most cell types, though they cannot give rise to all
216 different cells types that make up the human body.
Cell become more differentiated:
As the embryo develops into a multicellular body, the cells from which it is made
become increasingly differentiated. Most lose capacity to develop into a wide
range of cells. Instead they become increasing specialised, functioning as a red
blood cell, one of the cell types in bone, a plat xylem vessel. These cells are
known as multipotent.
Potential use of human stem cells in medicine:
They may 1 day produce universal human donor cells which would provide
new cell, tissues or organs for treatment and repair by transplantation.
Their potential to develop into any cell type offers the greatest flexibility
for development, unlike adult stem cells which are committed to
developing only into certain cell types.