a

a
2R

Today
More on Electric Field:
Continuous Charge Distributions

Electric Flux:
Definition
How to think about flux

Reminder: Lecture 2, ACT 3

Consider a circular ring with total charge +Q.

The charge is spread uniformly around the
ring, as shown, so there is = Q/2R charge
per unit length.
The electric field at the origin is
(a)

zero

(b)

1
4 0

2
R

(c)

y
+ +++

++
+
+
+
+
+
++

++

+
+
+ x
+
++

1 R
4 0 R 2

But how would we calculate this??

Electric Fields
from
Continuous Charge Distributions
Examples:
line of charge
charged plates
electron cloud in atoms,

E(r) = ?

++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Principles (Coulombs Law + Law of Superposition)

remain the same.

Only change:

Preflight 3:

2) A finite line of positive charge is arranged as shown. What is

the direction of the Electric field at point A?
a) up

b) down

e) up and left

c) left

d) right

f) up and right

3) What is the direction of the Electric field at point B?

a) up
b) down
c) left
d) right
e) up and left

f) up and right

Charge Densities

How do we represent the charge Q on an extended object?

total charge

Q
Line of charge:
= charge per
unit length
Surface of charge:
= charge per
unit area

Volume of Charge:
= charge per
unit volume

small pieces
of charge

dq
dq = dx
dq = dA

dq = dV

How We Calculate (Uniform) Charge

Densities:
Take total charge, divide by size
Examples:
10 coulombs distributed over a 2-meter rod.

10C
= 5 C/m
2m

14 pC (pico = 10-12) distributed over a shell of radius 1 m.

14 1012 C 14
2
=
=
C/m
4(10-6 m) 2 4
14 pC distributed over a sphere of radius 1 mm.

14 1012 C (3) 14 3
3
= 4
=

10
C/m
-3
3
(10
m)
4
3

Electric field from an infinite line charge

r

E(r) = ?

++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Approach:
Add up the electric field contribution from each bit of
charge, using superposition of the results to get the final field.

In practice:
Use Coulombs Law to find the E-field per segment of charge
Plan to integrate along the line
x: from to

OR

: from

/2 to +/2

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Any symmetries ? This may help for easy cancellations

Infinite Line of Charge

dE

Charge density =
r

r'

++++++++++++++++ x
dx

We need to add up the E-field

contributions from all
segments dx along the line.

Infinite Line of Charge

To find the total field E, we
must integrate over all
charges along the line. If we
integrate over , we must write
r and dq in terms of and d .

The electric field due to dq is:

dE

dE =

r'

++++++++++++++++ x
dx
1 dq
4 0 r 2

Solution: After the appropriate

change of variables, we integrate and
find:
*the calculation is shown in the appendix

Ex = 0

Ey =

1 2
4 0 r

Infinite Line of Charge

dE

Conclusion:

r'

++++++++++++++++ x
dx

The Electric Field produced by an

infinite line of charge is:
- everywhere perpendicular to the line
- is proportional to the charge density
1
- decreases as r
- next lecture: Gauss Law makes this
trivial!!

Summary
Electric Field Lines
Electric Field Patterns

Dipole

Point Charge

Infinite
Line of Charge

~ 1/R3

~ 1/R2

~ 1/R

Coming up:
Electric field Flux
and
Gauss Law

The Story Thus Far

Two types of electric charge: opposite charges attract,
like charges repel
Coulombs Law:

r
F12 =

1 Q1Q2

2
4 o r12

Electric Fields

Charges respond to electric fields:

Charges produce electric fields:

r12

r
r
F = qE

q
E=k 2
r

The Story Thus Far

We want to be able to calculate the electric fields
from various charge arrangements. Two ways:
1. Brute Force: Add up / integrate contribution from
each charge.
Often this is pretty difficult.
Ex: electron cloud around nucleus

Ack!

2. Gauss Law: The net electric flux through any

closed surface is proportional to the charge
enclosed by that surface.
In cases of symmetry, this will be MUCH EASIER than
the brute force method.

Lecture 3, ACT 1
Examine the electric field
lines produced by the charges
in this figure.
Which statement is true?

q1

q2

(a) q1 and q2 have the same sign

(b) q1 and q2 have the opposite signs and q1 > q2
(c) q1 and q2 have the opposite signs and q1 < q2

Lecture 3, ACT 1
Examine the electric field
lines produced by the charges
in this figure.
Which statement is true?

q1

q2

(a) q1 and q2 have the same sign

(b) q1 and q2 have the opposite signs and q1 > q2
(c) q1 and q2 have the opposite signs and q1 < q2
Field lines start from q2 and terminate on q1.
This means q2 is positive; q1 is negative; so, not (a)
Now, which one is bigger?
Notice along a line of symmetry between the two, that the E-field
still has a positive y component. If they were equal, it would be zero;
This indicates that q2 is greater than q1

Electric Dipole: Lines of Force

Consider imaginary
spheres centered on :
a) +q
b) -q

(blue)
(red)

c) midpoint (yellow)
All lines leave a)
All lines enter b)
Equal amounts of
leaving and entering
lines for c)

Electric Flux
Flux:
Lets quantify previous discussion about fieldline counting
Define: electric flux through the closed
surface S
r r
E E dS
S

S is surface
of the box

Flux
How much of something is passing
through some surface
Ex: How many hairs passing through your
scalp.

Two ways to define

1. Number per unit area (e.g., 10 hairs/mm2)
This is NOT what we use here.
2. Number passing through an area of interest
e.g., 48,788 hairs passing through my scalp.
This is what we are using here.

Electric Flux
r r
E E dS
S

What does this new quantity mean?

The integral
r is over a CLOSED SURFACE
r
Since E dS is a SCALAR product, the electric flux is a SCALAR
quantity
r
The integration vector dS is normal to the surface and points OUT
r
r
of the surface. E dS is interpreted as the component of E which is
NORMAL to the SURFACE
Therefore, the electric flux through a closed surface is the sum of
the normal components of the electric field all over the surface.
The sign matters!!
Pay attention to the direction of the normal component as it
penetrates the surface is it out of or into the surface?
Out of is + into is -

How to think about flux

We will be interested in net
flux in or out of a closed
surface like this box
This is the sum of the flux
through each side of the box

S is surface
of the box

y
x

consider each side separately

surface area vector:

r
S = Area y
= w 2 y

Let E-field point in y-direction

r
r r r
r
then E and S are parallel and E S = E w 2

Look at this from on top

down the z-axis

How to think about flux

case 1

Consider flux through two

surfaces that intercept
different numbers of field
lines
first surface is side of box from
previous slide
Second surface rotated by an
angle
Flux:

case 1

E-field surface area

r
w2
E = Eo y

case 2

r
E = Eo y

case 2

E S

Eo w 2

Case 2 is
smaller!

Eo w 2 cos

The Sign Problem

For an open surface we
can choose the direction of
S-vector two different ways

left

right

to the left or to the right

what we call flux would be
different these two ways
different by a minus sign

For a closed surface we

can choose the direction
of S-vector two different
ways

A differential surface
element, with its vector

pointing in or out
define out to be correct
Integral of EdS over a closed
surface gives net flux out,
but can be + or -

Preflight 3:
Wire loops (1) and (2) have the
same length and width, but
differences in depth.

5) Wire loops (1) and (2) are

placed in a uniform electric
field as shown. Compare
the flux through the two
surfaces.

a) 1 > 2
b) 1 = 2
c) 1 < 2

1
E
2

Preflight 3:
6) A cube is placed in a uniform
electric field. Find the flux through the
bottom surface of the cube.

a) bottom < 0
b) bottom = 0
c) bottom > 0

Lecture 3, ACT 2
2A

Imagine a cube of side a positioned in a

region of constant electric field as shown
Which of the following statements
about the net electric flux E through
the surface of this cube is true?

(a) E = 0
2B

(b) E 2a2

(c) E 6a2

Consider 2 spheres (of radius R and 2R)

drawn around a single charge as shown.
Which of the following statements
about the net electric flux through the
2 surfaces (2R and R) is true?

2R

(a) R < 2R

(b) R = 2R

(c) R > 2R

Lecture 3, ACT 2
2A

Imagine a cube of side a positioned in a

region of constant electric field as shown
Which of the following statements
about the net electric flux E through
the surface of this cube is true?

(a) E = 0

(b) E 2a2

(c) E 6a2

r
r
The electric flux through the surface is defined by: E dS
r
r
E dS is ZERO on the four sides that are parallel to the electric field.
r
r
E dS on the bottom face is negative. (dS is out; E is in)
r
r
E dS on the top face is positive. (dS is out; E is out)
Therefore, the total flux through the cube is:
r r
E dS =
+
+ top = 0 Ea 2 + Ea 2 = 0
sides
bottom

Lecture 3, ACT 2
2B

Consider 2 spheres (of radius R and 2R)

drawn around a single charge as shown.
Which of the following statements
about the net electric flux through the
2 surfaces (2R and R) is true?

(a) R < 2R

(b) R = 2R

(c) R > 2R

2R

Look at the lines going out through each circle -- each circle has the
same number of lines.
The electric field is different at the two surfaces, because E is
proportional to 1 / r 2, but the surface areas are also different. The
surface area of a sphere is proportional to r 2.
Since flux =

r
r
E d S , the r 2 and 1/r 2 terms will cancel, and the two

circles have the same flux!

There is an easier way. Gauss Law states the net flux is proportional
to the NET enclosed charge. The NET charge is the SAME in both
cases.
But, what is Gauss Law ???
--Youll find out next lecture!

Summary
Electric Fields of continuous charge distributions
r

E(r) =

2 0 r

++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Electric Flux:

r
r
E E dS
S

How to think about flux: number of field lines

intercepting a surface, perpendicular to that surface

Next Time: Gauss Law

Appendix
Infinite Line of Charge
We use Coulombs Law to find dE:

dE =

dq
4 0 r 2

dE

What is dq in terms of dx?

dq = dx

++++++++++++++++ x
dx
Therefore,

dE =
What is r in terms of r ?
r
r =
cos

r'

1
4

(r

dE =

dx
/ cos

)2

cos 2 dx

4 0

r2

Infinite Line of Charge

We still have x and variables.

dE

r
We are dealing with too
many variables. We
must write the integral in
terms of only one
variable ( or x). We will
use .

r'

++++++++++++++++ x
dx
x and are not independent!
x = r tan
dx = r sec2 d

dE =

4 0