Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
TODAY INTERNATIONA
lnstalled in seconds they simply plug into the parallel port (except the ADC-16 which connects to the
serial port). They are seltcontained, require no power supply and take up no expansion slots.
Each device comes with a comprehensive manual. C, Pascal and Basic drivers are included for users
who wish to write their own software. Software supplied on 3.5" disk.
PicoScope
PicoLog
NEW 4D0100
virtuat lnstrument
Dual Channe! 12-bit resolution
NEW
f
Ptco
4D0t@
Channe!8-bit
O Lowestcost
O Up to 22kHz sampling
O 0-5V input range
The ADC 10 gives your
computer a single channel
of analogue input
4D0l0with
,,
4D0 ft
,{D010
1
O
O
O
rom
4D012
11 ChannellO-bit
Digitaloutput
Up to '18kHz sampling
0-2 5V input range
O
O
O
Channell2-bit
High resolution
Up to 17kHz sampling
0-5V input range
4De
O
C
22}Hzsampling
- 16-bit
The ADC 12 is similar to
The ADC 16 has the
channels of analogue input the ADC 10 but offers an
highest resolution of the
in a case slightly larger
improved 12-bit (1 part in
range, it is capable of
than a matchbox. lt is ideal 4096) resolution compared detecting signal changes
for portable data logging
to the ADC 10's 8-bit (1 part as small as 40pV. Pairs of
using a "notebook"
in 256).
input channels can be
computer.
used differentially to
reject noise. Connects to
.,1D0ll wilh
4D0t2with
serial port.
The ADC '11 provides
2Hz sampling
11
PicoScope t49
PicoScope t85
PicoScope [85
z(D016with
PicoScope and
PicoScope and
PicoScope and
Picolog
tl15
PicoLog t59
PicoLog t95
PicoLog t95
PicoLog for ADC 10111112 t25. Oscilloscope Probes (xl , x10) E10 Carriage UK f ree. Overseas e6
T'E'i:.6'dd[-Eti'7T6',
Hx*I'.dut]'jii*i ;'tU
TUrbo Speed
lndicator
ffiffi
ffiW
Bite Alarm
ffiffi
PG Glinic
dt% gM
%Sffi
Volume 23 No.7
Magnetism and
Magnetometers
An lntroduction
to MID!
&&
ffiffi&
ww
Regulars
News and events diary 6
Balbirnie's Workshop
Terry Balbirnie divulges some more
practical hints and tips for the electronics enthusiast.
Talkback
65
ffi&
ffiw
PCB
foils
Open
Forum
68
74
Wherc on Earth
Am l?
Global Positioning Systems rely on a
complex fusion of space technology
and electronics to give a position
accurate to just a few metres. We
look at how such systems work and
now that their price has dropPed to
just a few hundred pounds, how theY
are being used.
Gar Lights
On Reminder
&ee
dm
#Ah@
w-w
Micrcprccessor
Motor Control
Gompetition
ln this issue of ETI we
ffi@
competition
8 CAVANS WAY,
BINLEY INDUSTRIAL ESTATE,
COVENTRY CV3 2SF
Tel: 0203 650702
Fax: 0203 650773
Mobile:0860 400683
Hewlett
Hewlett
Hewlett
Hewlett
Hewletl
Hewlett
HewletlPackard1TOTA,1TO7B-75MHz2ch
Hilachi V.U22 - 40 MHz Dual Channel
Nlcolet 3091 - LF D.S.O..
... .. . .. . .e1300
...... ....C1750
.. .. ...... .8375
....
irom
ch .. . .. ..trom
....
Cl 25
C350
........C350
.......iromf275
......1300
... ... .. .C1100
.....i22OO
3.5GHz
..... . . . .. ... ..e4500
HewletlPackard35S0A--5HZ-50KH2....
.........e1250
HewlettPackardS590A-10KHz-1 sGHz-(asnew)
........e4500
HewletiPackardlS2TwithS559A(10MHz-21GHzl
Marconi 2370- 110MHz
Hewlett Packard 4953 Protocol
analyser
Teklronix 492-21GHz
Tekironix 7L18 with 7603 main frame
Texscan AL51A (4MHZ - lGHZ)
1 5 GHZ
........83750
..........C1250
. i. ... .....[2500
..........e6000
....$500
..........e1300
......
....8550
104MHz
.........e450
generator
. .. .. .. ..1t275O
meter
.. .... ..e650
9341 LCR databridge
.........C250
9500 Universal timer/counter 100MHz.
.... .... ..e200
9917 UHF frequency meter 560MHz.
....e175
9919 UHF frequency meter lGHz
.......1275
Rohde&SchwarlzBN36TllDigitalQmeter..
......e400
Rohde & Schwarlz URV5 - 18 GHz R/F Millivolt-meter (with various
probes) .
.......[,1850
Solarlron Schlumb 1170 Freq. response analyser.
...........e250
Teklronlx TM503, SG503, PG506, TG501 Scope calibrator ..........f2000
Tektronix 834 Data comms analyser
.. ... . ..E500
RacalDana9081 Synth sig gen 520MHz
18GHZ.
analvser
Racal
Racal
Racal
Racal
Racal
Racal
Racal
.. ..2000
.....f,3500
.......C2000
..
.. ..f,1500
.....[,4500
........850
... .. . ..e5000
... ..... ..e250
....t175
Packard
Packard
Packard
Packard
Packard
Packard
Teklronix TM5003
Fi;i;iilirA'r;;itl,,,i"t",ireiil':.:::.:.::::.::::...:.:.':.:::i'.i":?33
HewlettPackard3476Digitalmultimeter.
Dana
Dana
Dana
Dana
Dana
Dana
Dana
meter
...........8100
tlt
v,
tI!
Price list & order lorm lor CVC PREMIUM Audio Valves
UNIT PRICE
QTY.
UNIT PRICE
TOTAL PRICE
QTY.
TOTAL PRICE
CARRIED FORWARD.
500
400
RECTIFIERS
ECC83ll2AX7
5.00
4.00
a72ll\
ECC85
450
EF86
E81CC(GOLD PIN)
E82CC
E83CC
E88CC
5.00
500
5.00
4.00
6.00
ECC88
ap L
v?1-tT
600
3.20
3.50
SOCI'ETS
6.00
7.00
B9A (PCB)
B9A (CHASSIS)
160
160
ESOF
900
E83F
6SL7GT
6SN7GT
6922
s.50
OCTAI (CHASSIS)
1.15
400
4 PIN (UX4)
3.00
4.20
5.00
11.00
MATCHING CHARGES*
POST & PACKING (UK)
300
TAIAL-EXE.VAI
PO\VERVALVES
vrJI_@_lJ_!m
t.4,3 (4 PrN)
14.00
14.00
2A3 (OCTAL)
EL8-+r189A
KT66
22.00
50 50
9.50
29.90
7.50
4.00
5.10
9.20
KTAT
t2.o0
xT:8
12.50
KTSS r@LD Q)
5L6CC
18.50
211
imB
311A
il-i
EL_3-1/6CA7
EL8-1/68O5
6L6\\ CrC/5881
10.20
40 00
0.\
11.00
5_<,<0.\-s
r3.50
561.{
11.00
QUADS
or
QCTETS
PaY bY
Evni
800
500
i-16-1
6_<_<
6.50
5\'5GT
6 i-:68
5
TOTALTO PAY
N
Address
Posf Code
IFI[IFGfiTTiII,IIGrcrc[
TTIr,
;YJTTIE'7E
II'lj
ELECTRONICS
TODAY INTERNATIONAL
PGB
Pentica Systems of Wokingham has launched a new entry level version of its powerful Tango circuit design and board layout
software, which runs under Windows and offers users work-station class performance at one fifth of the cost. TangoPRO
Schematics Lite and TangoPRO PCB Lite are both sub-sets of the higher end TangoPRO software, with the benefit of the
Windows environment. Their capacity and features are suitable Ior 80% of PCB designs being produced today.
TangoPRO Schematic Lite offers powerful placement and editing tools, keyboard short-cuts and instantaneous netlist generation. There are over 20,000 unique library components and new components can be created on the fly. Advanced features
include intelligent wires and busses and support for user defined attributes.
Junctions and bus entries are placed automatically. Capacity is up to 200
components, 500 nets and three sheets per design.
The PCB design program includes a CuUCopyiPaste capability for moving
selected items to and from the Windows Clipboard. design error indicators
with on-screen highlighting, enhanced report formats and improved attribute
editing, with the ability to change reference des,gnators on previously placed
components. The 32 bit database gives imperial and metric support down to a
tenth mil, or 10 microns. Capacity is for 200 cornponents, 500 nets, and six
layer designs.
TangoPRO Lite Schematics costs e I75 and the PCB design program C685.
For further details on these two products contact Pentica Systems on Ol34
792101.
7OW Titanium
Gomposite Tweeter
The latest product to be added to the fully comprehensive
range of speakers and sounders from Maplin Electronics is
the 70W Titanium Composite Tweeter. This is a dome
tweeter, where the diaphragm is made from pure titanium
which is ion deposited onto an advanced, glass-fibre reinforced, soft polymer 1in diaphragm. The composite that
results offers increased stiffness with high internal damping,
combining the advantages of pure metal domes while
retaining the low distortion of soft dome, leading to detailed
sound reproduction for the best musical quality. Efficiency is
up to 93dB
and the voice
coil is ferrofluid
cooled. The
Faceplate is of
a fibre reinforced
polymer.
This tweeter
is available
from all
branches of
Maplin
Electronics and
costs f 1 3.95.
For more
details ring
0702 552911.
ELECTRONICS TODAY INTERNATIONAL
Guttin$ PGBs
by laser
Ine Berkshire based company Tracks
CAD Systems has launched a multifunc: cn laser prototyping machine which is
: -ed at anyone who involved in the
:e,,e lopment or production of high
is"slty Printed Circuit boards, in partic-
contact Arcom
Control
Systems Ltd of
Cambridge on
0223 411200.
8
I
-^+ :4l;S;1
t=li-r.."
wi
orocesso
.appr.
lolntl
rit,
uoJ
r.ngm
by Acorn
tt
bltsw Karean
27-29 {,Uiie
4-7 July..
240 187r
o7t
' F::i"
I:
5 July
14 Juty
16 July
fr-24
July
13 Nov-
,,-.,
Et,ry4draiclu
081 Sg9 5732.
1921 July
,. r'.."'-,....
DiPlrtct
shlioo-l;
Talkohp
bpboief E
6th Elecffonic
!r
re-ti o7o7
F,eFph
Engineeri.iigiin'6daa?Egiraphypo qi,lnstitute
o?f'
lr*+,i
ur
Hadio
^TrG;
eil
rally
edmld
oJ
church
Ti17,3,.,
,eetlatr,Fttlli{::$li
EleQtTFaJrElgln
;:A7t:zilfr
ill
re Gentte; Slaflg
Ir
(evenings only).
pc
DTP
landspe, 12mx1
interlace with your
3OODPI A4
SPEAKERWIRE Brtrn
WOLVERHAMPTON
BRANCH
LEO PACK d
he
signs,di$o
i,lAc7p2
GErcER COUilTER KIT Low c6t pofcsional twin
SIICLAIR c6
sve
PPCMODETICAR
laptop
Clearan@
dugincardsmade
al up unit @mplete
1
contrcl
UI{IVERSAL SPEE
fortheabovemotorbut
with PCB etc. A heat si
5OO:l
AMSTRAD I512DD
BASE UNIT AND KEYBOARD AND TWO
5.25" 360K DRIVES , ALL you NEED ts A MoNnoR
AND POWER SUPPI.Y WAS'59.00
NOW oNLY s3g.o0
REF: MAG39
c33.95
(PLUS 52OO
Complete
: itAGtT
ue oras an edu@tional
x pp3 req,d.
RADIO TRAI{SCE|VERS A pair of wathe
me,tres in open country. Unlts
out 2m'. ldeal for garden
'M|I{ATURE
E
Zsa
measuE
req'd. E30.00 pa
gpl
with
SPEC|[ PACUGTNO
standard wofting
l3Aadaptei.l
ile
1O
ilAc2p4
or 4 tor eO
ff0ffffwE
nef: ileClpZ
TWEETERS 2' diameter good quatity tweter j4OR (ok with the
above speaker) 2forE2 REF: MAG2P5 or4 forE3 REF: itAc3p4
AT
ust
haY
rc
ilE
COfl HODORE H ERODRME SYSTEM mini storase
devie for C64 s 4 tim6 f6ter than die drive, 10 tmesiaster
tMn t@6 Cmptde unil j6t E12 REF:MAG,t2pl
SCHOOL STRPPERS We have quite a tr of the above
t"
ru
DOS
manu
comp
itAGspS Worth
it
only.
S Originat
orkwiththeCPC4M
work with other ma-
cae
WIXDUPSOLA
Customer rerurns at E4
REF: MAG4P9 Fullytested unitsare.12 REF: IIAG12p5
tAIXS CABLES Th6e are 2core standard black2metre mains
ed6 fited with a 13A ptug on one end, bte the other ldeat for
prqeds, lw @d manufaduring etc pack of 1 Olore3 REF: MAG3P8
Pek c, 1mE20 REF: MAG2Ops
M
lcRqYAVETf
lo make enlaEertimer
sel
trIHtr
bell box but @utd be used for Gravans
1? op"rli:;tT:l
connecl up and it ll6hes regutady) e5 REF:
"1".
MAG5Pi 1
q{CE)
MACP6
ref MAGsP13
monitoE but uselul ,orgetting high vollages lrm low onesl E2 each
REF: MAG2P12 bumper pad( ot 10 tor a12 REF: [.4AG1 2p3.
1994 CATALOGUE.
ned by us
talkies with a
I512
tube,
perstip. 25 ref
HOilES
(23r4;3;ii,
housed in
12 ea,
@ndensr. Cost
@mptere wfth
electret
lOO
A4 SZED
10
(rucE ?sG
TO
STOG QUOTAn
sA@.
BULL
ELEC
250 PORTLAI{D.ROAD
8il3 5AT
strippei 5 REF:
t49.99
A Hond held personolGommo ondX Roy detec
tor. This unit contoins two Geiger Tubes, hos o ,
digit LCD disploy with o piezo speoker, giving on
oudio visuol indicotion. The unil detects high
energy electromognetic quonto with on
from 30K eV to over l.2M eV ond o
ronge of 5-9999 UR/h or l0-99990 Nr/h, Su
complete with hondboo k,
REF: MAGSO
10
i-m
;-ro
;tiJa a; Help
:-"tia-1r.rr1 problents.
uL
tl5. kil,
I20
-.rte
LL{DACID CIIARGER.
rith a differenl
voice!. 9 kit,
Il3
buitL
*r
1J6
!9 built.
PIIONE BIIG. Srnall bug porvered by
Lir
tl6
4W FM TRANSMITI'ER.
25W FM TRANSMITTER.
built.
PHONE
CALLRELAY
Very ueful
kit thar incorporates a rclay that operares x hen the phone rings. Can be used
10 operale more bells, signalling lights
erc- Good for noisy environrents or if
r ou have your headphones on! tl0 kit,
; IJ built
mer-
DIODE PACK
100 assorted diodes
RESISTOR PACK NO I
250 low wattage resistors, ideal for
most projects etc. Just
ll
00
RESISTOR PACK NO 2
Hi wattage pack, good seleclion of
mixed wattages and values 50 in all,
bargain price just f, I .00
PRESET PACK
Nice seleclion of25 rnixed preset
pots for just another f,l !
RELAY PACK NO
ll,
for
forjrst t,1.00
LED PACK
20 light emitting diodes for f, I 00
TRANSISTOR PACK
50 mixed transistors, anoilter bargain
at tI.00
BUZZER PACK
l0 things that make a noise forjust
t.t.00!
POT PACK
l0 pots for t.l, (5 difftrent types)
snip at 11.00
each.
DISPLAYS
1.00
FUSE PACK NO I
40 mixed 20mm fuses, ideal for
repaini etc, or just to stock up the
t I buill.
fi.
controls for eaeh
channel,
Detects
f,l
00
LI,VEL DETDCTOR.
Ll2 built.
0-5 MINUTE TIMER. Simple time
switch adjustable fronr 0-5 rnins,rvill
powerful anrplifier 20hz-l1hz, 12l8vdc. Good for intercoms, audio sysetc t7 kit Il I built.
terns, car
Put
built
PACKII
FREE COMPONENT CATA-
pipes,wires eto up to 20cm deep. Usellrl before you drill those holesl [,8 kit,
ters, CB's, tape recorders e1c. Adjustable sarsitivity, built in delay. Mic inpul. 17 kit, f,1 1 built.
buih-
VOX SWITCII This is a sound activated switch, ideal for use on lransmit-
kit
I,LEC'TROLYTIC PACK
18 kit, [12
sinrplcound to liglrt
SLEEVING PACK
100 assorted pieces ofsleeving
l,200Wpowerhandling. Microphone
included. ll4 kit, ll9 built
WIRE, PACK
25 Metres of insulated wire for jrsl
f,l 00, good for projrxts etc
CONNBCTOR PACK
kit,rl6 buill
TLTRASONIC RADAR. A project
FUSE PACK NO 2
30 mixed I 25" fuses again ideal for
spares etc. Jusl f,I.00
about l0
ELECTROLYTIC I'ACK I
100 small mixed electrolylio
4 stage, a
800w output, speed and direction controls, can be used with 12 led's (supplied) or'I'RIACS for mains lights (also
supplied). 9-l5vDC. l7kit, [23 built.
|
price! |
tlut
1.50
50 UC,s forf
Nice mix of chips at a bargain
!l I kil
SWITCH PACK
ll2
KNOB PACK
10 knobs
forjust
f,1.00
cr. land based, radio beam navigation systems, such as the well
-.-or'.,n Loran in America and the Decca in Europe. These had been
r3'reloped during and after World War ll for maritime navigation
---
3 --COSeS,
i:::a,
55ilU>.
-^^it^^
codc
thc
civilian
n$litif* i
Ggs
1O23,
rne
is
13
s lnlory?3lrslll
peatcd joncr -
175MHz FILTEF
.{ Pl
r-+
I q1or
44 43 42 41 40 39 38 37 36 3s il
PLL FILTER
AGC INTERG +
AGC FILTEP
lgg
2gz
3gr
4go
529
6
7zz
426
9zs
10
11
cP1010
2A
24
zs
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
REF I/P
22
+5V
33n
PLL FILTER
=52820 RADs/s
(xloKhz)
\\
Basic circut for the hearl of a GPS receiver based on the GEC plessey Gp101O
a-a amateur boat owners. Boat owners were also the first to
:eneflt from 24 hour GPS coverage, because the wide, uninter-
GPS on a chip
For anyone interested in experimenting with GPS
systems, GEC Plessey Semiconductors has made
life a lot easier with the development of a single lC,
including all the active circuitry needed to convert
-20.0
$
E
n0.0
-so.o
B
q
F
f
5
o
-40.0
-50.0
/L
.\
-60.0
.70.0
8000.
FREOUENCY MHz
'l75MHz FILTER
AGC
LEV
AGC
CAP
*i,'a6r
no:.r+t
-*s
rbpAv
SAMPLE MAG
CLOCK
The problem with the network of beacons is that it automatically creates a system of lanes in the sky, along which aircraft
travel from one beacon to another. The result is a localised build
up of aircraft in a pafticular part of the sky, thereby putting limits
on the number of aircraft which can safely fly a particular route.
The other limitation is that many leisure flyers, such as microlights, small aircraft and balloons may be unable to properly
utilise the beacon system.
This is less of a problem over oceans, where there is no
beacon network and pilots have to rely upon their lNS. But INS
systems are notoriously inaccurate and can quite often register
a drift of one degree per flying hour, a drift which can result in a
serious positional error after a long ocean flight.
The use of GPS systems solves all these problems. They can
give accurate positional fixes to within 100 metres on the horizontal and 150 metres in the verlical, which means that there
need be no positional drift over oceans, deserts, etc., and
where air traffic is heavy, many more lanes can be created and
a wide range of non military applications. However, the development of GPS applications is still in the early stages and we have
yet to see some of the most exciting of these developments,
which look likely to have an impact on the lives of nearly all of us.
The application which will undoubtedly have the widest
impact is the development of GPS systems for cars. All round
the world, the major motor manufacturers are working on such
systems. These products range in sophistication from a simple
emergency beacon to full scale navigation systems, complete
with electronic map displays. Prototype in car navigation
systems are already undergoing tests in Japan, the US, the UK
and Germany.
Probably the most sophisticated of these projects is being
developed by a consortium of Japanese car companies. lt
involves storing a high precision 50,000:1 vector map database
in the car as part of the GPS system, which is displayed on a
PC quality flat screen display. This database is linked to a
sensor system, allowing the car to be precisely positioned on
the map with the aid of dead reckoning and map constraints, all
based upon a GPS reference. This gives the navigation system
far greater accuracy than is possible wrth the GPS system alone.
Because the navigation system must not distract the driver,
the Japanese system will only function when the car is
stationary or moving at under ten miles per hour. At higher
speeds, it will simply display trunk roads without any finer detail.
The problem of driver distraction has led some European developers to propose a purely voice command system (l can see
this driving people mad very quicklyl, Ed.),
Car navigation systems based on GPS could be on the
market today and, indeed some simpler systems are, but their
further development is constrained by one major factor - the
lack of high precision electronic map data for many areas of
potential use. lt is the availability of such maps that has allowed
the Japanese to gain an early lead in this market.
Car navigation systems may well prove to be the big
commercial market for GPS systems but the future for this technology is no less exciting in other areas, For example, in
maritime applications, experimental GPS receivers are now
being linked with communications systems that utilise the low
flying COSPAS SARSAT satellites to continuously report on a
vessel's position. ln future they will probably be linked to
geostationary satellites as paft of a system which will allow
accurate control of shipping movements.
Moves are also afoot to use GPS systems to replace some
elements of air traffic control and permit planes to fly much
closer to each other. Again, this will rely upon GPS systems on
the plane continuously reporting exact positions to air traffic
control, via a geostationary satellite. Problems associated with a
failure of the actual GPS system have now been overcome and
the safety aspect of relying on GPS has been satisfactorily resolved.
16
Fe-
THOUSANDS PURCHASED
BY PROFESSIONAL USERS
iriiiJiJilil;"il1i;;:';i;'JL";ililt,'ilit:;.;;i;",1i:fii[il:'iil5i:d;."j',i,i
+ e3.50 P&P
PBrCE G40.e5
FOUR
(100w
30ow)
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il
SIZEST MXF200
MXF400
MXF600
MXF900
sOVruS,
watts
F.M.S. into 4 ohms, lrequency response 1 Hz - IOOKHZ
d 775mV inputs
ETrlEWORLDOVEB
Hz - IOOKHZ
llu
os
ini
200w)
60V/uS,
T.H.D. lypical 0.001%, lnput Sensitivity 500mV, S.N.R.
-110 dB. Size 330 x 175 r 100mm.
Wl
PBICEGal.T5 + C5.OOP&P
Wi 9"xH5,,." (3U)xDl2"
Wi 9"rHs'/." (3U)xD,r 3"
Wt 9"xH5r/." (3U)xDt aq.tr
OtP/tF
Slew Rate
bld
IWay Stereo Acllye Cross-Over, housed in a 19" r'lU c8se. Each channel has three level cont,ols:
s to the programmable DIL switches to adjust the
3/5KHz, all at 24dB per 6tave. Bass lnverl swihfies
ficeE!44.99+C5.OOP&P
5 t Pi.Eo.evolurio!
E
Bpon*
E *-_n
E
be
-F__eI-9e
ETIIITT'BY
LEAFLETS
* Ecl{o
&
souil
Second
D EFFECTS*
The low dynamic mass (no volce coir) ol a piezo tweeter produces an improved
nion tevet lhan ordinary dynamic tweelers. As a crossover i! nol rsquired
speaker sysrems
speaier
syslems ol up lo tuu
100 wans (more it
il lwo
put in series
two are pul
series mEE
iBEE
ABE
IBE SIJPPLIED
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Figure 2:
2x75463lCs as drivers
ta
(if
:^e) have about 5 stepper motors in and these would have cost
a'crlune to buy new.
Steps
lvlost stepper motors, you are likely to encounter, will step
either 7.5' or 1.8" per step This will give 48 and 200 steps per
revolution respectively. Ninety degrees per step is also common
but these are usually geared down. Obviously, the smaller the
step, the better the resolution that can be obtained for a given
gear ratio.
step mode. Now for a ballerina that's fast, but for a motor t isn't
and it certainly wouldn't be suitable for use on the end of a
garden strimmer! Having said that, modern motors are capable
of quite reasonable speeds, as high as 10,000 steps per
second without appreciable loss of torque,
Stepper motors also need special arrangements to make
tnem work. You can't simply connect them up to a battery and
them go round. As you will see later, the arrangements
'nratch
for driving this type of motor can make all the difference.
So what's the good news? Well, in spite of the special
arrangements needed for driving, for positioning type applications they make life very simple because there is no need to
f ave a constant feedback (as in closed loop), They can also be
,rery accurate. For example, you can do things like move in
extremely small increments. All of these options are simply not
O=afrYa-frn<
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(b)
UNIPOLAB TYPES
19
1A PER PHASE
Resonance
i,OTOR
General
There are, of course, many
other parameters but for practical purposes the above will
suffice. lt is also impor:tant to
realise that the motor will
behave very differently when
installed in a machine than it
does when it is driving
WITH RESISTOR
nothing.
Motor drivers
How you drive a stepper
motor can make all the difference. You may be able to stop
a motor with your thumb and
finger when it is driven by one
method, but take the same
motor and drive it differently
and it will be unstoppable and
probably consume less
average current.
Unipolar
As mentioned earlier, there are
two broad types of motor unipolar and bipolar. This,
however, refers as much to
the way motors are driven as
to the way the motors are
constructed. Some motors are
designed to be driven either
way. For example Figure 1c.
The term unipolar, meaning
SENSE2
SENSEi
20
CHOPPER DRIVER
:-:
:- :,',o 75463 driver chips (see Figure 2). This is a very simple
-:- . indeed and I am sure that no attempt is made to get the
-
Hore performance
--:
:-:
:':rgh
-=:-ce the time taken for the winding to reach its maximum
Bipolar
This method of driving stepper motors gives quite a remarkable
improvement in performance over unipolar. The phases need to
be driven in opposite directions and so the driver circuit needs
to be able to source current as well as sink it. ln the unipolar
arrangement, the unwanted phase is simply switched off. ln the
bipolar arrangement the phase is either connected to ground or
+ve. The main disadvantage, in the past, has been the difficulty,
and complexity of the driving circuits, but there are now lCs
available which take care of all the driving complexities.
Chop lt
The maximum performance which can be obtained from a
stepper motor will be achieved with a bipolar circuit and some
GND
D0 D1 D2 D3
+5V
I
I
The Gircuit
Power Supply
Modern stepper motors have winding resistances as low as 1 to
2 ohms. A low voltage supply can therefore provide adequate
currents. Older, cheaper motors however, have winding resistance's of 50 ohms and up, Connecting unipolar motors to run
in bipolar mode effectively doubles the resistance. The practicality of the above means that to drive motors with a high resistance, a high voltage supply is needed. The circuit shown in Figure
B will provide about 35V, which is the maximum rating of lC1 .
How lt Works
I50mA
is a fairly
lC1
l'293 or L293D
REGl
L2OOCV
R1, 2, 3
1R 0.25W
820R 0.25W
10K lin pre-set
C1,2 0.1uF
Dl-D8 BYW98-100 4 x PCB pins, 1 x 6 way PCB connector, 2 xpCB 2
way terminals
' Diodes must have a Tn of less than 2O0ns, not
needed if type L293 is used.
R4
VRI
already built in. lf you are using this chip, then the diodes are
unnecessary.
As mentioned earlier, only 4 wires are required. The common
connections are simply not used (see Figure 7) Figure 7 shows
a 6 wire unipolar motor connected to lCl , ready to be driven in
.,-
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ln this month's PC proiect, John Lanigan shows how to build a simple tiltle display which
will indicate how fast your PC ,s running.
NOTE:
lc1
LEDo and
SW1
sN7400 0R srMrLAH
CC 7.SEG LED DISPLAYS
EXISTING TURBO'
How lt Works
SWI open, the 2
nputs of lCl a are held high, giving a low output.
This keeps LED1 a turned off and at the same
time holds the inputs to lCl b low. A low on both
inputs switches lCl b output to high, so lighting
the segments LEDOb and 0e. A truth table is
given in Figure 3 and the display segments are
identified in Figure 2.
lCl c and lC'1 d have permanent high outputs,
because their inputs connect to the 0V line.
These outputs drive the segments LEDOa, c, d, f,
g and LED1b, c, d, p, f, g. They are the permanent segments.
Closing SWI pulls lC1 a inputs low and consequently the output goes high, lighting segment
LED1 a. The same 'high' connects to the inputs of
lC1 b causing its output to go low and turn off the
segments LEDOb and 0e.
The 2 resistors, R2 and R3, in the lines to the
switched segments adjust their brightness to
ln the diagram (Figure 1), with
MOTHERBOARD
Fig
Mounting inside A Pc
25
LED Shot?
tions on the board and compare to the diagram. lf you don,t
have a display at all, even when you turn up to 5V, then switch
off and start checking the power supply connections.
Meanlngless shapes or unexpected numbers on the display
mean that the connections to the segment pins are incorrect. lf
you are using a socket for the lC and/or displays, then look
carefully to ensure there are no bent pins. Of course, you didn,t
insert lCs the wrong way around did you? (yes so did l.)
Those of you in-the-know will have realjsed that NAND gates
are not essential for this project. lt will work perfectly well with
inverters, like SN7414, as that is exactly how a NAND gate
behaves when both inputs are connected together. fheT4OO
however, has just the right number of gates and it was on the
top of the 'bits box' when I starled work on the prototype.
Some applications may need to show different figures from
those given, but the How lt Works section should allow the
confident beginner to alter the circuit to display any value from
O.O
drive power supply but make sure you don,t pick the i 2V linel
use a lot of 5A screw or block connectors for this sort of thing.
For the switch, it is probably easiest to solder direcily to the
switch terminal. lf you have one of the older pCs whose hard
disk drives do not self park on power off, park your disk heads
before dismantling or moving the case. This precaution will save
you from considerable anguish later. Do not use the switch lead
for your 5V supply. lt may work, but more likely you will be trying
to draw more current than was expected of the switch.
I
il I
to 99.
Micro Surgery
It is not possible to describe fitting the board into all of the
possible case types They are, however, largely similar and the
metalwork should not be too difficult.
Most cases have a lift and slide-off top, secured with a
number of screws around the base of the unit. Under this is a
chassis of sheet steel to which most of the sub-assemblies fix.
The front panel moulding is held by screws to the front of the
chassis from inside (see Figure 4), so some of the peripheral
devices and driver cards may have to be removed first. There is
usually a void between the front panel and the metalwork to
which it mounts. This is where we will be fitting the new circuit
board. You need to find a place for the circuit board that puts
the 7 segment displays near to the front panel moulding. lt may
be necessary to mount the board on stand-offs or spacers,
depending on the distance from the moulding to the chassis.
The prototype was mounted on a sub-chassis that eventually
made it easier to fit. lf possible, pick a space where there is
some room for a little adjustment This will allow you to align the
board/assembly when all the surgery has been completed.
u When you are satisfied with the position of the board, fit it
temporarily and measure from a fixed point on the metalwork,
such as one of the holes for the front panel moulding fixing
screws, to the LED display. Take care, as this dimension
locates the cut-out in the front panel. Mark out the hole on the
front of the panel and cut it out.
This ls best done by drilling in the corners and cutting
between them, then filing or scraping to your marked lines.
Better still, if you know a toolmaker or machinist, ask them to
do it for you, because the results of any poor craftsmanship will
be visible on the front panel!
To flnish off the front panel, cut a piece of tinted perspex and
either glue or heat-stake (melt the panel and the perspex
together with a soldering iron) it in place, over the hole. lf you
have been unlucky cutting the hole and have made less than a
perfect 1ob, it may be useful to fix the window on the outside. ln
this case, you will have to glue it of course. A useful ,dodge, is
to use a bezel to cover the hole, so it is not so impodant to cut
a good hole. With the front panel back on, you will need to
adjust the position of the circuit board to align it with the
window.
There are 3 connections to make - to SW1 , the 5V and OV
lines. The supply is fairly easy just connect to the nearest disk
sw1
Fig
0v
+5V
Resistors
Rl
R2
R3
]k
220R
68R
(all 1/8 W 5% carbon fitm)
Semiconductors
Cl
LEDO
Miscellaneous
PCB or suitable Veroboard
Machine screws, nuts, washers and spacers
Connecting wire
26
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1917
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CS 17watt
XS 25Watr
ST4 Stand
35Wa( Gas lron
'Ga$at Gas lron
Low Cost 15Wa( lron
Oesolder Pump
Antistatic Pump
22SWG 0 5Ks Solder
1 SSWG 0 5Kg Solder
1 mm 3 ydsSolder
Desolder Brard
fj 40
f6 60
fO 62
f0 87
a1
40.55
40.70
a0
44/shet
E2
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50F
RG6
RG8
RG8
Pliers
N Plus
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BNC Cnmp
f0 93
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Opaque Drafting Film lA4)
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Block
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Alfac Transfers - ful ranse in stock
(Book)
E2 50 No Vet
How to Make PCBS
EO 78
O.I'PTCH
ENEAOBOAED
a3.30 175 x 67mm E5.56
& x 25mm Eo-27 95 x 431mm E4.& 81 x 60mm
64x95mm !0.90 119x454mm 46.20 175x42mm 43.74 203r75mm' 87.36
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5
f009 e011
f012 f031
EO19
f05l
E3]3 E3;]
ro.29
f0.57
Femate
to Male
f0.06
[3:33 cott
ems 80.0s
roos [333
fo.os
EZ:19 47
63
25
tO.42
n
c
f0.38
741583 f0.31 ,ioido ao.3i
!9 9!
0-38
741585 0.3S anr nq io in 791 5
LM317r t0.56
raiinA aoto ;;;;;
;;;
PCBTact6x6mm
o25w1%MFE24Seoes
25
PCLrnkLeadFemalegtoFemaleg
male I & 25
P
fo
fo
11 12
aslz
74LS390 f0.25 4534
74LS393 tO.24 4536
eo 25
e0 28
t0
f0
f0
L6ads
0 t5
DPDT mrnr slrde
Botary Wafer 1 P 12W, 2P-6W
E0 78
3P.4W,4P,3W
t2 70
Key Switch SPST
|NSULATOA
FILE TO
\
CUT OFF CABLE CLAMP
designed to be compatible
with the new National
Curriculum ideals, where
students of varying ability face
Jack p ug modificat on
LINE HELD
POSITION
POSITIONB
DETECTOH SW OPEN.
DETECTORSWCLOSED
Detector mechanics
Model 1000 - very basic, no active electronics, suitable for pupils working at
level 3, minimum.
Model 2OOO - simple two stage circuit
using a thyristor and a 555 lC, suitable
for pupils working at Level 6 or at a range
General Background
There are a lot of good quality bite alarms
on the market, but their prices seem well
out of the reach of many enthusiasts.
Several of those looked at seem to draw
a fair amount of current when switched
on but not indicating, which means
battery replacement would be a frequent
occurrence and with a good quality PP3
costing 12 a go, also expensive. So here
are my cheaper, low current versions.
The single most important part of the
Bite Alarm is the detector. Somehow,
this must detect the increased tension
28
NOTE:
TOP OF BOX
POWEB
57mm
I
ARM STOP
BOLT HOLE
3mm CLEAR
POStTTON
TO SUIT
ffi
.re jack plug, the
cistance between
:re position A and B
SHOWS.VE SIDE)
Jg.
A short length of the screw cap is cut
-;
alarm.
All three versions
have a LED as well
as switchable sound which indicates a
'bite'. The sound can be switched off if ii
Ie
ov
stoe
SLEEVE wlRES
AFTER SOLDERTNG
29
How
lt Works
lt
30
Cl
=: a standard, slow rtlnning oscillator.
--:-, be altered to suit anything from
- 2'-tF 16V Io 221,tF 16V. The speed of
-
Bite Alarm
3OOO
SLEEVE
+9V
JACK
TIP
-c2
c3
3l
How lt Works
This alarm, with all these extra features,
still uses the same detector switch as the
other versions, but the inclusion of R2,
R3 and Cl makes its operation slightly
different, by allowing the alarm to be
reset in the active B position.
When the lever is in position A, i.e. the
detector switch is open circuit, C1
charges up via R2. This is passed to the
detector switch and is at 9V when
charged. When the lever is in position B,
this 9V in Cl is applied to the clock input
of lCl a, the D type stat, via the detector
switch. This is normally held down by R3.
The charge held by Cl allows the clock
input to receive a logic 1 before the
action of R3 discharges C1 back to a
low, via the potential divider action R2,
B3 6B0K to 27K - 25:1
This somewhat complex action is
required to allow the reset of the stat to
operate and not be retriggered by the
lever moving from B tc A or even staying
in position B.
Once the clock input has received a
low to high transition and assuming the
stat is not being reset, a 1 will appear on
the Q output pin 1 of lCl a. This 1 , or 9V,
will stay on the Q output until reset by a
reset signal on pin 4. The Q output is
used to enable an oscillator which
.
Hode!
Rr
LED1
tCISG
560
Red or green, O.2in
round LED
12V buzzer
I Jack socket (mono)
1 Jack plug (mono)
1 box
1 On/Off switch, i pole On/Off
1 On/Off sound switch, 1 pole
On/Off
2 small Terry clips to suit
1 battery connector
1 battery, PP3
Model 2OOS
ReslstorE
B1
R2
R3
R4
R5
560
47K
27K
4K7
]K
Gapacitors
Cl
C2
C3
llliscellaneous
lcl
NE 555 timer
1
8 pin lC socket
T1
thyristor 2N506i or similar
LED1 red or green 0.2in round
1 Jack socket (mono)
1 Jack plug (mono)
1 buzzer
1 On/Off switch, 1 pole On/Off
1 On/Off sound switch, 1 pole On/Off
1 press to make switch
1
box
1 battery connector
1 battery, PP3
Sfiodefi S$ffO
Ccr-cc-erl
Capacitons
Cl
C2
C3
U
C5
0.22pF
2 p2 TANT 16V
47pF t 6V Radial
1pF 16V Radial
47pF 16V Radiat
lCs
Q]
Dt
BC1O7
tN4]48
1 On/Off switch, 1 pole On/Off
Resistors
Rl
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
560
6BOK
27K
470K
15K
47K
47K
32
Only
898.00!
1989
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ll
&
tEs
V.n3-
191
II FES
FE, V.13- lgl
aa
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ahrflr
r l^"..1..
Schematic Capture
l- ru-.-l
Analogue
& Digital
Simulation
sioBl ve6ion
of a
prica.
UruEEC: Ref. ETt, HARDING WAY, ST.IVES, CAMBS., ENGLAND' PE17 4WR.
Telephone UK: 0480 461778 (7 lines) Fax: 0480 494042 lnternational +44 480 461778
USA:
MASTERCARD,VISA Welcome.
33
SYSTEM:
Expandable to cover virtually any programmable part including serial E2, PALS,
GALS, EPLD's and microcontrollers
from all manufacturers.
Not a plug in card but connects to the PC
serial or parallel port; it comes complete
with powerful yet easy to control software,
cable and manual.
DESIGN:
SUPPORT:
riirqtr
" i:g:Lxr
MOP ELECTRONTCS
Park Road Centre,
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LSO FROM ELECTROSPEED UK
Deeiqnera
Windows in standard or
enhanced mode
with 2MB
Only
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RAM
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and
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SMT pads and other pad shapes.
Positive reviews by Robert Penfold and
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34
EW
E]
II
ll
This month in PC Clinic, we examine the heart of every PC - the CPU.
We look at how it can be made to work faster with the aid of
coprocessors, clock doublers and cache memory. We will also be
looking at the BrOS software and its Power On Self Test routines, which
enable us to track down system faults.
_'
Pentium.
So why do we need more power? The answer is simply that
new software applications, particularly those which are highly
graphics oriented, need more and more power. Try running
Windows or a CAD/DTP package on an old 8MHz 286 and then
compare it with the same software running on a 66MHz 486.
On a slow machine, such software is virtually unusable, it
cannot pedorm all the calculations and update the screen sufficiently qu ckly to prevent the display hardware having to wait for
the processor.
This means that if you want to have a more powerful
computer, but do not want to buy an entirely new system, then
you will need to look at upgrading the processor. On the
follow ng pages we will show some of the ways in which this
PHICE AT LAUNCH/
CUBRENT PRICE
NUMBER OF
TBANSISTORS
J
29,000
atu.
-^:
)@
MIPS/
MIPSATLAUNCH
HIGHEST
-:
34,000
@@@
275,000
@@@@@@
@o@@@@
1.2 million
@@@@@@a
3.1 million
35
Goprocessors
A coprocessor is essentially a piece of hardware, we
could call it an assistant processor, which is designed
to pedorm h gh speed operations which would other_
wise have to be executed using much slower software
routines, monopoIsing the main processor lt is called
a coprocessor because its hardware is very closely
tn
chip could
the socket is
lation of a Weitek 4i 67
by be ng over enthuslastlc
we supported
when pushing a ch
431
simple, with the 387 being mapped into the high l/O
or the motherboard
] "..."r"
READ,/l,\,RITE
ADORESS STROBE
ERROH
be necessary to set a
ADDBESS LINE 2
ii/to
p nto a
i1
READ OUT
intedace, since
ADDBESS ANO
COi/mrAND
CHIP
SELECT
OECOOER
coprocessor is installed
386
motherboard documenta
ADDRESSiOATA
READAI/RITE
ADDRESS STROBE
OATA BUS
(32 B|TS)
Coprocessor inteffacing
36
WEITEK
wTLl 167
.: adding
it in
At this stage in the development of the BOxB6 family of processors, Inte introduced a new
^iircvation which allows the user to increase the power of a system by simp y replacing the
:,'3cessor chip. This technique is known as clock doubling (noiv we also have clock tripling
clock quadrupling) and overcomes a ot of the earlier prob ems associated with the ctose
:rd
--signing and building very high speed motherboards are overcome, Board desrgners can thus
:olrmise their design to give the best speed at the lowest cost
System manufacturers have also discovered that this gives them a great ftexibility, a single
-,ctherboard design can be used in a range of different models simply by changing processor
a.d perlpherals This of course reduces the need for expensive stock holdlng a ows them to
-:spond quickly to the development of new processors and new system requirements lt also
f.ts as a good sales incentive to be able to sayto customers that a systern is reatvely future
Using a DX ehip
Ae ban bb s6en frorn ihe cha{.on page 35, the
80x86 family of processor chips has b,ecome
higfier, rircre poWetful arid inuch iaster This pose!
an enormorJs problem for systern desi0ners, the
proce$spr was Getting loo fast lor the systerrl,
Memory access limes woro bgcorning too fast for
the type of rnemory chlps which could economically
be used on a P0, high clock $peeds were startlng
lo givs. ri$e t0 board design pr0blems due t0 such
factors as $ignat propagati$n d6lays.
. . ' .Thtsc Iaolors dlt meaflt that, although it was
Teasible to build much fasler system troards, rt was
uneconomic to push motherboard clock speeos
mH6h b,oyond th6 30MHz area. lteitfir was it prac-
tical
of levelr
Pr+cg$spr mflnrifacturei$ were nevertheless
c..cof and can easily be upgraded, a factor which has encouraged a great many manufacturers
processor-
an
to
th
exoedd
yoi
a.co.rtB
m
IrrO
easily
':
lnstruction decode
At the heart of every processor is an area of circuitry which
conveds the instruction code into a sequence of operations
which are pedormed by the other parts of the CPU. The
circuitry which performs this function works at two levels.
Simple instructions, such as moving a byte of data between
registers, are initiated directly by the circuitry, but more complex
instructions require a more sophisticated approach: In essence
these instructions are executed by small programs stored within
the microcode ROM, which is part of the decode circuitry. They
are stored as sequences of simple instructions. lt should be
noted that nearly all simple instructions are executed in one
clock cycle, whereas complex instructions usually take two or
more.
Gode cache
To overcome the need to use wait states when accessing relatively slow RAM, the Pentium has a high speed 8KB instructions
cache.
Gode TLB
Translation lookaside buffers for the code cache.
Clock driver
This circuitry provides the complex synchronisation pulses, all
NO BRANCH PREDICTION
32.BIT INTERNAL
AND EXTERNAL
PBEFETCH BUFFERS
ABY FPU
PATHWAYS
Data TLB
Translation lookaside buffers for the data
cache.
SINGLE
FIVE-STAGE
INTEGER
PIPELINE
REGISTEBS
Data cache
To overcome the need to use wait states
when accessing relatively slow RAM, the
Pentium has a high speed 8KB data cache.
38
Gontrol logic
The control logic circuitry handles the processor control bus
and things such as interrupts, l/O requests, etc.
Pipelined FPU
This is a pipelined floating point arithmetic unit with dedicated
addit on. multiplication and division circuitry. The use of dedicated circuitry means that no matter what the precision of the
caLcu atlon, addition and multiplication is performed in just 3
c ock cycles Division will produce 2 bits of quotient per clock
cr cle, However, because of the pipelined architecture, it can
aciually achieve one addition or multiplication per cycle after the
. i,ai two cycle latency to fill the pipe is complete.
integer
BRANCH PREDICTION
PARALLEL FlVE-STAGE
INTEGER PIPELINES
lnstruction fetch
AND EXTERNAL
DATA PATHWAYS
BEGISTERS
PIPELINED FPU
SEPAFATE
8 KB CACHE
39
BIOS
When any processor is first powered up, or when it is reset by the reset circuitry, it
is incapable of using programs straight from disk. ln fact, it will know nothing about
the system of which it is a part. lt will not even be able to input data from the
keyboard or output data to the screen. The only information that the processor has
coded into it is a single memory address where it expects to find the start of a
program, or a pointer to the staft of a program.
Because the processor cannot yet load data from disk, this power
up/reset system initialisation program has to be stored in non volatile
memory, Because it perlorms the task of actually defining the system
and because it is permanently stored in ROM, it constitutes what is often
referred to as firmware.
The PC is no different to any other computer system in this respect
and this initial program is known as the system BIOS lf you look carefully
at the motherboard you should be able to locate the one or two ROM
chips in which it is stored (they often have a printed label stuck on top of
the chip which identifies the source of the BIOS),
The name BIOS stands for Basic lnpuVOutput System. lnitially, the
BIOS was developed by lBM, but comparable versions of BIOS are now
produced by a number of other manufacturers, foremost of which are
AMI and Phoenix The different types of BIOS are all more or less iden
tical, although the system has changed slightly overthe years and old
versions of BIOS may not work properly with some modern software,
The first function of the BIOS program is to test the system, to check
to
it.
Problem
area
Sistemboard
Effot code
nr
100-199
Error
rnber
port
4O1
Ftoppy diskdrjve
Reference disk 602
'l
66rial port
.1 OO-.l299
Hsrd disk driv6 1 700-1 7s9
System board video
24C0-24W
Pcinting devicecSoo
99
40
j'
'.,
'
rr
'
:,.
-^ese POST routines will check every part of the PC, the memory, the
::mmunications pods, the keyboard, video display and the disk drives
you will in most cases not be aware that
-1less your machine is faulty
place.
the way that your keyboard lights
Remember
.-e tests are taking
'ash and the double beep before the hard disk is accessed and DOS
:aded? These are the POST routines at work However, if your
-achine is faulty, POST error codes could provlde you with a valuab e
::
There are three different ways in which the BIOS POST routines will
L us what is wrong with the system The first is that it will generate a
-cst EISA and ISA systems this is port B0) and can be d splayed using
, special plug in adapter card, commonly referred to as a POST card,
-^e error codes displayed on the
down, Shorts are a major source of problems and using the area indicated by the POST error code can be further traced with the aid of the
logic probe.
First check the supply voltage and ground leads to the suspect chip.
lf a voltage ls missing, then trace the line to its source. Shorts may be
produced by defective resistors, lOs, or decoupling capacitors. ln fact,
such capacitors should always be checked, since this can be the cause
of the failure,
'^d
adapter cards one by one, except the POST card, reapplying power
between each card removal. lf the symptoms stay the same then the
motherboard is probably failing. lt is here that the POST card really
comes into its own, since without it, problems can be very hard to track
t hexadectma
rvorlh do ng and far better to just chuck the board away and replace it
\r/1't1e
C|',4OS BAN/,
::nfiguration. lt is
'so likely to
-aopen when
.-^e internal
: attery fails
-^C needs
-:c acing.
POST
:-'crs means
-a, whenever a
rlST
error is
=-oountered, the
=-s: step is to
same chipset,
meaning that
although gener-
ally correct,
all adapter
some codes
may point to
:-:oerly, as are
all
the wrong
-:
-'ai on
l^
error.
y then should
--e
=lST card
:':be
-"einserl
a card)
nostic software, with which one can track down faults at all levels of
functionality, even faults on boards unable to produce POST codes.
For more details on the POST Probe card contact Micro 2000 in
Letchworlh, on 0462 483483.
Watch out in future issues of ETI for our special build it yourself
POST card projectl
lf you still have no luck, then power down the system, remove all the
Gache Memory
Over the last few years, we have seen processor clock r.ates go
up from l2MHz on a 286 AT to 66MHz on a pentium or
486DX2 system. At the same time we have seen the amount of
RAM in a system go up from 640K to 4, g, or even 16+ MB,
Memory hierarchy
ln order to understand how cache memory works, we need
to look at how a computer uses different types of memory.
We can divide the memory resources of a computer into a
Cache operation
The type of cache design used is very important, since there
can be very signiflcant dlfferences in performance between
different designs, especially when the cache is fairly small.
There are three commonly used secondary CpU cache
designs, fully associative cache, direct mapped cache and set
associative cache. Of these, the fully associative cache is too
slow for today's processors.
The cheapest and easiest design for a manufacturer to
implement is the direct mapped cache, but this will only offer
good performance if it has been properly designed. lndeed, if
badly designed, a direct mapped cache can actually degrade a
system's pefformance so that it is worse than a cacheless
system. This is the result of a process called thrashing and can
be a really serious problem when running multi-user operating
systems.
Set associative cache offers all the best features of the
other two designs but with few of the associated problems. lt
is fast and flexible and this technique has been used by the
lntel designers for the primary processor cache on the 486 and
Pentium. lt is also the favoured design among top range pC
manufacturers and is parilcularly good with multitasking oper_
ating systems.
42
for DOS provides alt the features you need to create complex PCB designs quickly
and easily: Draw the circuit diagram using the powerfirl facilities of ISIS DESIGNER+ and then neflist
into ARES AUTOROUTE for placement, autorouting and tidy up. Advanced real time design rule
checks guarantee that the final PCB will correspond exactly with the schematic thus saving you from
cosfly layout errors and time consuming debugging.
r Attractive, easy to use graphical interface.
r Ob.iect oriented schematic editor with automatic wire routing,
PROPAK
t
fi
.,
.li
AR
t
r
r
r
r
r
r
!
r
.
r
r
r
,S'S
'LLUSTRATOR
Drawing
Schematic
lor Windows
ISIS SUPERSKETCH
A superb schematic drawing program
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PCB II
High perlormance yet easy to use manual PCB layout
CDCENUE.
wE HAVE MovED
^,
-ENOTE:
lct
lc2
IC3
01
LM78L05
LM3914
lO.BARREDLEDDISPLAY
MEL12
i
N
Gircuit Description
The Video Light Meter comprises
four main parts - the light sensor
itself, bargraph driver, LED display
adw
f*&,
t-
=z
BE(,)
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
(LOOKTNG AT'FLAT')
PIN DIAGBAM OF
PIN DIAGRAM OF
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
(LOOKTNG AT P|NS)
P n d agrams
S1
n
81 +
Wirng diagram
45
Construction
Before proceeding, decide on the type of
box to be used as an enclosure. This will
depend on the size of battery being
used. Any small 9V or 12V battery will be
46
in
Testing
S1
B1
Rl 470
R2 56k
R3 lk
vRl 47k
Capacitors
C1
C2
trolytic.
Q1
IC1
lc2
lC3
Miscellaneous
Resistors
470n ceramic
47yt 16Y PCB elec-
Buy Lines
Semiconductors
MEL12
LM78LO5
LM3914
10-bar red LED
display
OUT
COMM
!N
Battery Check
The condition of the battery should be
le
81 -ve
Vidio liligt meter component overlay
47
GOOSEDALE
Moor Road, Bestwood (M1 Junction ZZ)
N()TTINGHAM
lOam - 6pm
E'lfeAncE
^at"
-.E
7sr
lrir,,'
.,,,
,,ol',tax,,
"d ful[:,,
n,ny
FAi:,';,[n
];rl
to the East.
The eafth's field, or to give it its
more usual name in exalted circles,
the geomagnetic field, is quoted as
two vectors with respect to true
Nodh and a true horizontal
(tangent). Where l'm sitting, these
are 18.5 micro Teslas at 5.3" West
50
suggests
that, for
those interested in the
earth's field,
the equipment should
be able to
show
changes of a
few minutes
of arc, not
MIRROB
necessarily in
out.
Briefly, it consists usually of
two ferrite rods, each of which
carries a winding. The rods are
absolute
values.
flpes
Of
MAGNET
COPPER CRADLE
FERRITE
5t
WALL
copper wire. The fixtures in the fishing line are best sealed by
heating. The big advantage of copper wire is that the joints can
be soldered and Figure 4 suggests a possible construction.
The type of magnet is not dramatically important. The longer
and more powerful it is, the better it will align itself in the
magnetic field and the small magnets used to operate read
relays and security switches may be too small. However, I can
see no reason why severa should not be set end to end until
the available length is four or five inches.
I tried cheating, with quite good results. As it happened,
had some small disc magnets about a half an inch in diameter.
A ferrite rod about 5in long was cut in half and the magnet
arranged in the centre, Incldental y ferrite rod is extremely hard
and you will not be able to saw through it without a diamond
saw. Much simpler is to make a smal notch at the centre with a
hack-saw, then put pressure on this point until it snaps. Maybe
was lucky, but having made the shal ow notch I held it against
the thumbs of both hands with my fingers and just applied
thumb pressure. lt snapped with quite a clean break, but in any
case the two original ends
were quite square so they
were used as the inside
ends against the magnet. A
cradle or stirrup was made
from thick copper wire as
shown and some Araldite
wALL or similar resin wlll
complete this part of the
I
exerctse.
MIRROR CEMENTED
COPPER CRADLE
52
SUSPENSION
PHOTO-TRANSISTOR
OR
DIODE
MIRROB
COPPER CRADLE
BLADE
MAGNET
R4
1M
Setting Up
seemed to be best.
Bemember, the lens will of necessity be separated from the
mirror by the 'anti draft' container. lt is best to make a mock up
cf this part of the device so that you are sure it will work.
Cleady, the more elegant the lens, the clearer the image of the
ilament will be. However, the object of the exercise is really to
g ve a patch of light that has some clearly defined point which
can be used as the reference, not necessarily a perfect image of
ihe lamp filament.
lf you don't have lenses, how about trying one of the fairly
There are no shoft cuts, it's just a painstaking job of getting the
magnet assembly and lamp lens assembly together on a rigid
non magnetic base as the first step.
It may need a fair bit of patience to set the mirror so that the
reflection appears in the right place - after the magnet assembly
has finished swinging! lf the mirror is movable in respect to the
magnet, use a dab of cement (one of the resin glues is good)
which is not quick setting so that you have time to adjust it
before the cement hardens.
53
E
?
move
ha
the output from the op-amp
dle between
the limits noted above.
lf using a cover, it may up the readings when fitted. Try
carefully moving the device c kwise or anticlockwise to see if
the reading can be restored.
One point which I nearly forgot and
may not be obvious. The 12V supply
must be regulated. The current
consumption is very small, about 20
mA, so the power supply need not be
anythln g very extravagant.
54
- r-F
\-2.
AMPLTFTERS from
HY30P
HY60
HY6060
HY124
HY128
HY244
HY248
HY364
HY368
NEW ED[T[@N[
ohm)
ohm)
ohm)
ohm)
E42.86
E23.15
839.95
830.95
t42.50
HCA40
20W Class A
amp
t36.60
POWER SUPPLIES
suppliers
1OO
PREAMPLIFIER MODULE
>
826.46
e20.69
e20.69
827.38
827.38
842.86
heatsink.
SMOS60
>
89.95
t12.62
>
:i::ff::ix'::'"::[
EE
55
How !t Works
The circuit is based upon a
quad two input NAND
Gonstruction
gate, lcl , and a dual version of the 555 timer, lC2. lC1 a is
connected as an inverter and checks whether the door is gpen
or closed. With the door closed, the door switch is open circuit
and Rl pulls the input high, so the cutput is low (see Figure 3
for truth table), However, when the door is opened, the door
switch grounds the input of lC1a, changing the output to a high.
This is fed to one half of the input of lCl b, the other half
being connected to the car's side lights
power feed. R7 is a pull
down resistor and ensures
(e
that the input is low when
the lights are switched off.
,
The output of lCl b remains in '.:
a high state until both the
:
nputs are taken high so with
:
ihe lights switched on and the
(m
door open, the output would
change to a low. This is fed to
lCl c wired as another
nverter, which is used to
provide the correct logic level
.equired by the lC2a and lC2b
The prototype used an ABS box from Maplin (Part no: YU52G).
This has slotted walls to accept the PCB and internal dimensions of 49,5 x 99.5 x 40mm. The Veroboard was cut to fit the
slots and was 39 strips x 14 holes. Using these dimensions, cut
the tracks at the various points (see photograph of layout). Next, solder the appropriate
links and then the components (smallest first).
When complete, solder suitable lengths of
cable from the various points on the circuit
board to reach the fuse holders and the 4
way terminal block, where they are to be
fitted.
The terminal block was mounted to the
{ry}
lid on the inside,
using two 684
'eset pins.
Both lCl a and lCl b are
:onnected as astable multivibrators,
croducing square wave outputs.
C2a ls operattng aI 4Nz and is deternined by the formula
1,44/(R2+2?4)C1, while lC2b is operating at 1.8KHz 1.44/ (R3+2R5)C2. Both
C2a and lC2b are held switched off by
.he low output from lCl c, connected to the reset pins 4 and I0,
so therefore they are only allowed to oscillate when the reset
c ns are taken high. This only occurs when the lights are on and
-re door is open. The output oI lC2a is fed via R8 to the control
rput of lC2b, which has the affect of modulating the output of
''
Testing
With the unit fully assembled, testing can be carried out as
follows. Using a PP3 battery or similar, connect the positive
terminal to Position 1 of the terminal block and the negative
terminal to Position 2. Link Position 3 to Position 1, which
simulates the lights being switched on. Now momentarily link
Position 4 to Position 2 to simulate the door being opened
)2b
,,,
:rve the piezo sounder directly, with VBI setting the desired
clume level.
Dl protects the circuit from reverse polarity connections
andZD2 clamp any high voltage spikes
':d R6, inR9,ZD1
.resent car electrical systems to a safe level. C4 and C5
s^rooth the supply.
FS1 and FS2 are there should the circuit start to draw an
:xcess of current due to a fault.
,
57
R2,3,4,5
R6, I
10
R8 100K
VRl lOK
1K2
Gapacitors
Cl
C2
C3
C4
C5
lnstallation
There should be no problem with the installation, provided that
you follow these procedures. You will require a suitable multimeter in order to make the correct connections.
Normally, I would recommend disconnection of the car
battery prior to fitting, but due to the ever increasing number of
car radios that are security coded and cars fitted with microprocessor controlled management systems which require a
constant source of power for their operation, it would be advisable to do the installation with the battery still connected.
Ensure that both FSl and FS2 are removed and that the car
ignition switched off. Locate a constant source of power and
using auto type cable, connect to Position I of the terminal
block, housed inside the control box. lf you use the ScotchLock type connectors, this will allow you to crimp your cables in
parallel with the existing cable and so avoid the need to break
the existing cable. Next, find a suitable earlh and connect to
position 2 of the terminal block.
Now connect position 3 of the terminal block to the ive feed
of the car's side lights. Switch on your side lights and they
should still come on, even with the ignition switched off. I found
the best place to make a connection was down by the side light
itself, unless of course you have easy access to behind the side
lights switch, in which case you can make your connection
Semiconductors
lCl
lC2
D]
ZD2
PZ1
l5VZener
Piezo Sounder
Miscellaneous
ABS Box (lnternal) 49.5mm x 99,5mm x 40mm
2 x Fuse Holders 2Omm Flush
2 x Fuses 100 NA Q/Blow 20mm
I x Rubber Grommet
Stripboard 0.1 in Matrix, 39 Strips x 1 4 Holes
4 Way Screw Terminal Block
2 x DIL Sockets. 14 Way
2 x 684 Nuts and
Bo ts (countersunk)
Bequ'ed ength
UI HJLU \]dU E
their.
Wherever you decide, check with your multimeter that it is
the live feed for the side lights, by switching the lights off and
observing that the power is indeed removed.
Connect Position 4 of the terminal block to the door switch
on the driver's side, which operates the car's interior light. lf
there is a single wire on the door switch, this means that
the switch is earthed by the cars' chassis and operation
of the switch connects this wire to eadh and completes
the circuit. All that is required is to make your connection to that single wire. lf, on the other hand, you have
two wires attached to your door switch, then this means
that the switch is of the plastic type and that there is a
separate earth to the switch. Operation of the switch
':
;."
:::
(.1
6 0,2-nr
..
Approx mare
Cost: 88,00
Log c tor
Component layout
5a
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Dim.idrs
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both sires
1750
4550
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60
General MlDl
The original MlDl specification did not make any recommendations about the type of sound assigned to each program
number, There probably seemed to be no point in doing so at
the time the MlDl specification was devised, but more recently,
music has become available in the form of standard MlDl
sequencer files, which can be played on a MlDl sequencing
system.
Pitching ln
62
switching type, but the value in the third byte is the new setting
cation banned the general use of control change messages to
for the control. This normally works on the basis of 0 for
control the sound generator circuits, but control of the sound
minimum and 127 for maximum.
generator circuits via these messages is still permitted, provided
we
The two exceptions to this are controls 8 and 10, which are
it is done strictly in the prescribed manner. This is something
the balance and pan controls. These have 64 as
respectively
will consider in detail later,
0 as full left volume and 127 as full right
central
setting,
primarily
the
as
a
means
of
used
are
now
The MlDl controls
volume, lf more than 7 bit resolution is needed, controls 0 to 31
controlling such things as master volume and switching bu lt-in
are paired with controls 32 to 63, so that up to 14 bit resolution
effects units on and off, ratherthan as a means of -ao -J1-:
can be accommodated. Control numbers in the range 0 to 31
adjustments to the sound generator circuits, lVhen -s -9 a MID
carry the most significant bytes, while those from 32 to 63 carry
instrument that is not as young as it used to be, 5ea'
the least significant
that it might not
bytes. Control 0 is
conform to the
ALWAYS 1
paired with control
current MlDl
CONTROL CHANGE CODE
NUMBER
32, control I is
CHANNEL
recommendations
paired with control
could
use
and
33,
and so on
MlDl controls for
HEADER BYTE
through to control
practically any
31 which is paired
purpose.
ALWAYS O
EXAMPLEVALUE =15
with control 63.
Theie are two
This works in a
broad categories
manner that is
CONTROL NUMBER BYTE
of MlDl control
similar to the way
change message,
in which the pitch
ALWAYS
O
These are the
EXAMPLEVALUE
wheel
message
and
switching
=14
provides 14 bit
continuous
resolution.
CONTROL CHANGE VALUE (MSB)
controller varieties.
However, the pitch
The switch type is
wheel change
ALWAYS 1
only used to
CONTROL CHANGE CODE
message carries
switch something
CHANNEL NUMBEB
the two 7 bit bytes
on or off, such as
in one message,
some form of
HEADER
BYTE
whereas
they are in
effects unit. The
separate messages
continuous type
ALWAYS O
for a control
provides variable
EXAMPLE VALUE = 47
change.
control and is used
Note, however,
for something like
CONTROL NUMBER BYTE
that it is perfectly in
a volume or
order to change
balance control.
ALWAYS O
only the higher
A switch type
EXAMPLE VALUE =64
control number if
control is operated
only minor adjustusing a three byte
CONTROL CHANGE VALUE (LSB)
ment of a control is
message. The first
required. Control of
byte is the header
the most significant
type, which
TOTAI CONTROL CHANGE VALUE ((14 x 128) + 64 = 1856)
and least significant
contains the
bytes is totally
control change
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
independent.
code (101 1) and
Figure 5 shows an
the channel
example
six byte
number. The next
which
sequence
byte is the number
of
a
high
resolution
control.
gives
both
bytes
I28
changes
,','
cn
some
.'1which
must
ae
the
control
of
a:)This method of obtaining high resolution control has proved
different controls numbereo =':- -'.: 2l Tl-le switch type
to be something less than universally popular and many
controls are those having r.- 1;': ' '.'= 'arge 64 Io 127 , but
consider it to be an inefficient way of handling things. Few
some of these now have,rc:- 1 '-'-'. --s and operate in a noninstruments seem to utilise the higher control numbers and have
standard fashion. This nc lces 2 =3,', ,','r ch operate as contin7 bit resolution for the continuous controls. ln fact some do not
uous controls. We will noi co^s rs' :.es special cases at the
even implement 7 bit resolution and only utilise the five or six
present time. The third b5re co-:'c s :ne on/off setting. Originally
'off'
most significant bits of the coarse control. However, there are a
rg.e,
were
for
0
only two values were reccg^'seo
'.'thich
'on'.
few
instruments which do use the full 14 bit resolution, or somethis
M
D
Specificat
on
altered
127
for
The
Deta
ed
and
thing close to it.
and recent equipment shou d accept values from 0 to 63 as
'off' and 64 to 127 as'o. , MlDl controls having numbers from
0 to 63 are the continuous types, but these are used in pairs. lf
only seven bit resolution s adequate, only controls from 0 to 31
are used. The message then takes the same basic form as a
63
ELECTRONICS
TODAY INTERNATIONAL
X C N Y E U C w R P
V V L N P E V U B w N T D T
F U a K Y o D I S D E w V T
M C T T V H o N H C o o C M
H G I w F L T F I K T o J V
x E B L I R B L S K o V C o
M F L J o P o A A S G U E D
M M E E U T R T Y E x M X B
B A tr M S N S E I H H D L Y
L E P Y. Y L C A S N K o I L
T I S L N D U E I S o G I o
N K B N I w H P V D U M w L
H K D o S N Y C o w T R E L
V J I o R w Y R F R H T E B
o N x F Y L L M K E V V N M
B B S G G
R
F
I
I
o
E
F
H
V
G
D
Y
ATTEN7'ON ALL
NORIH A}//ERI CAN READERS'
Did you know that you can order an
annual subscription to this magazine
64
ELECTRONICS
TODAY INTERNATIONAL
Ashley, tel: 0304 812723.
Dear ETI
lf you run a club that is concerned with some aspects of electronics and computing we would like to hear from you so that
we can include your club in our regular listing.
tc1
tcz
tc3
I have
5
RN]
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Feedback
Here at the editorial offices of ETI we want to provide you, our
readers, with the soft of magazine that you want to read. We
can of course guess what you would like to see in each issue of
ETl, but a far better way is to rely upon feedback front readers.
To help us in this process we are instituting a new concept, the
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and write down on the back of a postcard the ratings which
they would award to each article in this issue. Ratings should
vary between 1 and 10, with 1 being poor and 10 being brilliant.
A - Where on Eadh am l?
B - Computer controlled stepper motor
C - Turbo speed indicator
D - Anglers bite alarm
E
74L5273
74LSO4
74LS684
Hex Display (RS 586--:3K resistor SIL
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and send to
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65
ly
Health and Safety
Last month, we looked at the siting of a workshop inside the
house. However, this will not be possible for many readers. An
alternative idea is to use a partitioned section of the garage or a
garden shed. This will be relatively inexpensive to set up, but the
drawback is that such places are likely to be damp and certain
eaking
Considerations
These are the most important points to consider The wiring
from the supply must be of adequate current rating, carry an
eafth conductor and be of the correct physical type. lt must
66
ful<s!
SCANNERS 3 T
. . -- --.
-: bycoastalstations
Jy coastal slat ons 3
3---..
1st time is a sectio- : -:
istings 10r these se', :=inc uding cord ess a- repeaters, beacons .=.=
: .:: -::
-: : :
: ::
frequency
.- --',',NZ are
:l:
-- -,:.:^
-:
D Scanners 3
-cudedforthe
- ..--,d
g ven,
a'Iateurradio
ra,Jigationand
--'3a:Uring the
.I
aHc,
'ry re1
sl'.but o^ and
lla -
se'c
..
::
.acetoBarey
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'.'?s:ercardA/isa
Expiry Date
Name
Address
Completedetailsand.eluhtc
En ( ktu;il
I! Mountlield Hoad Estate! Xew *}ffi
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I are made payable to Bailey B-.@@.
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th'at all clieques
to h'Y otb"'
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67
ELECTRONICS
TODAY INTERNATIONAL
Turbo speed
Car lights
68
Bite alarm
2OOO
Bite alarm
69
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HAMRADICDTODAY
containingnopcbs).
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The contents
Ilext Mon#ri.r;
74
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EX GEHAN ARMY PORTAELE MDIATION METEN ....................'t5
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Plea-se note latest models all now cream in colorr m Model OS3020
Leeds,
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OS-3020
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The revised edition of The
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