Project Hard

MAJOR PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 8TH SEM.
CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
1. INTRODUCTION
2.1 Planning
2.2 Alignment
2.3 Engineering Survey`s
3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURE OF VILLAGE ROAD
3.1 Importance of Geometric Design
3.2 Terrain classification
3.3 Design Speed
3.4 Roadway width
10
3.5 Shoulder width
11
3.6 Side Slope
11
3.7 Camber
12
3.8 Vertical curve , Summit curve, Valley curve
12
4. DESIGN FACTOR`S OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
13
4.1 Pavement Component
13
4.2 Types of pavements
13
4.3 Design wheel load
16
4.4 Design Traffic Volume
18
5.0 LABORATORY WORK ON SUBGRADE

6. METHODOLOGY
(PAVEMENT DESIGN BY C.B.R. METHOD)
7. TESTING OF PAVEMENT MATERIALS
8. CONCLUSION
9. REFERENCES
18
19
30
35
47
48
INTRODUCTI0N
The term highway is used to mean a public road,
indicates
and a road
a way made for travelling between places by automobiles ,
1
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN ON BLACK COTTON SOIL
pedestrains , cyclists, animals , etc. Thus highway engineering means the

art of designing, constructing and maintaining public roads.
It is significant to note that the networks of highways existed in all
parts of the world for the flow of people and good the initial carrier on a
highway was man himself followed by the camel, donkey, horse and after
the invention of wheel, the cart and many other wheeled vehicles.
The technique of highway engineering is thus known to man,
hundred and even thousands of years before our time. The problem of
highway engineering such as constructing , maintaining , managing ,
financing, controlling the traffic,etc. were also faced by our
predecessors and they solved these problems in their own way to
satisfy their requirements.
There has been considerable explosion of vehicular traffic on
highways in modern times and at the same time , the automobile
industry has also undergone wide expansion. There has also been
considerable improvement in highway construction technology.
2
PLANNING , ALIGNMENT AND SURVEY`S
PLANNING :-
In order to prepare a scientific master plan for rural roads, it is

necessary to build a comprehensive database for all habitations and the
existing network of all types of roads and tracks, preferably in the
invironment. The first step in preparation of master plan would be
collect all the information available at district, block and habitation
level from secondary sources. The next step is to collect the detailed
information on each habitation and road link through field surveys.
Various data items required for developing the village road link through
field surveys. Various data items required for developing the village
road plan can be broadly identified under three categories
1.Habitation level data.
2. Road inventory data.
3. Map data.
2. ALIGNMENT :considerations The position or the layout of the centre line of the
highway on the ground is called the Valignment. The horizontal alignment
includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations and curves. Changes
in gradient and vertical curves are covered under vertical alignment of
roads.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment
would result in one or more of the following disadvantages :
(a)
increase in construction cost
(b)
increase in maintenance cost
(c)
increase in vehicle operation cost
(d)
increase in accident rate.
3
Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change

the alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of
costly structures by the road side. Hence the importance of careful while
finalizing the alignment of a new road need not be over emphasised.
Factors Controlling Alignment :For an alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the two terminal
stations. This is not always possible due to various practical difficulties such as
intermediate obstructions and topography. A shortest route may have very steep
gradients and hence not easy for vehicle operation. Similarly, there may be
construction and maintenance problems along a route which may otherwise be
short and easy. Roads are often deviated from the shortest route in order to
cater for intermediate places of importance or obligatory points.
A road which is economical in the initial construction cost, need not

necessarily be the most economical in maintenance or in vehicle operation cost.
It may also happen that the shortest and easiest route for vehicle operation may
work out to be the costliest of the different alternatives from construction view
point. Thus it may be seen that an alignment can seldom fulfill all the
requirements simultaneously; hence a judicial choice is made considering all the
factors.
The various factors which control the highway alignment in

general may be listed as :
(a)
Obligatory points
(b)
Traffic
(c)
Geometric design
(d)
Economics
2.3 SURVEYS :ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY LOCATIONS

A highway alignment is finalised in highway project, the engineering
surveys are be carried out. The surveys may be completed in four stages.
The first three stages consider Before all possible alternate alignments
4
keeping in view the various requirements of highway alignment as

discussed in Art. 3.1.2. The fourth stage is meant for the detailed survey
of the selected alignment.
The stages of the engineering surveys are
(a)
Map study
(b)
Reconnaissance
(c)
Preliminary surveys
(d)
Final location and detailed surveys.
Map Study:If the topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to

suggest the likely routes of the road. In India topographic maps are
available from the Survey of India, with 15 or 30 meter contour intervals;
The main features like rivers, hills valleys etc. are also shown on these
maps. By careful study of such maps, it is possible to have an idea of
several possible alternate routes so that further details of these may be
studied later at the site. The probable alignment can be located on the
map from the following details available on the map.
(a) Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes
(b) When the road has to cross a row of hills, possibility of crossing
through a mountain pass
(c) Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend
of the river, if any,
(d) When a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the top
and the other on the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be
suggested keeping in view the permissible gradient; say the ruling
gradient.
Reconnaissance :-
5
The
second
stage
of
surveys
for
highway
location
is
the
reconnaissance to examine the general character of the area for deciding

the most feasible routes for detailed studies. A field survey party may
inspect a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes
of the map in the field. Only very simple instrument like abney level,
tangent clinometer, barometer etc. are used by the reconnaissance party
to collect additional details rapidly (not accurately). All relevant details
not available in the map are collected and noted down. Some of the
details to be collected during reconnaissance are given below:
(i)
Valleys,
ponds,
lakes,
marshy
land,
ridge,
hills,
permanent
structures and other obstructions along the route which are not
available in the map.
(ii)
Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of

curves of alternate alignments.
(iii)
Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level

and natural ground water level along the probable routes.
(iv)
Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and
observation of geological features.

(v)
Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone
quarries.
(vi)
When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain,

additional data regarding the geological formation, type of rocks,
dip of strata, seepage flow etc. may be observed so as to decide the
stable and unstable sides of the hill for highway alignment.
A rapid reconnaissance of the area especially when it is vast and the
terrain is difficult, may be done by an aerial survey.
Preliminary Survey:(i)
To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the

reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information
and details of topography, drainage and soil.
6
(ii)
To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a
good alignment.
(iii)
To estimate quantity of earth work materials and other construction
aspects and to workout the cost of alternate proposals.

(iv) To finalise the best alignment from all considerations.
Final Location and Detailed Survey:The alignment finalised at the design office after the preliminary
survey is to be first located on the field by establishing the centre line.
Next detailed survey should be carried out for collecting the information
necessary for the preparation of plans and construction details for the
highway project.
Location
The centre line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be
translated on the ground during the location survey. This is done using a
transit theodolite and by staking of the centre line. The location of the
centre line should follow, as closely as practicable, the alignment finalised
after the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are
established on the ground and centre pegs are driven, checking the
geometric design requirements. However modifications in the final
location may be made in the field, if found essential. The centre line
stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say at 50 metre intervals in plain
and rolling terrains and at 20 metre in hilly terrain.
Detailed survey
Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 metre
and at all drainage and under pass structures. Levels along the final
centre line should be taken at all staked points. Levelling work is of great
importance as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations and
drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes. The cross
section levels are taken upto the desired width, at intervals of 50 to 100
metre in plain terrain, 50 to 75 metre in rolling terrain, 50 metre in builtup areas and 20 metre in hilly terrain. The cross sections may be taken at
7
closer intervals at horizontal curves and where there is abrupt change in

cross slopes. All river crossing, valleys etc. should be surveyed in detail
upto considerably distances on either side.
GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURE`S

OF VILLAGE ROAD
3.1 Importance of Geometric Design:The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and
layout of visible Matures of the highway such as alignment, sight
distances and intersections.
The geometries of highway should be designed to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operations with maximum safety at reasonable cost.
The designer may be exposed to either planning of new highway net work
or improvement of existing highways to meet the requirements of the
existing and the anticipated traffic.
It is possible to design and construct the pavement of a road in
stages; but it is very expensive and rather difficult to improve the
geometric elements of a road in stages at a later date. Therefore it is
important to plan and design the geometric features of the road during
the initial alignment itself taking into consideration the future growth of
traffic flow and possibility of the road being upgraded to a higher category
or to a higher design speed standard at a later stage.
Geometric design of highways deals with following elements :
8
(i)
Cross section elements
(ii)
Sight distance considerations
(iii)
Horizontal alignment details
(iv)
Vertical alignment details
(v)
Intersection elements
Under cross section elements, the considerations for the width of
pavement, formation and land, the surface characteristics and cross slope
of pavement are included. The sight distance or clear distance visible
ahead of a driver at horizontal and vertical curves and at intersections
govern the safe movements of vehicles.
Classification of Rural Roads
The rural roads in India are commonly referred to:
(i)
Other District Roads (ODR)
(ii)
Village Roads (VR)
3.2 Terrain Classification:The general slope of the country classifies the terrain across the
area. The terrain is an important parameter governing the geometric
standards and the criteria given in Table 2.1 should be followed. While
classifying a terrain short isolated stretches of varying terrain should not
be taken into
consideration.
Table 1 - Terrain Classification

Terrain
Cross slope of the Country
Classification
Plain
0-10 per cent
More than 1 in 10
Rolling
10-25 per cent
1 in 10 to 1 in 4
Mountainous
25-60 per cent
1 in 4 to 1 in 1.67
Steep
Greater than 60 per
Less than 1 in 1.67
9
cent
3.3 Design Speed :Design speed is a basic criterion for determining all geometric
features of horizontal and vertical alignments. The design speeds for the
rural roads should be taken as given in Table.
DESIGN SPEED
Road
Classifica
tion
Rural
Roads
(ODR
and VR)
Design Speed (km/h)

Plain Terrain
Rolling
Terrain
Mountainou
s Terrain
Steep
Terrain
Ruling
Min.
Rulin
g
Min.
Rulin
g
Min.
Ruli
ng
Min.
50
40
40
35
20
25
20
Normally ruling design speed should be the guiding criterion for the
purpose of geometric design. Minimum design speed may, however, be
adopted where site condition and cost does not permit a design based on
"Ruling Design Speed".
3.4 Roadway width :Roadway width inclusive of parapet, side drains for rural roads for
different terrain shall be as given in Table.
10
Recommended Roadway Width

Terrain Classification
Roadway Width (m)
Plain and Rolling
7.5
Mountainous and Steep
6-0
RECOMMENDED CARRIAGEWAY WIDTH

Road Classification
Carriageway Width (m)
Rural Roads (ODR and VR)
3.75
3.4.1 Shoulder width :

The width of shoulder for rural roads in different terrain can be
directly obtained using above Tables. Shoulder width will be one half the
difference between the roadway width and carriageway width.
3.5Side-slopes : Side slope for rural road where embankment height less than 3.0 m is
given in Table.
SIDE SLOPE FOR VILLAGE ROADS

Condition
Embankment
Slope (H:V)
in
2:1
silty/sandy/gravelly soil
Embankment in clay or clayey
silt or inundated
11
21/21 to 3:1
Cuttingm
silty/sandy/gravelly
1:1 to 1/2:1
Cutting in disintegrated rock or
1/:1 to 1/4:1
soil
conglomerate
Cutting in soft rock like shale
1/4:1 to 1/8:1
Cutting
like
1/12 to 1/16:1
like
Near vertical
in
medium
rock
sandstone, phyllite
Cutting
in
hard
rock
quartzite, granite
3.6 Camber :The camber on straight section of road should be as recommended in

Table.
Surface Type
Camber (Percent)
Low Rainfall (Annual
Rainfall > 1000 mm)
High
Rainfall
(Annual Rainfall M <
1000 mm)
4.0
5.0
gravel
3.5
4.0
Thin
bituminous
pavement
3.0
3.5
Rigid pavement
2.0
2.5
Earth road
WBM
road
and
3.7Vertical curve:Vertical curves are introduced for smooth transition at grade changes.
Both summit curves and valley curves should be designed as parabola.
The length of the vertical curve is controlled by sight distance
requirements, but curves with greater length are aesthetically better.
Curves should be provided at all grade changes exceeding those given in
12
table. For satisfactory appearance, the length should be as given in the

table.
MINIMUM LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE

Design Speed
Km/h
Maximum Grade
Change (%) Not
Requiring a Vertical
Curve
Minimum Length of
Vertical Curve (meter)
Up to 35
1.5
15
40
1.2
20
50
1.0
30
3.8 Summit Curve : The length of summit curve is governed by the choice of sight
distance according to the operating condition of the road.
DESIGN FACTOR`S OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Pavement:The surface of the roadway should be stable and non-yielding, to

allow the heavy wheel loads of road traffic to move with least possible
rolling resistance. The road surface should also be even along the
longitudinal profile to enable the fast vehicles to move safely and
comfortably at the design speed.
Thus a pavement consisting of a few layers of pavement materials
is constructed over a prepared soil subgrade to serve as carriageway.
4.1 Type of pavement structure :

13
Based on the structural behaviour, pavements are generally classified

into two categories:
(i)
Flexible pavements
(ii)
Rigid pavements
4.1.1 Rigid pavement:Rigid pavements are those which possess note worthy flexural strength or
flexural rigidity. The stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the
lower layers as in the ease of flexible pavement layers. The rigid
pavements are made of Portland cement concrete-either plain, reinforced
or prestressed concrete.
The rigid pavement does not get deformed to the shape of the
lower surface as it can bridge the minor variations of lower layer
The cement concrete pavement slab can very well serve as a
wearing surface as well an effective base course.
14
the cement concrete slab can also be laid directly over the soil sub
grade.The rigid Though pavements are usually designed and the stresses
are analyzed using the elastic theory, assuming the pavement as an
elastic plate resting over elastic or a viscous foundation.
4.1.2 Flexible pavements:Flexible pavements are those, which on the whole have low or negligible
flexural strength and are rather flexible in their structural action under the
loads. The flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower
layers on-to the surface of the layer. Thus if the lower layer of the
payment or soil sub grade is undulated, the flexible pavement surface
also
gets
undulated.
Atypical
flexible
pavement
consists
of
four
components: (i) soil sub grade (ii) sub-base course (iii) base course and
(iv) surface course.
The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive
stresses to the lower layers by grain to grain transfer through the points
of contact in the granular structure. A well compacted granular structure
consisting of strong graded aggregate (interlocked aggregate structure
with or without binder materials) can transfer the compressive stresses
through a wider area and thus forms a good flexible pavement layer.
The flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layer and
the top layer, in addition to the wear and tear due to the traffic.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Soil sub grade

Sub base course
Base course
Surfacing
1.soil subgrade: -
15
This is the natural or prepared soil on which the road has to

be formed . it should be stable and strong to carry safely the traffic load
and weight of roadway construction The common strength tests for the
evaluation of soil sub grade are
1. California bearing ratio test
2 .California resistance value test
3 .Traixial compression test and
4 . Plate bearing test.
2.sub base course:The sub base course functions as a support to the road
surface and its foundation .the life of road depend on primarily on stable
and dry subgrade.its level may be same as or above or below the natural
ground level .the support given to the road structure by the subgrade is
an important factor and hence , considerable attention should be paid to
the proper preparation of subgrade before the road structure is laid on it
3. Base course:T he base course may consist of two layers3. Base

course:- the base course may consist of two layers, the bottom layer
being known as sub-base or soling.the subbase should be stable and it
should be capable to resist its deterioration under traffic loads to a
great extent.
4. Surfacing:-
The top most layer on which the traffic directly travels is known as
road surfacing or wearing layer or wearing course. The main

function of road surfacing is to provide a smooth and stable
running surfacing which is suitable for the type and intensity of
traffic anticipated on the road .the surfacing should be impervious
and should protect the base and the subgrade from the action of
16
weather and rain water the desirable qualities of surfacing are

durability, stability, non slipperiness, economical and dustless.
4.2 Design Wheel Load :The wheel load configurations are important to know the way in
which the loads of a given vehicle are applied on the pavement surface.
Typical wheel load configuration of a tractor trailer unit of a heavy duty
vehicle. For highways the maximum legal axle load as specified by India
Roads congress is 8170 kg with a maximum equivalent single wheel load
4085kg. Total load influences the thickness requirements of pavements.
Tyre pressure influences the quality of surface (wearing) course.
Flexible pavement design methods
:-
Out of the various flexible pavement design methods available the

following are discussed here.
1.
Group index method
2.
California Bearing Ration method
3.
California R value or stabilometer method
4.
Triaxial test method
5.
Mcleod method
6.
Burmister method
7.
In 1928 California
Division of Highways in the U.S.A.
developed CBR method for pavement design. The majority of

design curves developed later are based on the original
curves proposed by O.J. porter 3.
One of the Chief advantages of CBR method is the simplicity of
the test procedure.
17
Studies carried out by U.S. Corps of Engineers have shown that

there exists a relationship between pavement thickness, wheel load
tyre pressure and C.B.R. Values within a range of 10 to 12 percent.
Therefore it is possible to extend the C.B.R. design curves for various
loading conditions, using the expression
4.3Pavement Thickness DETERMINATION:In order to design a pavement Thus the total thickness of flexible
pavement needed to cover the sub grade of the known CBR value is
obtained. In case there is a material superior than the soil sub grade, such
that it may be sued as sub-base course then the thickness of construction
over this material could be obtained from the design chart knowing the
CBR value of the sub-base. Thickness of the sub-base course is the total
thickness minus the thickness over the sub-case. Thus CBR method of
flexible pavement design is based on strength parameter of sub grade soil
and subsequent pavement material.
4.4 Design life

Design life is usually defined as the number of design life the first major
reconstruction is anticipated. For un surfaced roods aggregates are
displaced on either side of the wheel path and frequent balding is
necessary to main fain a good riding surface. For unsealed or unsurfaced
road aggregates are after lost must be replenished periodically to
maintain the ride. Ability It is necessary that sufficient thickness is
provided to prevent rutting failure. During the design life of 10 years. The
thin bituminous surfacing that is commonly provided on the low volume
roads has a life of about 5 years.
4.5 TRAFFIC DESIGN:Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number,
movements, and classifications of road way vehicles at a given location.
These data can help identify critical flow time periods determine the
influence of large vehicles or pedestrians on vehicular traffic flow, or
18
document traffic volume trends. The length of the sampling period

depends on the type of count being taken and the intended use of the
data
Traffic volume:Two methods are available for conducting traffic

volume counts:
(1) manual
(2) Automatic.
LABORATORY WORK ON SUBGRADE

Black cotton soils
A large part of central India and a portion of south
India is covered with black cotton soils. These soils are residual deposits
formed from basalt or trap rooks. The sails are quite suitable for growing
cotton.
Property
1. Black cotton soils are clays of high plasticity.
2. They certain essentially the clay mineral montmorillonite.
3. The soils have high shrinkage and swelling characteristics .
4. The shearing strength of the soils is extremely low.
5. The sails are highly compressible and have very low bearing
capacity.
6. It is extremely difficult to work with such soils.
METHODOLOGY
19
The two type work was carried out shown belowA. Fieldwork
B. Laboratory Work
After obtaining soil samples, the tests which were performed on soil
sample are listed below 1. Natural Moisture Content
2. Specific Gravity
3. Sieve Analysis
4. Liquid Limit
5. Plastic Limit
6. Light Compaction
7. Direct Shear Test
8. C.B.R. Test
FIELD WORK -:
The soil sampling was carried out in the field.
Soil Sampling - Two types of samples which are to be taken from
medical college site by means of Auger, soil samplers etc. areThe sample
obtained by column of soil isolated in the pit. The soil was carefully
removed around the soil column and it was then properly trimmed. An
open ended box was then placed over the soil column. The spaces
between the columns were filled with paraffin. A spade or a plate with
sharp edges was inserted below. The box and the sample were cutted
from its base. The box filled with soil sample was then removed. It was
20
turned over and the soil surface in the box is trimmed, and depression is
filled with paraffin.
This sample used for determining the engineering properties of the
soil; such as shear strength and consolidation. Some index properties
such as shrinkage limit also be determine.
Laboratory Work
Laboratory work was carried out on the given samples of soil obtained
from medical college site
1. NATURAL MOISTURE CONTENT : In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be
determined. The knowledge of the natural moisture content is essential in
all studies of soil mechanics. To site a few natural moisture content is
21
used in determining g the bearing capacity and settlement the natural

moisture will give an idea of the state of soil in field.
The natural water content also called the natural moisture content is
the ratio of the weight of the water to the weight of the solid in a given
mass of soil. This ratio is usually expressed as percentage.
Size of particles more than 90%
Minimum
quantity
of
soil
specimen
passing
to be taken for testing (g)
425-micron IS sieve
25
2 mm IS sieve
50
4.75 mm IS sieve
200
9.5 mm IS sieve
300
19 mm IS sieve
500
37.5 mm IS sieve
1000
Keep the container in the oven with lid removed and maintain the
1.
temperature of the oven between 105 C to 110C, for about 16 to 24

hours.
Take out the container, replace the lid and cool it in the desiccator.
2.
Find the mass M3 of the container with lid and dried soil sample The
natural moisture content was determined with the help of distrubed
Sample obtained from different depths. The values of natural moisture
content shown below-:
S.No.
Depth in meter
Natural Moisture
1-00-1-35
content (%)
17.8
2.5-2.85
19.4
2. SPECIFIC GRAVITY BY PYCNOMETER
Test Procedure
1.
Clean the pycnometer and dry it. Find the mass (Mi) of the
pycnometer, brass cap and washer, accurate to 1 g.

22

2.
Take about 200 to 400 g of oven-dried soil and put it in the
pycnometer. Find the mass at the pycnometer plus soil etc. (M1).
3.
Fill the pycnometer to half its height with distilled water and mix it
thoroughly with g rod. Add more water and stu it. Replace the screw top
and ffl\ the pycnometer flush with ht> the conical cap. Dry the
pycnometer from outside, and find the mass (M3).
4.
Empty the pycnometer ; clean it thoroughly and fill it with distilled
water to the hole of conical cap and find the mass

5.
(M1).
Repeat steps 2 to 4 for two more determinations of specific
gravity.
Calculations. The Specific Gravity is calculated from Eq. 3.3 :
The specific gravity of soil grains (or solids) usually Called soil is ratio of
the weight in air of the given volume of dry soil solids at a stated
temperature to the weight on air of an equal volume of distilled water at a
temperature. Specific gravity was determined with the help of
pycnometer in the laboratory. The disturbed sample was taken. From the
site and subject to pycnometer test and specific gravity was determined.
The specific gravity was determined the specific gravity of soil sample of
different depths shown below
RESULT
S.No.
Depth in meter
Specific Gravity
1-00-1-35
2-66
2.5-2.85
2-67
3 - Sieve analysis :Sieve analysis or mechanical analysis is carried out for one
classification of soil, for this purpose the test was conduct on the
23
disturbed sample of soil, which was obtained from the medical college site
kept for sieve analysis.
Water was used for sieve analysis because the soil was and silt particles
dislodged very easily around the sand particles when the water with
hexameter phosphate is used to clean the soil The sieve sizes were taken
for the sieve analysis
IS sieve 20 , 10mm, 4.75mm, 2mm, 1mm, 600 micron, 425 micron, 300
micron, 75 micron.
S.no
IS sieve sizes no.
% finer N
20 mm
100
10 mm
100
4.75 mm
100
2 mm
99.7
1 mm
99.5
600 mica.
95.3
425 mica
98.9
300 mica.
98.7
9.
125 mica.
96.9
10.
75 mica
93.5
LIQUID LIMIT OF SOIL

24
Liquid limit is determined in the laboratory with the help of standard

liquid limit apparatus designed by casagrande. Liquid limit is the water
content corresponding to the arbitrary limit between liquid and plastic
state of consistency of a soil. It is defined as the minimum water content
at which a part of soil cut by a groove of standard dimension will flow
together for a distance of 12mm under an impact of 25 blows in the
device.
Test Procedure
1.
By means of the gauge on the handle of the grooving tool and the
adjustment plate, adjust

The height through which the cup is lifted and dropped so that the point
on the cup which comes in contact with the base falls through exactly one
centimetre when the handle is rotated by one revolution.
When the adjustment is complete, secure the adjustment plate by
tightening its screws.
2.
Take about 120 g of the specimen, passing through the 425
micron sieve, and mix it thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating
dish or on the marble plate so that uniform paste is formed Leave the soil
for sufficient time so that water may permeate throughout the soil mass.
In the case of fat clays, this maturing time may be upto 24 hours. For an
average soil, thorough mixing for
about15 to 30 minutes may be sufficient. The amount of water to be
added depends on the type of soil and is a matter of experience.
3. Take a portion of the paste with the spatula and place it in the centre of
the cup so that
it is almost half filled. Level off the top of the wet soil symmetrically with
the spatula, so that it is parallel to the rubber base and the maximum
depth of the soil is 1 cm.
4. With the help of grooving tool 'a', the paste in the cup is divided
along the cup diameter
5. Turn the handle of the apparatus at the rate of 2 revolutions per
seconds, until the two parts of the soil come in contact with the bottom of
the groove along a distance of 10 mm. Record the number of blows
25
required to cause the groove close for approximate length of 10 6.Collect

a representative slice of soil by moving the spatula widthwise from one
edge to the other edge of the soil cake at right angles to the groove.
Plastic
Limit
Plastic limit is defined as the minimum water content at which a soil will
just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread approximately 3 mm in
diameter.
Undisturbed soil specimen was taken from medical college site allowed to
pass through 4.25 micron sieve. Passed soil was mixed with water
thoroughly. Until the soil mass becomes plastic enough to be easily mould
with fingers. After some time ball was made of soil mass and then rolled
between the finger and a glass plate till the soil just crumble. The crumble
threads were kept for water content determination. We have repeated the
test twice with fresh sample of soil. Plastic limit was taken as the average
of three water content.
Test was organized with the soil sample at different depth the plastic limit
obtained from different depth were shown in table.
1. Take about 20 g of air dried soil from the thoroughly mixed
portion of the material passing420 micron IS sieve. Mix it on the marble
plate with sufficient distilled water to make it plastic enoughto be shaped
into a ball. Leave the plastic soil mass for some time to mature. In some
fat clays, theplastic soil mass may be left to stand for 24 hours to allow
water to permeate throughout the soil mass.
2.
Take about 8 g of the plastic soil, make a ball of it, and roll it on
the marble (or glass)plate with the hand with just sufficient pressure to
roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its length.
When the diameter of the thread has decreased to 3 mm, the specimen
is kneaded together and rolled out again. Continue the process until
thread just crumbles at 3 mm diameter.
26

3.
Collect the crumbled soil thread in the airtight container and keep
it for water content determination The test is repeated twice more. Thus
three readings are obtained for the determination.
4.
Also, determine the natural water content of the soil sample
obtained from the field.
Light compaction
Purpose
Soil placed as engineering fill (embankments, foundation pads, road bases) must be
compacted to the selected density and water content to ensure the desired performance and
engineering properties such as shear strength, compressibility, or permeability. Also,
foundation soils are often compacted to improve their engineering properties. Laboratory
compaction tests provide the basis for determining the percent compaction and water content
needed in the field, and for controlling construction to assure that the target values are
achieved. In a geotechnical laboratory you would prepare at least four (preferably five)
specimens with water contents bracketing the estimated optimum water content. A specimen
having a water content close to optimum would be prepared first by trial additions of water
and mixing and then water contents for the rest of the specimens would be selected to provide
at least two specimens wet and two specimens dry of optimum, and water contents varying by
about 2%, but no more than 4%. In this laboratory exercise each group in yours ection will
compact one of the specimens at a specific water content, as directed by the laboratory
instructor, and the results from all the groups will be combined later. The data, when plotted,
represents a curvilinear relationship known as the compaction curve. The values of optimum
water content and standard maximum dry unit weight are determined from the compaction
curve. These test methods apply only to soils (materials) that have 20% or less by mass of
particles retained on the No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
Procedure
Specimen preparation
1. Obtain from your laboratory instructor a sample of the soil to be tested.
You will need approximately2 kg.
2. Without previously drying the sample, pass it through a No. 4 (4.7 mm)
sieve. Determine the water
27
content of the processed soil. See chapter 2 for the procedure.

3. Double check the target water content for your specimen with the
laboratory instructor.
4. Calculate how much water should be added or subtracted from your
sample to obtain the desired water content. Remember to account for the
moisture already present in the sample and use the exact value for the
mass of the soil, not the approximate number.
Direct shear test

1.Preparation of
specimen
1.The undisturbed specimen is prepared by pushing a cutting ring of
size 10 cm in diameter and 2cm high, in the undisturbed soil sample
obtained from field. The square specimen of size 6 cm 6 cm is then cut
from the circular specimen so obtained.
2.In order to obtain remoulded specimen of cohesive soil, the soil may be
compacted to the required density and water content, in a separate
bigger mould . The sample is then extracted and trimmed tire required
size. Alternatively, the soil may be compacted at the required density
and water content directly into the shear box after fixing two halves of
the shear box together by means, of the fixing screws.
3. Non-cohesive soils may be tamped in the shear box itself with the
base plate and grid plate or porous stone as required in place at the
bottom of the box.
4.In all the three cases mentioned above, water content and dry density
of the soil compacted in the shear box should be determined,
(ii) Undrained test
1. The shear box with the specimen plain grid plate over the base
plate at the bottom of the specimen plain grid plate over the top of the
specimen, should be fitted into positio .The serrations of the grid plates
should be placed at right angles to the direction of shear. As the porous
stones are not used in the undrained tests, plain plates of equal
thickness should be placed, one at the bottom and other at the top of
the two grids, so as to maintain the shear plane in the sample in the
28
middle of its thickness. Place the loading pad on the top of the plain grid
plate. Both the parts of the box should be tightened together by the
fixing screws.
Put water inside the water jacket so that the sample does not get dried
during the test.
2.Mount the shear box assembly cn the load frame (or shearing
machine). Set the lower part of the box to bear against the load jack and
the upper part of the box to bear against the proving ring set the dial of
the proving ring to zero.
3.Put the loading yoke on the top of the loading pad, and adjust the dial
gauge to zero to measure the vertical displacement in the soil sample.
Put proper normal weight on the hanger of the loading yoke, so that this
weight plus the weight of the hanger equals the required normal load.
Note the reading of the vertical displacement dial gauge.
4.Remove the locking screws so that the parts are freed to move against
each other. By turning the racing screws, raise the upper part slightly
above the lower parts by about 1 mm.
5.Conduct the test by applying horizontal shear load to failure or to 20 per
cent longitudinal displace me-. whichever occur first. The rate of strain
may vary from 1 to 2.5 mm per minute. Start the stop wan:: immediately
at the start of the application of the shear load. Take the readings of
proving ring gauge, longitudinal displacement gauge and vertical
displacement gauge at regular time intervals.
6.At the end of the test, remove specimen from the box and determine
its final water content. Rer^_: the above steps on three or four identical
specimens, under varying normal loads In many engineering problems
such as design of foundation retaining walls. Slab bridges. Piping sheet
piling the value of the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the soil
involved are required for the design. Direct shear test is used to predict
these parameters quickly. The laboratory reports cover the laboratory
procedures for determining these values for cohesion less soil.
We have taken undisturbed soil sample from medical

college site with the help of test mould inserting fully in the soil. The
29
mould of 60 mm x 60 size after cutting all the edges sharply was taken
out the obtained soil sample was placed in the direct shear box.
Horizontal dial gauge in attached to the shear box from which division
were obtained corresponding to which shear stress value was calculated
Observation of test shown next page
Normal stress kg/cm2
Shear stress kg/cm2
0.1
0.832
0.2
0.850
0.3
0.862
The graph was plotted between normal stress and shear stress which was
a straight line. The graph was shown in fig
Result- The Value obtained from the observation table for was plotted on
graph to get the value of cohesion (C) and angle of internal friction ()
1. From fig
C = 0.82 kg/cm2
= 80
Note- typical photo views of direct shear apparatus is shown in fig
30
Pavement design by C.B.R. method

The California bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the
evaluation of sub grade strength of roads and pavements. The results
obtained by these tests are used with the empirical curves to determine
the thickness of pavement and its component layers. This is the most
widely used method for the design of flexible pavement. This instruction
sheet covers the laboratory method for the determination of C.B.R. of
undisturbed and remoulded /compacted soil specimens, both in soaked as
well as unsoiled state.
It is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with
standard circular piston at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. to that required for
the corresponding penetration of a standard material.
31
C.B.R. = [Test load/Standard load] 100
The following table gives the standard loads adopted for different
penetrations for the standard material with a C.B.R. value of 100%
Equipments and tool required
1. Cylindrical mould with inside dia 150 mm and height 175 mm,
provided with a detachable extension collar 50 mm height and a
detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick.
2. Spacer disc 148 mm in diameter and 47.7 mm in height along with
handle.
3. Metal rammers. Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm (or) weight
4.89 kg a drop 450 mm.
4. Weights. One annular metal weight and several slotted weights
weighing 2.5 kg each, 147 mm in dia, with a central hole 53 mm in
diameter.
5. Loading machine. With a capacity of at least 5000 kg and equipped
with a movable head or base that travels at an uniform rate of 1.25
mm/min. Complete with load indicating device.
6. Metal penetration piston 50 mm diameter minimum of 100 mm in
length.
7. Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.
8. Sieves. 4.75 mm and 20 mm I.S. Sieves.
32
C.B.R. APPRATUS
Penetration Test (Unsoaked/soked)

(CBR - 1:0% Oversize Fraction)
1.
Proving Ring Constant, 1 Div = 2.03 kg.
2.
Area of Plunger = 19.625 cm2
3.
Surcharge Mass = 5.0 kg
33
34
Pavement layer Thickness by C.B.R. method

Design of pavement design of 1 km road of site front at medical college. It
is desired to use the following material for different layers.
1 Compacted sandy soil with 4% CBR 2
2 Poorly graded gravel with 14% CBR
3
Well graded gravel with 50% CBR
4 Minimum thickness of bituminous concrete surface may

be taken as 8 cm
The traffic survey reveled the pressure ADT of commercial vehicle
1600. The Annual rate of growth of traffic is found to be 6 percent. The
pavement contraction is to be completed in two year other the last traffic
count.
Design the pavement section by CBR method as recommended by IRC
Discuss the limitation of CBR method of pavement design in the light
of
the above result.

Similarly the thickness of pavement required over poorly graded of CBR
14% and well graded a ravel of CBR 50% are 27 cm and 12 cm
The designed pavement is shown in Fig.
12 cm bituminous surface
15 cm well graded gravel CBR = 50%
18 cm poorly graded gravel CBR = 14%
25 cm competed soil CBR = 4%
CBR (2.72%) of fine salty and clayed soil

35
Pavement design
TestING Of pavement materials

36
The materials required for the construction of any pavement structure

or highways can be broadly divided into the following three categories.
1. soil
2. bituminous materials and,
3. aggregates
1. STONE AGGREGATES :
Aggregates form the major portion of pavement structure and they
from the prime materials used in pavement construction. Aggregates
have to bear stresses occurring due to the wheel loads on the pavement
and on the surface course they also have to resist wear due to abrasive
action traffic. These are used in pavement construction in cement
concrete, bituminous concrete and other bituminous constructions and
also as granular base course underlying the superior pavement layers.
Therefore
the
properties
of
the
aggregates
are
of
considerable
significance to the highway engineers.

Desirable Properties of Road Aggregates :
Strength : The aggregates to be used in road construction should be
sufficiently strong to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load. The
aggregates which are used in top layers of the pavements, particularly in
the wearing course have to be capable of withstanding high stresses in
addition to wear and tear ; hence they should possess sufficient strength
resistance to crushing.
Hardness : The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to
constant rubbing or abrasion due to moving traffic. They should be hard
enough to resist the wear due to abrasive action of traffic. Abrasive action
may be increased due to presence of abrasive material like sand between
the tyres of moving vehicles and the aggregates exposed at the top
surface. This section may be severe in the case of steel tyred vehicles.
37
Heavy wheel loads can also cause deformations on some types of

pavement resulting in relative movement of aggregates and rubbing of
aggregates with each other within the pavement layer. The mutual
rubbing of stones is called attrition , which also may cause title wear in
the aggregates ; however attrition will be negligible or absent in most of
the pavement layers.
Toughness : Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact
due to moving wheel loads. Sever impact like hammering is quite
common when heavily loaded steel tyred vehicles move on water bound
macadam roads where stone protrude out especially after the monsoons.
Jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one stone to another at different
levels causes severe impact on the stones. The magnitude of impact
would increase with the roughness of the load surface , the speed of the
vehicle and other vehicular charactertistics. The resistance to impact or
toughness is hence another desirable property of aggregates
Durability : The stone used in pavement construction should be durable
and should resit disintegration due to the action of weather. The property
of the stones to withstand the adverse action of weather may be called
soundness. The aggregates are subjected to the physical and chemical
action of rain and ground water, the impurities there-in and that of
atmosphere. Hence it is desirable that the road stones used in the
construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action.
Shape of Aggregates : The size of the aggregates is firs qualified by the
size of square sieve opening through which an aggregates may pass, and
not by the shape. Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size
range may have rounded, cubical , angular flaky or elongated shape of
particles. It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles of the same
stone. Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be
avoided as far as possible. Rounded aggregates may be preferred in
cement concrete mix due to low specific surface area and better
workability for the same proportion of cement paste and same water
cement ratio, whereas rounded particles are not preferred in granular
38
base course, WBM construction and bituminous construction as the

stability due to interlocking of rounded particles is less. In such
constructions angular particles are preferred. The voids present in a
compacted mix of coarse aggregates depends on the shape factors ,
highly angular flaky and elongated aggregates have more voids in
comparison with rounded aggregates.
Tests for PAVEMENT aggregates :

In Order to decide the suitability
of the road stones for use in construction ,
the following tests are carried out :
(a)
Crushing test
(b)
Abrasion test
(c)
Impact Test
(d)
Soundness
(e)
Shape test
AGGREGATE CRUSHING TEST :

The strength of coarse aggregate may be assessed by aggregate
crushing test. The aggregate crushing value provided a relative measure
of resistance to crushing under gradually applied compressive load. To
achieve a high quality of pavement , aggregates possessing high
resistance to crushing a low aggregate crushing value are preferred.
The apparatus for the standard test consist of a steel cylinder
15.2cm diameter with a base plate and a plunger , compression testing
machines, cylindrical measure of diameter 11.5cm and height 18cm ,
tamping rod and sieves. The sketch of the test cylinder and accessories.
39
Dry aggregates passing 12.5mm IS sieve and retained on 10 mm

sieve is filled in the cylindrical meause in three qual layer being ramped
25 times by the tamper. The test sample is weighted (equal to W1g) and
placed in the test cylinder in three equal layers , tamping each layer 25
times. The plunger is placed on the top of specimen and a load of 40
tonnes is applied at a rate of 4 tonnes per minute by the compression
machine. The crushed aggregate is removed and sieved on 2.36 mm IS
sieve. The crushed material which passes this sieve is weighted equal to
W2g. The aggregate curshing value is the percentage of the crushed
material passing 2.36mm sieve in terms of original weight of the
specimen
Aggregate crushing value = 10W2 percent
W1
The strong aggragates possess low aggregate crushing value. The
aggregate crushing value for surface course should be with in 30 % and
for base course it should not exceed 45% .
ABRASION TESTS :
40
Due to the movements of traffic the road stones used in the

surface course are subjected to wearing action at the top. Hence road
stones should be hard enough to resist the abrasion due to the traffic.
Abrasion tests are carried out to test the hardness property of stones and
to decide whether they are suitable for the different road construction
works.
Impact Test :
A test designed to evaluate the toughness of stone of the resistance
of the aggregates to fracture under repeated impacts is called impact
test. The aggregate impact test is commonly carried out to evaluate the
resistance to impact of aggregates and has been standardized by ISI.
The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of
resistance of aggregate to impact, which has a different effect then the
resistance to gradually increasing compressive stress. The aggregate
impact testing machine consists of a metal base and a cylindrical steel
cup of internal diameter 10.2 cm and depth 5cm in which the aggregate
specimen is placed. A metal hammer of weight of 13.5-14.0 kg having a
free fall from a height 38 cm is arranged to drop through vertical guides.
The aggregates impact machine.
41
Aggregate specimen passing 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10mm

sieve is filled in the cylindrical measure in 3 layers by tamping each layer
by 25 blows. The sample is transferred from the measure to the cup of the
aggregate impact testing machine of compacted by tamping 5 times. The
hammer is raised to a height of 38 cm above the upper surface of the
aggregate in the cup is allowed to fally freely on the specimen. After
subjecting the test specimen to 15 blows, the crushed aggregate is sieved
on 2,36 mm sieve. The aggregate impact value is expressed as the
percentage of the fine formed in terms of the total weight of the sample.
Shape Tests
The particle shape of aggregate mass is determine by the
percentages of flaky and elongated particles contained in it and by its
angularity. The evaluation of shape of the particles made in terms of
flakiness index, elongation index and angularity number.
the flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage
by weight of
aggregate particles whose least dimension/ thickness is less than three

fifths or 0.6 of their mean dimension. The test is applicable to sizes larger
42
than 6.3 mm. Standard thickness gauge is used to gauge the thickness of
the samples. The sample of aggregates to be tested is sieved through a
set of sieves and separated into specified size ranges. Now to separate
the flaky material , the aggregates which pass through the appropriate
slot would the 0.6 of the average of the size range If the size range of
aggregate in a group is 16-20mm, the width of the slot to be selected in
thickness gauge would be 18x0.6 =10.8mm. The flaky material passing
the appropriate slot from sample taken from the different size range is W,
the flatness index is given by 10w/W percent , or in other words it is the
percentage of flaky materials, the widths of which are less than 0.6 of the
mean dimensions. It is desirable that the flatness index aggregates used
in road construction is less than the 15 percent and normally does not
exceed 25 percent.
Angularity Number :
Based on the shape of the aggregate particles, they may be
classified as rounded. irregular or partly rounded, angular and flaky ,
Angular particles posses well defined edges formed at the intersection of
roughly plane faces and are commonly found in aggregates prepared by
crushing of rocks. Since weaker aggregates may be crushed down during
the test. Angularity or absence of rounding of the particles of an
aggregate is a property which is of importance because it affects the ease
of handling a mixture of aggregate and binder.
The
determination of angularity number of an aggregate is essentially a

laboratory method intended for comparing the properties of different
aggregates for mix design purposes.
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
43
Bituminous binders used in pavement construction works include both

bitumen and tar. Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the
distillation of petroleum crude where-as road tar is obtained by the
destructive distillation of coal or wood. Both bitumen and tar have similar
appearance , black in colour though they have different charactertistics.
Both these materials can be used for pavement works.
Bitumen is hydrocarbon material of either natural or pyrogenous
origin, found in gaseous , liquid , semisolid or solid from and is completely
soluble in Carbon disulphide and in carbon tetra chloride. Bitumen is a
complex organic material and occurs either naturally or may be obtained
artificially during the distillation of petroleum. Bituminous materials are
very commonly used in highway construction because of their binding and
their water proofing properties.
When the bitumen contains insert material or minerals , it is some
times called asphalt. Asphalt is found as deposits in the form of natural
asphalt or rock asphalt.
The grades of bitumen used for pavement construction work of
roads and airfields are called paving grades and those used for water
proofing of structures and industrial floors etc. are called industrial
grades. The paving bitumen available in India are classified into two
categories.
(i)
paving bitumen from Assam petroleum , denoted as A-type and

designated as graded A35 , A90 etc.
(ii)
paving bitumen from other sources denoted as S-type and

designated as graded S35 S 90 etc.
44
Types of Bituminous Materials :

Bituminous materials used in highway construction may be
broadly divided as :
(i)
Bitumen and
(ii)
Tar
Bitumen may be further divided as petroleum
asphalt or bitumen and native asphalt.

There are different forms in which native asphalt are available.
Navtive asphalt are those which occur in a pure or nearly pure state in
nature. Native asphalts which are associated with a large proportion of
mineral matter are called rock asphalts. The viscosity of bitumen is
reduced some times by a volatile diluent ; this material is called cutback.
When bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in a aqueous
medium and stabilized with an emulsifier, the material is known as
emulsion. Tar is the viscous liquid obtained when natural organic
materials such as wood and coal are carbonized or destructively distilled
in the absence of air. Processing of bitumen and bituminous products is
diagrammatically.
Bitumen :
Crude petroleum obtained from different places are quite different
in their composition The portion of bituminous material present in the
petroleums may widely differ depending on the source. Almost all the
crude petroleums should be dehydrated first before carrying out the
distillation. General types of distillation processes are fractional distillation
and destructive distiallation. Infractional distillation the various volatile
constituents are separated at successively higher temperature without
substantial chemical change.
Requirements of Bitumen :
desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and the
construction. The general problems which using bitumen in paving
mixtures are :
45
(i)
mixing
(ii)
attainment of desired stability of the mix
(iii)
to maintain the stability under adverse weather conditions.
(iv)
to have sufficient adhesion with the aggregates in the mix in

presence of water.
Tests on Bitumen
Bitumen is available in a variety and grades. To judge the suitability
of these binders various physical tests have been specified by agencies
like ASTM , Asphalt Institute , British standard Institution and the ISI.
These tests include penetration test. ductility tests, softening point test
and viscocity test For Classifying bitumen and studying the performance
of bituminous pavements , the penetration and ductility tests are
essential. The other tests like softening point and flash and fire point tests
are more been recornized that the above tests are not sufficient to define
the temperature possessing same penetration value at a specified
temperature may exhibit entirely different viscous charactertistics at the
application or service temperatures. These tests therefore may need
intensive correlation with fundamental property like viscocity.
The various tests on bituminous materials are :
(a)
Penetration tests
(b) Ductility test

(c) Viscocity test
(d) Float Test
(e) Specific gravity test
(f) Softening point test
(g) Flash and fire point test
(h) Solubility test
(i) Spot Test
(j) Loss on heating test
(k) Water content test
46
Penetration test
The penetration determines the hardness or softness of bitumen by
measuring the depth in tenths of a millimeter to which a standard loaded
needle with penetrate vertically in five seconds. The sample is maintained
at a temperature of 250C . The concept of penetration test. Indian
Standard Institution has standardized the equipment and test procedure.
The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight
of 100g and device for releasing and locking in any position. There is a
graduated dial to read to penetration values to 1/10th of a millimeter.
The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly
and poured into containers to a depth at least 15mm in excess of the
expected penetration. The sample containers are then placed in a
temperature controlled water bath at a temperature 25 0C for one hour. At
least three penetration tests are made on this sample by testing at
distances of at least 10mm apart . After each test the needle is
disengaged and wiped with benzene and dried. The depth of penetration
is reported in on-tenth millimeter units. The mean value of three
measurements is reported as a penetration value. It may be noted that
the penetration value is largely influenced by an inaccuracy as regards
pouring temperature size of needle, weight placed on the needle and the
test temperature.
The penetration value of various types of bitumen used in pavement
construction in this country range between 20 and 225, 30/40 and 80/100
grade bitumen are more commonly used, depending on construction type
and climatic conditions. In hot climates a lower penetration grade bitumen
like 30/40 bitumen is preferred.
47
Ductility test :
In the flexible pavement construction where bitumen binders are
used, it is important that the binders from ductile this films around the
aggregates. This serves as a satisfactory binder in improving the physical
interlocking of the aggregate bitumen mixes. Under traffic loads the
bitumen pavement layer is subjected to repeated deformation and
recoveries. The binder material which does not possess sufficient ductility
would crack and provide pervious pavement surface. Ductility test is
carried out on bitumen to test this property of the binder.
The test is
believed to measure the adhesive property of bitumen and its ability to

stretch. The bitumen may satisfy the penetration value., but may fail to
satisfy the ductility requirements. Bitumen paving engineer would
however want that both test requirements are satisfied in the field jobs.
Penetration and ductility tests cannot in any case replace each other.
The ductility is expressed as the distance in centimeters to which a
standard briquette of bitumen can be stretched before the thread breaks.
The test is conducted at 27 0C and at a rate of pull of 50mm per minute.
The test set up is the cross section at minimum width of the specimen is
10mm x 10mm.
The ductility machine functions as a constant temperature water
bath with a pulling device at a pre-calibrated rate. Two clips are thus
pulled apart horizontally at a uniform speed of 50mm per minute.
The bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly
placed on a plate. The samples along with the moulds are cooled in air
and then in water bath maintained at 27 0C . The excess bitumen material
48
is cut and the surface is leveled using a hot knife. The mould assembly
containing sample is replaced in water bath the ductility testing machine
85 to 95 minute. The sides of the mould are removed, the clips hooked on
the machine and the pointer is adjusted to zero. The distance up to the
point of breaking of thread is reported in centimeters as ductility value.
The ductility values gets seriously affected by factors such as pouring
temperature , dimensions of briquette, level of briquette in the water bath
, presence of air pockets in the modulus briquettes, test temperature and
rate of pulling.
.
Specific gravity test :

The density of a bitumen binder is a fundamental property
frequently used as an aid to classify the binders for use in paving jobs. In
most applications the bitumen is weighed but finally when used with
aggregate system , the bitumen content is converted on volume basis
using density values. The specific gravity value of bitumen is also useful
in bituminous mix design. The density of bitumen is greatly influenced by
its chemical composition. Increased amounts of aromatic type compounds
or mineral impurities cause an increase in specific gravity.
The specific gravity of bituminous materials is defined as the ratio
of the mass of given volume of the substance to the same of an equal
volume of water, temparature of both being 270C . The specific gravity is
determined either by using a pycnometer or by preparing a cube shape
specimen in semi solid or solid state and by weighing in air and water.
Generally the specific gravity of pure bitumen is in the range of
0.97 to 1.02. The specific gravity of cutback bitumen may be lower
depending on the type and proportion of diluent used. Tars have specific
gravity ranging from 1.10 to 1.25.
49
50
CONCLUSION
Site investigation or subsoil investigation are done for obtaining the
information about subsurface condition at the site of proposed
construction. Site investigation in one form or the other is generally
required for every big engineering project. Information abot the surface
and subsurface features is essential for the design of structures and for
planning constructing. The following results are obtained from the medical
college site :1. Natural moisture content of the given soil sample varies
between 17% - 20%.
2. Specific gravity of the given soil sample varies between 2.6 to
2.7
3. From sieve analysis one thing is clear that the soil is fine and
it is clay because more than 50% soil passes through the 75
micron is sieve.
4. The liquid limit of soil is very high and varies between 48% to
61% hence, it offers low shearing resistance and the shear
strength of soil is relatively lower than the other soil. Also soil
will absorb more water due to the presence of clay particles.
5. Plastic limit of given soil sample varies between 24% to 26%
and the plasticity index of soil lies between 28% to 34%.
6. Maximum dry density of a given soil samples varies between
1.87 gm/cm to 1.89 gm/cm
7. The value of cohesion intercept and angle of internal friction
obtained from direct shear test lies between 0.74% kg/cm2 to
0.82 kg/cm2 and 70 to 80 respectively.
8. Calculated value of California bearing ratio is 17 cm of
51
pavement design thickness.

9. Thickness of bituminous surfacing = 12 cm.
10.
11.
12.
Thickness of well graded = 15 cm.

Thickness of Poorly graded gravel = 18 cm.
Thickness of competed sub graded = 25 cm.
REFERENCES
1. SOIL MECHNICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING BY B .C. PUNMIA
2. SOIL MECHNICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING BY DR. K. R. ARORA
3. BASIC AND APPLIED SOIL MECHANIC BY RANJAN GOPAL & RAO
4. SOIL TESTING AND LABORATORY MANUAL BY APPARAO K.V.S. & V.C.S. RAO
AND FROM
5. INTERNET
****************************************
****************************************
52

Project Hard

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Project Hard

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

MAJOR PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 8TH SEM.

2.3 Engineering Survey`s

3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURE OF VILLAGE ROAD

3.1 Importance of Geometric Design

3.2 Terrain classification

3.3 Design Speed

3.4 Roadway width

3.5 Shoulder width

3.6 Side Slope

3.8 Vertical curve , Summit curve, Valley curve

4. DESIGN FACTOR`S OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

4.1 Pavement Component

4.2 Types of pavements

4.3 Design wheel load

4.4 Design Traffic Volume

5.0 LABORATORY WORK ON SUBGRADE

a way made for travelling between places by automobiles ,

MAJOR PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 8TH SEM.

pedestrains , cyclists, animals , etc. Thus highway engineering means the

MAJOR PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 8TH SEM.

PLANNING , ALIGNMENT AND SURVEY`S

In order to prepare a scientific master plan for rural roads, it is

increase in construction cost

increase in maintenance cost

increase in vehicle operation cost

increase in accident rate.

MAJOR PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 8TH SEM.

Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change

A road which is economical in the initial construction cost, need not

The various factors which control the highway alignment in

2.3 SURVEYS :ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY LOCATIONS

MAJOR PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 8TH SEM.

keeping in view the various requirements of highway alignment as

Final location and detailed surveys.

Map Study:If the topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to

MAJOR PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 8TH SEM.

reconnaissance to examine the general character of the area for deciding

Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of

Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level

observation of geological features.

Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone

When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain,

terrain is difficult, may be done by an aerial survey.

To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the

MAJOR PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 8TH SEM.

To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a

To estimate quantity of earth work materials and other construction

aspects and to workout the cost of alternate proposals.

MAJOR PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 8TH SEM.

closer intervals at horizontal curves and where there is abrupt change in

GEOMETRIC DESIGN FEATURE`S

MAJOR PROJECT IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 8TH SEM.

Cross section elements

Sight distance considerations

Horizontal alignment details

Vertical alignment details

Other District Roads (ODR)

Village Roads (VR)

Table 1 - Terrain Classification

Cross slope of the Country

0-10 per cent

10-25 per cent

25-60 per cent