Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
against Egyptians, Italians and Mehadists to keep his people free from foreign invaders. He was killed in action
in 1889. Under Menelik II Ethiopia defeated an Italian
invasion in 1896 and came to be recognised as a legitimate state by European powers. A more rapid modernisation took place under Menelik II and Haile Selassie,
however this was not enough to deter another Italian invasion in 1935. The modern Italian army annexed Ethiopia
and combined it with its other colonies to create Italian
East Africa, forcing Haile Selassie to ee the country. A
joined force of British and Ethiopian rebels managed to
drive the Italians out of the country in 1941, and Haile
Selassie was returned to the throne. Ethiopia and Eritrea joined to a federation, but when Haile Selassie ended
the federation in 1961, and made Eritrea a province of
Ethiopia a war for Eritrean independence occurred, lasting until 1991.
One of the earliest kingdoms to rise to power in the territory was the kingdom of D'mt in the 10th century BCE,
which established its capital at Yeha. In the rst century CE the Aksumite Kingdom rose to power in Tigray
Region with its capital at Aksum and grew into a major
power on the Red Sea, subjugating Yemen and Meroe
and converting to Christianity in the early fourth century.
The Aksumite empire fell into decline with the rise of
Islam, forcing the Ethiopians to move south into the highlands for refuge. The Aksumites gave way to the Zagwe
Dynasty who established a new capital at Lalibela, before giving way to the Solomonic Dynasty in the 13th
century. During the early Solomonic period Ethiopia
went through military reforms and imperial expansion
that made it dominate the Horn of Africa. Portuguese
missionaries arrived at this time.
1 Timeline
2 Prehistory
It was not until 1963 that evidence of the presence of ancient hominids was discovered in Ethiopia, many years
after similar such discoveries had been made in neighbouring Kenya and Tanzania. The discovery was made
by Gerrard Dekker, a Dutch hydrologist, who found
Acheulian stone tools that were over a million years old
at Kella.[2] Since then many important nds have propelled Ethiopia to the forefront of palaentology. The
oldest hominid discovered to date in Ethiopia is the 4.2
million year old Ardipithicus ramidus (Ardi) found by
Tim D. White in 1994.[3] The most well known hominid discovery is Lucy, found in the Awash Valley of
Ethiopias Afar region in 1974 by Donald Johanson, and
is one of the most complete and best preserved, adult
Australopithecine fossils ever uncovered. Lucys taxo-
ANTIQUITY
4 Antiquity
4.1 Etymology
Ancient Greek historians such as Herodotus and
Diodorus Siculus used the word Aethiopia () to
refer to the peoples living immediately to the south of
ancient Egypt, specically the area now known as the ancient Kingdom of Kush, now a part of modern Nubia in
Egypt and Sudan, as well as all of Sub-Saharan Africa in
general.
Wall relief depicting an Egyptian expedition to the Land of Punt
during the reign of Hatshepsut.
4.3
Axum
4.2
Dmt
ANTIQUITY
Details of the Axumite Kingdom, never abundant, become even more scarce after this point. The last king
known to mint coins is Armah, whose coinage refers
to the Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614. An early
Muslim tradition is that the Negus Sahama oered asylum to a group of Muslims eeing persecution during
Muhammad's life (615), but Stuart Munro-Hay believes
that Axum had been abandoned as the capital by then[27]
although Kobishchanov states that Ethiopian raiders
plagued the Red Sea, preying on Arabian ports at least
as late as 702.[28]
The Axumite Kingdom is recorded once again as controlling part if not all of Yemen in the 6th century. Around 523, the Jewish king Dhu Nuwas came to
power in Yemen and, announcing that he would kill all
the Christians, attacked an Aksumite garrison at Zafar,
burning the citys churches. He then attacked the Christian stronghold of Najran, slaughtering the Christians who
would not convert. Emperor Justin I of the Eastern Roman empire requested that his fellow Christian, Kaleb,
help ght the Yemenite king, and around 525, Kaleb invaded and defeated Dhu Nuwas, appointing his Christian
follower Sumuafa' Ashawa' as his viceroy. This dating is
5.1
Zagwe dynasty
Middle Ages
and married a female descendant of the Aksumite monarchs (son-in-law) or previous ruler. Exactly when the
new dynasty came to power is unknown, as is the number
5.1 Zagwe dynasty
of kings in the dynasty. The new Zagwe dynasty established its capital at Roha (also called Adea), where they
Main article: Zagwe Dynasty
build a series of monolithic churches. These structures
About 1000 (presumably c. 960, though the date is
are traditionally ascribed to the King Gebre Mesqel Lalibela, with the city being renamed Lalibela in his honour;
though in truth some of them were built before and after
him. The architecture of the Zagwe shows a continuation
of earlier Aksumite traditions, as can be seen at Lalibela
and at Yemrehana Krestos Church. The building of rockhewn churches, which rst appeared in the late Aksumite
era and continued into the Solomonic dynasty, reached its
peak under the Zagwe.
The Zagwe dynasty controlled a smaller area than the
Aksumites or the Solomonic dynasty, with its core in
the Lasta region. The Zagwe seem to have ruled over
a mostly peaceful state with a ourishing urban culture,
in contrast to the more warlike Solomonids with their
mobile capitals. David Buxton remarked that the Zagwe achieved 'a degree of stability and technical advancement seldom equaled in Abyssinian history'. The church
and state were very closely linked, and they may have
had a more theocratic society than the Aksumites of
Solomonids, with three Zagwe kings being canonized as
saints and one possibly being an ordained priest.[30]
5.1.1 Foreign Relations
Unlike the Aksumites, the Zagwe were very isolated from
the other Christian Nations, although they did maintain
a degree of contact through Jerusalem and Cairo. Like
many other nations and denominations, the Ethiopian
Church maintained a series of small chapels and even an
annex at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[31] Saladin,
after retaking the Holy City in 1187, expressly invited the
Gebre Mesqel Lalibela, the Zagwe dynasty King credited with Ethiopian monks to return and even exempted Ethiopian
pilgrims from the pilgrim tax. His two edicts prohaving constructed the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela.
vide evidence of Ethiopias contact with these Crusader
uncertain), a non-Christian princess, Yodit (Gudit, a States during this period.[32] It was during this period
play on Yodit meaning evil), conspired to murder all that the Ethiopian king Gebre Mesqel Lalibela ordered
the members of the royal family and establish herself as the construction of the legendary rock-hewn churches of
monarch. According to legends, during the execution of Lalibela.
the royals, an infant heir of the Axumite monarch was Later, as the Crusades were dying out in the early fourcarted o by some faithful adherents and conveyed to teenth century, the Ethiopian King Wedem Ar'ad disShewa, where his authority was acknowledged. Concur- patched a thirty-man mission to Europe, where they travrently, Yodit reigned for forty years over the rest of the eled to Rome to meet the Pope and then, since the Mekingdom and transmitted the crown to her descendants. dieval Papacy was in schism, they traveled to Avignon to
Though parts of this story were most likely made up by meet the Antipope. During this trip, the Ethiopian misthe Solomonic Dynasty to legitimize its rule, it is known sion also traveled to France, Spain and Portugal in the
that a female ruler did conquer the country about this hopes of building an alliance against the Muslim states
time.
then threatening Ethiopias existence. Plans were even
At one point during the next century, the last of Yodits successors were overthrown by an Agaw lord named
Mara Takla Haymanot, who founded the Zagwe dynasty
(named after the Agaw people who ruled during this time)
5 MIDDLE AGES
5.2
Lebna Dengel, ngus ngst (Emperor) of Ethiopia and a member of the Solomonic dynasty.
Towards the close of the 15th century the Portuguese missions into Ethiopia began. A belief had long prevailed in
Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the
far east, whose monarch was known as Prester John, and
various expeditions had been sent in quest of it. Among
others engaged in this search was Pro da Covilh, who
arrived in Ethiopia in 1490, and, believing that he had at
length reached the far-famed kingdom, presented to the
ngus ngst of the country, a letter from his master the
king of Portugal, addressed to Prester John.
Pro da Covilh remained in the country, but in 1507 an
Armenian named Matthew was sent by the Emperor to
the king of Portugal to request his aid against the Muslims. In 1520 a Portuguese eet, with Matthew on board,
entered the Red Sea in compliance with this request, and
an embassy from the eet visited the Emperor, Lebna
Dengel, and remained in Ethiopia for about six years.
One of this embassy was Father Francisco lvares, who
wrote one of the earliest accounts of the country.[35]
5.2.2 The Abyssinian-Adal War (15291543)
Main articles: AbyssinianAdal war, Adal Sultanate,
Sultanate of Ifat and Walashma dynasty
Between 1528 and 1540, armies of Muslims, under
the Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, entered Ethiopia
from the low country to the south-east, and overran the
Abyssinian Kingdom, obliging the Emperor to take refuge
in the mountain fastnesses. In this remote location, the
ruler again turned to the Portuguese. Joo Bermudes, a
subordinate member of the mission of 1520, who had remained in the country after the departure of the embassy,
was, according to his own statement (which is untrustworthy), ordained successor to the Abuna (archbishop), and
sent to Lisbon. Bermudes certainly came to Europe, but
with what credentials is not known.
6.1
In response to Bermudes message, a Portuguese eet under the command of Estvo da Gama, was sent from
India and arrived at Massawa in February 1541. Here
he received an ambassador from the Emperor beseeching him to send help against the Muslims, and in the July
following a force of 400 musketeers, under the command
of Cristvo da Gama, younger brother of the admiral,
marched into the interior, and being joined by native
troops were at rst successful against the enemy; but they
were subsequently defeated at the Battle of Woa (28 August 1542), and their commander captured and executed.
On February 21, 1543, however, Al-Ghazi was shot and
killed in the Battle of Wayna Daga and his forces were
totally routed. After this, quarrels arose between the Emperor and Bermudes, who had returned to Ethiopia with
Gama and now urged the emperor to publicly profess his
obedience to Rome. This the Emperor refused to do, and
at length Bermudes was obliged to make his way out of
the country.[35]
5.3
Oromo Movements
GONDARINE PERIOD
properties.[40]
6.2
Zemene Mesant
Empress Mentewab was crowned co-ruler upon the succession of her son (a rst for a woman in Ethiopia) in
1730, and held unprecedented power over government
during his reign. Her attempt to continue in this role
following the death of her son 1755 led her into conict with Wubit (Welete Bersabe), his widow, who believed that it was her turn to preside at the court of her
own son Iyoas. The conict between these two queens
led to Mentewab summoning her Kwaran relatives and
their forces to Gondar to support her. Wubit responded
by summoning her own Oromo relatives and their considerable forces from Yejju.
The treasure of the Empire being allegedly penniless on
the death of Iyasu, it suered further from ethnic conict between nationalities that been part of the Empire
for hundreds of yearsthe Agaw, Amharans, Showans,
and Tigreansand the Oromo newcomers. Mentewabs
attempt to strengthen ties between the monarchy and the
Oromo by arranging the marriage of her son to the daughter of an Oromo chieftain backred in the long run. Iyasu
II gave precedence to his mother and allowed her every
prerogative as a crowned co-ruler, while his wife Wubit
suered in obscurity. Wubit waited for the accession of
her own son to make a bid for the power wielded for so
long by Mentewab and her relatives from Qwara. When
Iyoas assumed the throne upon his fathers sudden death,
the aristocrats of Gondar were stunned to nd that he
more readily spoke in the Oromo language rather than in
Amharic, and tended to favor his mothers Yejju relatives
over the Qwarans of his grandmothers family. Iyoas further increased the favor given to the Oromo when adult.
On the death of the Ras of Amhara, he attempted to promote his uncle Lubo governor of that province, but the
outcry led his advisor Wolde Leul to convince him to
change his mind.
7.1
18551936
peror had lost his throne in a means other than his own 7.1 18551936
natural death, death in battle, or voluntary abdication.
Under the Emperors Tewodros II (18551868),
Mikael Sehul had compromised the power of the EmYohannes IV (18721889), and Menelek II (1889
peror, and from this point forward it lay ever more openly
1913), the empire began to emerge from its isolation.
in the hands of the great nobles and military commanders.
Under Emperor Tewodros II, the "Age of the Princes"
This point of time has been regarded as one start of the
(Zemene Mesant) was brought to an end.
Era of the Princes.
An aged and inrm imperial uncle prince was enthroned
as Emperor Yohannes II. Ras Mikael soon had him mur- 7.1.1 Tewodros II and Tekle Giyorgis II (1855
1872)
dered, and underage Tekle Haymanot II was elevated to
the throne.
Main article: British Expedition to Abyssinia
This bitter religious conict contributed to hostility to- Emperor Tewodros (or Theodore) II was born Lij Kassa
ward foreign Christians and Europeans, which persisted
into the 20th century and was a factor in Ethiopias isolation until the mid-19th century, when the rst British mission, sent in 1805 to conclude an alliance with Ethiopia
and obtain a port on the Red Sea in case France conquered Egypt. The success of this mission opened
Ethiopia to many more travellers, missionaries and merchants of all countries, and the stream of Europeans continued until well into Tewodros's reign.
This isolation was pierced by very few European travellers. One was the French physician C.J. Poncet, who
went there in 1698, via Sennar and the Blue Nile. After him James Bruce entered the country in 1769, with
the object of discovering the sources of the Nile, which
he was convinced lay in Ethiopia. Accordingly, leaving
Massawa in September 1769, he travelled via Axum to
Gondar, where he was well received by Emperor Tekle
Haymanot II. He accompanied the king on a warlike
expedition round Lake Tana, moving South round the
eastern shore, crossing the Blue Nile (Abay) close to its
point of issue from the lake and returning via the western shore. Bruce subsequently returned to Egypt at the
end of 1772 by way of the upper Atbara, through the
kingdom of Sennar, the Nile, and the Korosko desert.
During the 18th century the most prominent rulers were
the emperor Dawit III of Gondar (died May 18, 1721),
Amha Iyasus of Shewa, who consolidated his kingdom
and founded Ankober, and Tekle Giyorgis of Amhara)
the last-mentioned is famous of having been elevated
to the throne altogether six times and also deposed six
times. The rst years of the 19th century were disturbed
by erce campaigns between Ras Gugsa of Begemder,
and Ras Wolde Selassie of Tigray, who fought over control of the gurehead Emperor Egwale Seyon. Wolde Selassie was eventually the victor, and practically ruled the
whole country till his death in 1816 at the age of eighty.
10
title of Dejazmatch. He turned his attention to conquering the remaining chief divisions of the country, Gojjam,
Tigray and Shewa, which still remained unsubdued. His
relations with his father-in-law and grandmother-in-law
deteriorated however, and he soon took up arms against
them and their vassals, and was successful.
7 MODERN
a few preliminary minor campaigns, to undertake oensive operations against the northern princes. But these
projects were of little avail, for Ras Kassai of Tigray, had
by this time (1872) risen to supreme power in the north.
Proclaiming himself negusa nagast under the name of
Yohannes (or John) IV, he forced Sahle Maryam to acknowledge his overlordship.
In early 1868, the British force seeking Tewodros surrender, after he refused to release imprisoned British subjects, arrived on the coast of Massawa. The British and
Dajazmach Kassa came to an agreement in which Kassa
would let the British pass through Tigray (the British were
going to Magdala which Tewodros had made his capital) in exchange for money and weapons. Surely enough,
when the British completed their mission and were leaving the country, they rewarded Kassa for his cooperation
with artillery, muskets, ries, and munitions, all in all
worth approximately 500,000 (Marcus 2002, pp. 71
72). This formidable gift came in handy when in July
1871 the current emperor, Emperor Tekle Giyorgis II, attacked Kassa at his capital in Adwa, for Kassa had refused
to be named a ras or pay tribute (Marcus, H. 2002, 72).
Although Kassas army was outnumbered 12,000 to the
emperors 60,000, Kassas army was equipped with more
modern weapons and better trained. At battles end, forty
percent of the emperors men had been captured. The
Map of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in the 19th century.
emperor was imprisoned and would die a year later. Six
months later on 21 January 1872, Kassa became the new
On February 11, 1855, Kassa deposed the last of the emperor under the name Yohannes IV (Zewde, B. 2001,
Gondarine puppet Emperors, and was crowned negusa 43).
nagast of Ethiopia under the name of Tewodros II. He
soon after advanced against Shewa with a large army.
Chief of the notables opposing him was its king Haile
Melekot, a descendant of Meridazmach Asfa Wossen.
Dissensions broke out among the Shewans, and after a
desperate and futile attack on Tewodros at Dabra Berhan,
Haile Melekot died of illness, nominating with his last
breath his eleven-year-old son as successor (November
1855) under the name Negus Sahle Maryam (the future
emperor Menelek II). Darge, Haile Melekots brother,
and Ato Bezabih, a Shewan noble, took charge of the
young prince, but after a hard ght with Angeda, the
Shewans were obliged to capitulate. Sahle Maryam was
handed over to the Emperor, taken to Gondar, and there
trained in Tewodross service, and then placed in comfortable detention at the fortress of Magdala. Tewodoros
afterwards devoted himself to modernizing and centraliz- Abyssinia depicted on map before 1884 Berlin Conference to diing the legal and administrative structure of his kingdom, vide Africa.
against the resistance of his governors. Sahle Maryam of
Shewa was married to Tewodros IIs daughter Alitash.
In 1865, Sahle Maryam escaped from Maqdala, aban- 7.1.2 Yohannes IV (18721889)
doning his wife, and arrived in Shewa, and was there
acclaimed as Negus. Tewodros forged an alliance between Britain and Ethiopia, but as explained in the next
section, he committed suicide after a military defeat by
the British. On the death of Tewodros, many Shewans,
including Ras Darge, were released, and the young Negus of Shewa began to feel himself strong enough, after
7.1
18551936
11
tle ensued at Gallabat, in which the dervishes, under Zeki
Tumal, were beaten. But a stray bullet struck the king,
and the Ethiopians decided to retire. The king died during the night, and his body fell into the hands of the enemy
(March 9, 1889). When the news of Yohanness death
reached Sahle Maryam of Shewa, he proclaimed himself
emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, and received the submission of Begemder, Gojjam, the Yejju Oromo, and Tigray.
7.1.3 Menelik II (18891913)
Main article: Battle of Adwa
On May 2 of that same year, Emperor Menelik signed
Menelik II
12
7 MODERN
7.4
Red
Sea
Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan
Aden
Yemen
Asmara
(Britain)
Eritrea
Gulf of Aden
Gondar
French Somaliland
Amara
Scioa
GallaSidamo
Addis
Ababa
13
(France)
Harar
British Somaliland
(Britain)
Harrar
Jimma
Somalia
Uganda
(Britain)
Mogadishu
Kenya
Indian Ocean
(Britain)
14
7 MODERN
suered criticism due to the expenses involved in ghting the Nationalist forces.
By the early 1970s Emperor Haile Selassies advanced
age was becoming apparent. As Paul B. Henze explains:
Most Ethiopians thought in terms of personalities, not
ideology, and out of long habit still looked to Haile Selassie as the initiator of change, the source of status and
privilege, and the arbiter of demands for resources and attention among competing groups.[59] The nature of the
succession, and of the desirability of the Imperial monarchy in general, were in dispute amongst the Ethiopian
people.
Perceptions of this war as imperialist were among the primary causes of the growing Ethiopian Marxist movement.
In the early 1970s, the Ethiopian Communists received
the support of the Soviet Union under the leadership of
Leonid Brezhnev. This help lead to the 1974 marxist
coup of Mengistu.
The governments failure to eect signicant economic
and political reforms over the previous fourteen years created a climate of unrest. Combined with rising ination,
corruption, a famine that aected several provinces (especially Welo and Tigray) but was concealed from the
outside world, and the growing discontent of urban interest groups, the country was ripe for revolution. The
unrest that began in January 1974 became an outburst of Tanks in the streets of Addis Ababa after rebels seized the capital
general discontent. The Ethiopian military, with assis- during the Ethiopian Civil War.
tance from the Comintern, began to both organize and
incite a full-edged revolution.[60]
itary in style. The Derg summarily executed 59 members
of the former government, including two former Prime
7.5 Communist period (19741991)
Ministers and Crown Councilors, Court ocials, minisMain articles: Derg, Ethiopian Civil War, Red Terror ters, and generals. Emperor Haile Selassie died on August 22, 1975. He was allegedly strangled in the basement
(Ethiopia) and Ethio-Somali War
[61]
After a period of civil unrest which began in February of his palace or smothered with a wet pillow.
Lt. Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam assumed power as head
of state and Derg chairman, after having his two predecessors killed, as well as tens of thousands of other suspected opponents. The new Marxist government undertook socialist reforms, including nationalisation of landlords property[62] and the churchs property. Before the
coup, Ethiopian peasants way of life was thoroughly inuenced by the church teachings; 280 days a year are religious feasts or days of rest. Mengistus years in oce
were marked by a totalitarian-style government and the
countrys massive militarization, nanced by the Soviet
Union and the Eastern Bloc, and assisted by Cuba. In December 1976, an Ethiopian delegation in Moscow signed
a military assistance agreement with the Soviet Union.
High ranking Derg members; Mengistu Haile Mariam, Teferi The following April 1977, Ethiopia abrogated its military
Benti and Atnafu Abate.
assistance agreement with the United States and expelled
1974, the aging Emperor Haile Selassie I was removed the American military missions.
from his position. On September 12, 1974, a provisional
administrative council of soldiers, known as the Derg
(committee) seized power from the emperor and installed a government which was socialist in name and mil-
The new regime in Ethiopia met with armed resistance from the large landowners, the royalists and the
nobility.[62] The center of resistance was largely centered in the province of Eritrea.[63] The Derg decided in
15
November 1974 to pursue war in Eritrea rather than seek
a negotiated settlement. By mid-1976, the resistance had
gained control of most of the town and the countryside of
Eritrea.[64]
In July 1977, sensing the disarray in Ethiopia, Somalia
attacked across the Ogaden in pursuit of its irredentist
claims to the ethnic Somali areas of Ethiopia (see Ogaden
War).[65] They were assisted in this invasion by the armed
Western Somali Liberation Front. Ethiopian forces were
driven back far inside their own frontiers but, with the Flag of Ethiopia.
assistance of a massive Soviet airlift of arms and 17,000
Cuban combat forces, they stemmed the attack.[66] The
last major Somali regular units left the Ogaden March 15,
Eritrea separated from Ethiopia following the fall of the
1978. Twenty years later, the Somali region of Ethiopia
Derg in 1991, after a long independentist war.
remains under-developed and insecure.
In 1994, a new constitution was written that formed a
From 1977 through early 1978, thousands of suspected
bicameral legislature and a judicial system. An elecenemies of the Derg were tortured and/or killed in a
tion took place in May 1995 in which Meles Zenawi
purge called the "Red Terror". Communism was owas elected the Prime Minister and Negasso Gidada was
cially adopted during the late 1970s and early 1980s; in
elected President. Also at this time, the members of the
1984, the Workers Party of Ethiopia (WPE) was estabParliament were elected. Ethiopias second multiparty
lished, and on February 1, 1987, a new Soviet-style civilelection was held in May 2000. Prime Minister Meles
ian constitution was submitted to a popular referendum.
was one again elected as Prime Minister in October 2000.
It was ocially endorsed by 81% of voters, and in acIn October 2001, Lieutenant Girma Wolde-Giorgis was
cordance with this new constitution, the country was reelected president.
named the Peoples Democratic Republic of Ethiopia on
In 2005, during the general elections in Ethiopia, alSeptember 10, 1987, and Mengistu became president.
legations of irregularities that brought victory to the
The regimes collapse was hastened by droughts and
Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front refamine, which aected around 8 million people, leavsulted in widespread protests in which the government
ing 1 million dead, as well as by insurrections, particuis accused of massacring civilians (see Ethiopian police
larly in the northern regions of Tigray and Eritrea. The
massacres).
regime also conducted a brutal campaign of resettlement
and villagization in Ethiopia in the 1980s. In 1989, the With the collapse of the Soviet Union, and with the
Tigrayan Peoples Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with rise of radical Islamism, Ethiopia again turned to the
other ethnically based opposition movements to form Western powers for alliance and assistance. After the
the Ethiopian Peoples Revolutionary Democratic Front September 11 attacks in 2001, the Ethiopian army began
(EPRDF). In May 1991, EPRDF forces advanced on to train with US forces based out of the Combined Joint
Addis Ababa. Mengistu ed the country to asylum in Task Force Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) established
in Djibouti, in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency.
Zimbabwe, where he still resides.
Ethiopia allowed the US to station military advisors at
Hundreds of thousands were killed due to the Red Terror,
Camp Hurso.[69]
forced deportations, or from using hunger as a weapon.[67]
In 2006, after a long trial, Mengistu was found guilty of In 2006, an Islamic organisation seen by many as having ties with al-Qaeda, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU),
genocide.[68]
spread rapidly in Somalia. Ethiopia sent logistical support
to the Transitional Federal Government opposing the Islamists. Finally, on December 20, 2006, active ghting
8 The Federal Democratic Repub- broke out between the ICU and Ethiopian Army. As the
Islamist forces were of no match against the Ethiopian
lic (1991present)
regular army, they decided to retreat and merge among
the civilians, and most of the ICU-held Somalia was
In July 1991, the EPRDF, the Oromo Liberation Front quickly taken. Human Rights Watch accused Ethiopia of
(OLF), and others established the Transitional Govern- various abuses including indiscriminate killing of civilment of Ethiopia (TGE) which was composed of an 87- ians during the Battle of Mogadishu (March April
member Council of Representatives and guided by a na- 2007). Ethiopian forces pulled out of Somalia in January
tional charter that functioned as a transitional constitu- 2009, leaving a small African Union force and smaller
tion. In June 1992, the OLF withdrew from the govern- Somali Transitional Government force to maintain the
ment; in March 1993, members of the Southern Ethiopia peace. Reports immediately emerged of religious fundaPeoples Democratic Coalition also left the government. mentalist forces occupying one of two former Ethiopian
16
11
REFERENCES
Mauri, Arnaldo Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia, Acta Universitatis Danubius conomica, ISSN 2065-0175, Vol. 6 n. 1,
2010, pp. 516.[73]
See also
10
Pankhurst, Richard (2001). The Ethiopians: A History (Peoples of Africa). Wiley-Blackwell; New Ed
edition. ISBN 0-631-22493-9.
Further reading
New
Antonicelli, Franco (1961). Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 1945. Torino: Mondadori.
Bahru Zewde (2001). A History of Modern Ethiopia,
18551974 (2nd ed.). Oxford: James Currey.
ISBN 978-0-852-55786-0.
Bernand, tienne; Drewes, Abraham Johannes;
Schneider,Roger; Anfray,Francis (1991). Recueil
des inscriptions de l'Ethiopie des priodes praxoumite et axoumite. Acadmie des inscriptions et
belles-lettres, De Boccard. ASIN B0000EAFWP.
Del Boca, Angelo (1985). Italiani in Africa Orientale: La conquista dell'Impero. Roma: Laterza.
ISBN 88-420-2715-4.
Gibbons, Ann. The First Human : The Race to Discover our Earliest Ancestor. Anchor Books (2007).
ISBN 978-1-4000-7696-3
Henze, Paul B. (2000). A History of Ethiopia. Layers of Time. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 185065-393-3.
Johanson, Donald & Wong, Kate. Lucys Legacy :
The Quest for Human Origins. Three Rivers Press
(2009). ISBN 978-0-307-39640-2
Markakis, John & Nega Ayele (1978). Class and
Revolution in Ethiopia. Addis Abeba: Shama Books.
ISBN 99944-0-008-8.
Marcus, Harold A History of Ethiopia, Berkeley
1994.
Mauri, Arnaldo (2003), The early development of
banking in Ethiopia, International Review of Economics, ISSN 1865-1704, Vol. 50, n. 4, pp. 521
543. WP of the same author [72]
Mauri, Arnaldo (2009), The re-establishment of the
national monetary and banking system in Ethiopia,
19411963, South African Journal of Economic History, ISSN 1011-3436, Vol. 24, n. 2, pp. 82130.
11 References
[1] Ethiopia: One of the worlds fastest growing economies.
BBC News. 15 November 2011.
[2] Melka Kunture. Sapienza University of Rome. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
[3] Ansari, Azadeh (October 7, 2009). Oldest human skeleton oers new clues to evolution. CNN.com/technology.
Retrieved 2 March 2011.
[4] Mother of man 3.2 million years ago. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
[5] Schuster, Angela M.H. Worlds Oldest Stone Tools. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved 8 January
2013.
[6] Oldest tool use and meat-eating revealed. The Natural
History Museum. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
17
[24] Yuri M. Kobishchanov, Axum, Joseph W. Michels, editor; Lorraine T. Kapitano, translator, (University Park,
Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, 1979), pp.54
59.
[25] Expressed, for example, in his The Historical Geography
of Ethiopia (London: the British Academy, 1989), p.39.
[26] Stuart Munro-Hay, Aksum, p. 81.
[27] Stuart Munro-Hay, Aksum, p.56.
[28] Kobishchanov, Axum, p.116.
[29] Stuart Munro-Hay, Aksum, pp.9598.
[30] Negash, Tekeste. The Zagwe period re-interpreted: postAksumite Ethiopian urban culture (PDF). Retrieved 17
March 2014.
[31] Erlich, Haggai. The Cross and the River; Ethiopia, Egypt
and the Nile. Boulder: Lynne Rienne Publishers, 2002.
p.4143
[32] Erlich, p. 37.
[33] Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopians, A History. Malden:
Blackwell Publishers, Inc, 1998. p.7785.
[34] Marcus, Harold (1994). A History of Ethiopia.
[35] Baynes, Thomas Spencer (1838). Abyssinia. The Encyclopdia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and
General Literature, Volume 1 (Ninth ed.). Henry G. Allen
and Company. p. 65.
[13] David M. Goldenberg, The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, p. 18.
[14] Noah Webster, The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and
New Testaments, in the Common Version, p. xiv
[37] Kiros, Teodoros. The Meditations of Zara Yaquob. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
[17] http://concordances.org/hebrew/3568.htm
[18] http://www.jbq.jewishbible.org/assets/Uploads/293/
293_Sheba2.pdf
[19] http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/
5890-ethiopia
[20] http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/4815-cush
[21] Munro-Hay, Aksum, p. 57.
18
11
REFERENCES
[67] Stphane Courtois, ed. (1997). The Black Book of Communism. Harvard University Press. pp. 687695. ISBN
978-0-674-07608-2.
[68] Mengistu found guilty of genocide. BBC News. December 12, 2006. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
[69] U.S. trainers prepare Ethiopians to ght. Stars and
Stripes. 2006-12-30. Retrieved 2007-01-14.
[70] Somali joy as Ethiopians withdraw. BBC News. January
13, 2009. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
[71] Kussa, Mulugeta (2013-10-07). Dr. Mulatu Teshome
elected new President of Ethiopia.
Ertagov.com
(Ethiopian Radio and Television Agency). Retrieved
2013-10-07.
[72] https://ideas.repec.org/p/mil/wpdepa/2003-04.html
[73] https://ideas.repec.org/p/mil/wpdepa/2010-15
11.1 Videography
Adwa: an African victory, Hal Gerima, US, 1999,
Mypheduh Films, 97 min
Fascist Legacy, Ken Kirby, Royaume-Uni, 1989,
documentary 2x50min Fascist Legacy on YouTube
19
Ferret, Pierre Victor Ad., Joseph Germain Galinier
Voyage en Abyssinie dans les provinces du Tigr, du
Samen et de l'Amhara, Paris, 1847
Gire de Rechac, Jean de Les estranges evenemens
du voyage de Son Altesse, le serenissime prince ZagaChrist d'Ethiopie, Hachette, Paris, 1635, BNF
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea Travel and Trade
in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century
Reybaud, Louis Voyage dans lAbyssinie mridionale, Revue des Deux Mondes, tome 27, Paris,
1841
(Amharic) Original letters from Ethiopian emperors, website of the national archives of Addis Abeba
11.3
Articles
12 External links
Ethiopian warrior, Ancient Greek Alabastron, 480470 BC
Pankhurst, Dr. Richard. History of Northern
Ethiopia and the Establishment of the Italian
Colony or Eritrea. Civic Webs Virtual Library. Retrieved March 25, 2005.
ETHIOPIA A Country Study (at the Library of
Congress)
Fighting Hunger and poverty in Ethiopia (Peter Middlebrook)
The history of the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia (Hartford Web Publishing website)
20
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13
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