Earth Architcture

EARTH ARCHITECTURE
BY
ANJALI PANDEY
IVTH YEAR
TAR1101004
SESSION 2014-2015
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
AR. KANIKA AGARWAL
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

ACADEMIC REQUIREMENTS OF THE BACHELOR DEGREE OF
ARCHITECTURE
TEERTHANKER MAHAVEER COLLEGE OF

ARCHITECTURE
TEERTHANKER MAHAVEER UNIVERSITY
MORADABAD, UP, 244001
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Before I begin I would like to express my gratitude for all those who knowingly
or unknowingly, helped in this report. Any academic assignment or venture
cannot be accomplished without the able guidance of the teachers. I Would like
to mention my special thanks to Ar. Kanika Agarwal, my guide without whom
this dissertation work would not be realized, & my Training team for their
meaningful guidance, encouragement & supervision.
My sincere gratefulness to all the participants in my work my Parents, who
opened up their homes & lives to my numerous questions & curious
observations, without their physical & moral support, this report would not have
been a success story. I would like to thank my friends & junior for the spirit &
commitment with which they helped me on this report.
I would also like to thank all the the faculty members for providing me with their
help and support for the completion of this dissertation.
ANJALI PANDEY
TAR1101004
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Disertation entitled "EARTH ARCHITECTURE

is the bonafide work of Ms. ANJALI PANDEY Roll No. TAR1101004 in
partial fulfillment of the academic requirements for the award of Bachelor
of Architecture. This work is carried out by him, under my guidance and
supervision.
Counter Signed -
Guide
Ar. Kanika Agarwal
Ar. Akshat Garg

Dissertation Coordinator
Ar. Manoj Jain

Principal
College of Architecture
Countersigned by
Place: Moradabad
Date:
DECLARATION
I declare that the Dissertation entitled "EARTH ARCHITECTURE is the

bonafide research work carried out by me, under the guidance of
AR.KANIKA AGARWAL Further I declare that this has not been
previously formed the basis of award of any degree, diploma, associateship or other similar degrees or diplomas, and has not been submitted
anywhere else.
Date:
ANJALI PANDEY
TAR1101004
TMU, Moradabad
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AKNOWLEDGMENT.....i
DECLARATION ii
LIST OF TABLES..iii
LIST OF FIGURES.iv
1 .INTRODUCTION..1
2. EARTH AS A BUILDING MATERIAL..1
3. HISTORY...2
4. EVIDENCES FROM HISTORY...2
5. CLIMATE...4
6. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL.4
6.1 Soil types..5
6.2 usability of different soil.....6
7. THE ESSENTIALS...7
8. SYSTEMIZING ACCORDING TO EXECUTION....7
8.1 Dug Out...8
8.2 Cut Blocks...8
8.3 Formed..10
8.4 Covered.11
8.5 Extruded11
8.6 Wattle and Daub...12
8.7 Poured13
8.8 Rammed Earth Work.13
8.8.a. Tools..16
8.8.b. method of construction......19
8.8.c. rammed earth in india20
8.8.d. rammed earth domes..28
8.8.e. surface treatment....29
9. FILLED IN..29
9.1 working with earthen blocks30
9.2 production of earth blocks31
9.3 material composition....34
9.4 laying earth block.35
9.5 surface treatment.......35
9.5. a. fixing fasteners to walls.35
9.6. Special acoustic green bricks ......37
10. DIRECT FORMING WITH WET LOAM.......39
10.1 traditional wet loam technique....39
11. LOAM FILLED HOSES41
11.1 earthen storage wall in earthen garden..44
11.2. loams in bathroom44
11.3. built in furniture and sanitary object from loam...46
12. EARHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDING.48
12.1 structural measures..49
12.2 openings for doors and window..52
13. STABILISERS.....53
13.1 rural stabilizers....53
13.2 stabilization with lime and pozzolans.....55
13.3 stabilization with biopolymers and lime.....55
13.4 stabilization with mineral additives........56
14. LITERATURE STUDY OF BANSURA HILL RESORT....56
15. INITIATIVE TO DEVELOP EARTH ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA......59
16. WORKSHOP AT LAURIE BAKER CENTER.....60
17.BUILT EXAMPLES...61
17.1 moon dust residence, madh island.61
17.2 farmhouse, wazipur,india...64
17.3 office building ,new delhi ,india...66
18. CONCLUSION..69
19. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFRENCES...70
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Storage Room, Temple Of Ramses II ..................................................................................................... 2

Figure 4.1: Faortified City, Draa Valley , Morroco ................................................................................................... 3
Figure 4.2: Rammed Earth House ............................................................................................................................. 3
Figure 6.1: Section Of Soil... ................................................................................................................................... ...4
Figure 6.2: Pyramid Of Soil ................................................................................................................................... ...5
Figure 6.3: Soil Types ............................................................................................................................................. ...6
Figure 8.1: Tunisia 1 Matmata...8
Figure 8.2: Fairy Chimney ...................................................................................................................................... .8
Figure 8.3: Mud Brick ............................................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 8.4: Mud Brick Wall .................................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 8.5: Making Mud Brick ................................................................................................................................ 9
Figure 8.6: Clay-Slip Straw10
Figure 8.7:Green Roofs ........................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 8.8:Extruded Bricks ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 8.9: Production Of Extruded Bricks ............................................................................................................. 12
Figure 8.10: Daub Wooden Lattice Work ............................................................................................................... 13
Figure 8.11: Form Work Method ............................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 8.12: Form Work House............................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 8.13: Form Work Tools ................................................................................................................................ 16
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 8.14:Two Head Ram Used In Ecuador........................................................................................................... 17

Figure 8.15: Pneumatic Rams.................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 8.16: Vibrating Ram ....................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure8.17:Shrinkage Cracks In A Rammed Earth Walll... .................................................................................... ...19
Figure 8.18: Rammed Eath In India ....................................................................................................................... ...20
Figure 8.34: Earth Dome ........................................................................................................................................ ...28
Figure 8.35: Eath Dome ......................................................................................................................................... ...28
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 8.36:Filled In Adobe ...................................................................................................................................... 30

Figure 9.1:Green Bricks ............................................................................................................................................ 31
Figure 9.2:Making Adobes ........................................................................................................................................ 31
Figure 9.3:.Making Adobe.. .................................................................................................................................... ...32
Figure 9.4: Making Adobe ..................................................................................................................................... ...32
Figure 9.5: Adobe Making On Table ...................................................................................................................... ...33
Figure 9.6: Metal Moulds ....................................................................................................................................... ...34
Figure 9.7: Shrinkage Cracks .................................................................................................................................. ...34
Figure 9.8:Exposed Earth Block Wall ..................................................................................................................... ...35
Figure 9.9: Book Shelf ........................................................................................................................................... ...36
Figure 9.10: Special Loam Brick ............................................................................................................................ ...37
Figure 9.11: Detail Of Loam Brick Dome ............................................................................................................... ...37
Figure 9.12: Loam Brick Wall................................................................................................................................. ...38
Figure 10.1: Forming With Wet Loam ................................................................................................................... ...39
Figure 10.2: Wet Loam Technique ......................................................................................................................... ...40
Figure 10.3:Cob Building ........................................................................................................................................ ...41
Figure 10.4: Loam Profile ..................................................................................................................................... ...41
Figure 10.5: Filling Hoses. .................................................................................................................................... ...42
Figure 10.6: Hoses Fillig Using a Pump................................................................................................................. ...42
Figure 10.7:Filling Of Loam By Funnel ................................................................................................................. ...43
Figure 10.8: Bathroom Wall .................................................................................................................................... ...43
Figure 11.1: Heat Storage Wall ............................................................................................................................... ...44
Figure 11.2:: Bathroom Wall .................................................................................................................................. ...45
Figure 11.3: Built-in Furniture ............................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 11.4: Bathroom Fixtures ................................................................................................................................ 47
Figure 12.1: Condominium, China ............................................................................................................................ 49
Figure 12.2:Ideal Shapes. ........................................................................................................................................ ...50
Figure 12.3: Types of Openings .............................................................................................................................. ...52
Figure 13.1: Rural Stabilisers .................................................................................................................................. ...54

Figure 13.2: Plant Juices ........................................................................................................................................ ...54
Figure 13.3: Face To Face Partical .......................................................................................................................... ...55
Figure 14.1: Resort At Dusk .................................................................................................................................... ...57
Figure 14.2: Resort View ........................................................................................................................................ ...58
Figure 14.3: Inside Resort ...................................................................................................................................... ...58
Figure 14.4: Tourist Cottage.................................................................................................................................... ...58
Figure 16.1: Workshop ............................................................................................................................................ ...60
Figure 16.2: Workshop ........................................................................................................................................... ...60
Figure 17.1: Exterior detail...................................................................................................................................... ...61
Figure 17.2: Roof Detail .......................................................................................................................................... ...62
Figure 17.3: Staircase Detail .................................................................................................................................. ...62
Figure 17.4: Interior View. ..................................................................................................................................... ...62
Figure 17.5: Dining Area View ............................................................................................................................... ...63
Figure 17.6: Stone Wall .......................................................................................................................................... ...63
Figure 17.7: Exterior Detaill.................................................................................................................................... ...63
Figure 17.8:Front Facadel ....................................................................................................................................... ...64
Figure 17.9:Plan
................................................................................................................................................. ...65
Figure 17.10 Interior View ..................................................................................................................................... ...65

Figure 17.11 View .................................................................................................................................................. ...66
Figure 17.12 Plan ................................................................................................................................................. ...67
Figure 17.13 View Of Building
........................................................................................................................... ...68
1.
INTRODUCTION
Earth Is An Ancient Building Material That Has Been Used In Many Different Ways Around The World
For Thousands Of Years. A Large Part Of The Worlds Rural Population Still Lives In Earth Buildings.
The result of thousands of years of research through trial and error is Earth Architecture that we see
around the globe.
May it be the method using rugby ball shaped mud bricks as we see in Zaria, Nigeria (Friedrich W.
Schwerdtfeger, 1982) or the mud tower houses using adobe that we find in Asir, Saudi Arabia (Kaizer
Talib, 1984) or the use of wattle and daub infilling to timber framed houses in Northern Europe,
everywhere there is one common material Earth.
Mans next invention was on how to make them water resistant, termite resistant and earth quake
resistant. He used all the indigenous materials like wood, lime, husk and straw along with earth to
overcome each of these defects.
2. EARTH AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

Earth is used as a building material in a variety of ways since ancient times. Earth is the most important
natural building material, and it is available in most region of the world. It is frequently obtained directly
from the building site when excavating foundations or basements. Increasingly, people when building
homes demand energy- and cost-effective buildings that emphasise a healthy, balanced indoor climate.
They are coming to realise that mud, as a natural building material, is superior to industrial building
materials such as concrete, brick and lime-sandstone. Newly developed, advanced earth building
techniques demonstrate the value of earth not only in do-it-yourself construction, but also for
industrialised construction involving contractors.
Mud is not only cheap but available in abundance. The statistics from UNCHS (UN- Habitat) says that
40% of the world population lives in earthen dwellings. Also while Indian statistics is referred majority
of the population in India are living in earthen dwellings. Earth can achieve very high quality and
durability as a building material.
In India the vernacular earth buildings were in existence since the vedic period, through medieval, feudal,
Islamic and colonial times. Owing to the heritage of the subcontinent, earth architecture of India is
diverse and unique to individual region. When we are talking of earth architecture of India, we are, in all
probability, talking about earth walls, flooring, plastering and tiled or thatched roof.
3. HISTORY
Earth Construction Techniques Have Been Known For Over 9000 Years. Rammed earth foundations
dating from 5000 BC have been discovered. Earth was used as the Building material in ancient cultures,
not Only for homes, but for religious buildings as Well. Figure 3.1 shows vaults in the temple of ramses
at gourna, egypt, built from Mud bricks 3200 years ago.
Many centuries ago, in dry climatic zones, Where wood is scarce, construction techniques Were
developed where buildings Were covered with mud brick vaults or Domes without formwork or support
during Construction. In china, Twenty million people live in underground houses or caves that were dug
in the silty soil.In the Medieval period (13th to 17th centuries), Earth was used throughout Central
Europe as infill in timber-framed buildings, As well as to cover straw roofs to make them fire-resistant.
In France, the rammed earth technique, called terre pis, was widespread from the 15th to the 19th
centuries.
3.1 Storage rooms, temple of Ramses II, Gourna, Egypt
4. EVIDENCES FROM HISTORY
The 4000-year-old Great Wall of China was originally built solely of rammed earth; only
a later covering of stones and bricks gave it the appearance of a stone wall.
Figure 4.1 shows A fortified city in morocco, Which is around 250 years old.
The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh constructed, and lived in mud brick houses between 70003300
BC, they were in use in the Near East during the Pre- Pottery Neolithic B period, in Minoan Crete there is
archaeological evidence that sundried bricks were used in the Neolithic period.
4.1 Fortified city, Draa valley, Morocco
The Mesopotamians also used sun-dried bricks in their city construction. Mud bricks were used to some
extent in pre-Roman Egypt, increased at the time of Roman influence. Spread of mud construction was
affected by mainly the environmental potentials, that means widespread in places, which are relatively
dry and have mud in abundance. Raw materials found on the plot can be used as excellent components.
The tallest house with solid earth walls in Europe is at Weilburg, Germany. Completed in 1828, it still
stands (4.2). All ceilings and the entire roof structure rest on the solid rammed earth walls that are 75 cm
thick at the bottom and 40 cm thick at the top floor (the compressive force at the bottom of the Walls
reaches 7,5 kg/cm2).
4.2 Rammed earth house, Weilburg, Germany, 1828
5. CLIMATE
In dry climates, a common method of choice is to mould a mud mix into blocks, afterwards they are dried
in the sun before being stacked into walls. This is called adobe, it is used for echos, for instance in Egypt,
self-supporting arches of mud bricks were built 2000 years ago. Fried earthen blocks also have been used
in construction for thousands of years. The traditional ways were industrialized, basically we use similar
materials and technology to make the common brick and other types of pressed blocks. In wetter climates
mud mixes are often placed wet, directly by hand, either to make load-bearing and infill walls. This fact
is probably because it is more difficult to make air-dry bricks there. In european countries, many earthen
structures built from the
local soil combined with water and straw, mixed by foot, and placed by hand. This is called monolithic
adobe or cob, and it has many alternatives. Another technique, called wattle and daub is also a traditional
way of earth utilization, from which many of the Tutor-style timber frame structures were created, that
have become the stereotypical image of Medieval Europe. Rammed earth or pise earth techniques also
belong to this group. The construction of an entire wall begins with a temporary frame work, and the
damp material, made from clay, sand and gravel mixed with small amount of water, is tamped into a
depth of 10 to 25 cm of the formwork.
6. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL:

The soil consists of layers, basically made of finely ground rock particles. Figure 6.1 shows the basic
section of ground soil. The upper layers, the particles are mixed with organic materials from the
decomposition of the nature (leaves, plants and vegetable matter). The other layers are used for
construction. These types can be grouped according to their sizes as stones, gravel, sand, slit and clay.
Each of them has an important role, and we can divide it into further different versions by mixing the
basic element.
6.1 section of soil
6.2 Pyramid Of Soil
6.1.For constructing the three main type of soil are:

Sand: is usually placed on the top of the soil layer, small pieces of stone (usually quartz), which are
small but each grain, is visible to the eye. Besides gravel it is the largest particle, which determine
aeration and drainage characteristics.
Silt: almost the same as sand except that it is so fine that you cannot see individual grains. It also exists as
soil deposited at the bottom of a natural waters.
Clay: It is the finest component, it has binder role. Sort of soils that stick when it is wet, but it becomes
very hard and completely dry. Clay is usable in different ways for construction, despite of many
advantages, buildings from clay has also some disadvantages. To improve the properties it, and eliminate
the disadvantages, various binders and additives can be mixed with
it.
6.3 soil types
6.2. USABILITY OF DIFFERENT SOILS

Gravel: alone is of no use for mud wall building - the tiny lumps of stone have nothing to bind them
together.
Sand: similar to gravel, it is of no use for wall making by itself - but if mixed with clay, i.e. sandy clays
or clayey sands, it is the ideal mud wall building soil.
Silt: by itself is also no good for building walls. It will hold together but is not strong. Furthermore, it
will not compact so it is also of no use for pressed blocks or rammed earthwork.
Clay: can be rammed or compressed but in drying out they often shrink. During the monsoon they get
damp and expand again and crack form.
Laterite: is also a type of clay, which contains red iron or aluminium material. It is strong and stable and
is cut out of the ground in blocks and hardens further when stacked and exposed to the air. It is of course
a first class building material and we usually think of it as a stone. It is wise to follow local traditional
opinions about clays and laterites. There is some clay which have proved to be unsatisfactory as building
material and over many
centuries local people have learned to avoid these particular unsuitable clays.
Organic Soils: are mainly useless for wall building. A reliable rule is that if a soil as good for growing
plants in, it is not good for building walls with.
Mixtures: Find out which soils are contained in the mixture and then the usability depends on the
proportion of the various types of soil listed above. Always look at the old buildings in your district and
see for yourself the types of soil that have been used, durability, or shortcomings of these old buildings.
Gravel - No Good
Silt alone - No Good Plus stabiliser - Good
Sand alone - No Good Plus Clay - Good
Organic Soil - No Good
Clay alone - No Good - Plus Sand Good
Different goals can be achieved by adding various additives, such as: lime, cement,
gypsum, casein and other milk proteins, resins.
Then the goals of improvement:
to increase water-resistance
to increase strength
swelling and shrinkage-reducing
to increase plasticity without water
increasing resistance to erosion and weather.
7.
THE ESSENTIALS
Building with earth materials can be a way of helping with sustainable management of
The earths resources. They can be put in place using simple machinery and human
Energy. Earth buildings avoid deforestation and pollution, and can achieve low energy
Costs throughout their lifetime in the initial manufacture and construction, in their use
As homes, and eventually in their recycling back to the earth.
The policies of the administration with regard to finance, planning and control of building in earth needs
much to be introduced. Education in this area is given minimum considerations so far. The traditional
earthen wall construction that are generally practiced in India are listed as follows:
8.
SYSTEMIZNIG ACCORDING TO THE EXECUTION
The Main Types Of Earth Walls By Grouping According To The Methods Of The Execution:
8.1. DUG OUT:

The oldest method is the 'dug out' method, when sharp are cut into existing pile of mud. In most cases
dwellings are dug out into soft soils, tuffs, mostly in areas with dry and hot climate. The dug out can
occur in vertical and horizontal directions.
8.1 Tunisia, Matmata
8.2 Fairy Chimney
8.2. Cut blocks: (cut block, mud bricks)

In areas, where the quality of the soil enables, it was cut in the shape of blocks and used like stones and
bricks. In areas, where the soil is not cohesive enough, topsoil and grass were used to create blocks and
were stacked upon each other.
Figure8.3.mud brick
Figure 8.4 mud brick wall
Figure 8.5 making mud bricks
8.3.Formed: (clay-slip straw, light earth)
In this case the clay mix contains a lot of straw or untreated woodchips into a
timber framework and then cladding both faces. It needs skeletal structure and some framework during
the construction, then the wet mix is placed between the temporary planks. These walls are not loadbearing, it can be used as an infill wall between the wooden structure, or prefabricated blocks. The
method has high thermal insulation value, thus it combines the good insulation property of the light
additives with the advantages of earth. The construction is fireproof and very durable, because the clay
acts as a natural protection. It needs also waterproof cladding.
Figure8.6 clay-slip straw
8.4.Covered: (green roof)

Soil is currently used to cover roofs in different ways, and nowadays this is a popular sustainable topic as
well. Waterproofing layer and thermal insulation are required, and the filtering and drainage system
should be solved, then extensive or intensive green roofs can be made depending on the thickness of the
earth layer.
Figure 8.7 green roofs
8.5.Extruded: (extruded adobe)

Similar as the pressed technology, but there is no organic material content. The
blocks are often hollow and are cut to desired shape by special machines. It has the same
water-sensitive than the traditional adobe, but as a thermal mass element is also perfect.
Due to the lack of organic material content it is disputed in name and group.
Figure8.8. Extruded bricks
8.9. Production of extruded bricks
8.6.Wattle and daub:

It is an old and common method of building mud structures. It starts with a lattice
of brackets. A mix of earth and straw is then daubed onto this latticework, forced into the
gaps and smoothed over to fill any cracks. There are wood, bamboo and cane frame
structure that support the roof, in between webbing from reed, straw and cane frame
together like a basket. The surface can be left as a rustic finish or rendered for a smoother
finish. Its individual advantage is, that it can be built in Seismic Zones as well. A big
disadvantage, that after a heavy rain, however the mesh of reed or split bamboo remains
intact, over the mud should be plastered on again.
8.10. daub wooden Lattice work
8.7.POURED (MONOLITHIC EARTH WALLS, CEMENT-LIME ADDED

EARTH)
The flowing soil mixed with sand, gravel and stabilized by cement or lime, then
poured into formwork in monolithic condition (like concrete). This method is not used
often, because the mixed soil has high water content, and the wall will include a lot of
shrinkage, and it might be cracked.
8.8.RAMMED EARTHWORKS
On all five continents, rammed earth has been well-known for centuries as a traditional wall construction
technique. With rammed earth techniques, moist earth is poured into a formwork in layers of to 15 cm
thick, and then compacted by ramming. The formwork usually consists of two parallel walls separated
and interconnected by spacers.
8.11. formwork methods
Traditional rammed earth techniques are still used in many developing countries. Refined formwork
systems and electrical or pneumatic ramming reduces labour input significantly and makes rammed earth
techniques relevant in some industrialised countries as well. With traditional formworks, the boards on
both sides are held apart and kept together by spacers . These spacers pierce the wall, causing openings
that must be fille in after removal of formwork. A system with very thin tensile spacers (4 x 6 mm)
penetrating
the wall . A house build using formwork shown in figure 8.11.
With a special formwork, rounded corners and curved walls can also be formed .A circular barn built in
1831 in Bollbrgge, Germany, with 90-cm-thick rammed earth walls is shown in 8.10.
8.12. formwork house
Common formwork systems used in concrete technology can also be used for rammed earth, but usually
turn out to be too heavy and expensive. In Europe, timber panels of 19 mm thickness are commonly
used. They need to be stiffened by vertical members at approximately 75 cm intervals. If this is not done,
they will bend outwards during ramming. Therefore, it might be more economical to choose thicker
boards of 30 to 45 mm thickness, which need stiffening only at intervals of 100 to 150 cm. If the soil is
very clayey, the form should not be wrenched off, but instead slipped off the rammed earth smoothly
along the surface, thus preventing it from being spoiled by clayey particles sticking to the form.
Furthermore, it is neither desirable to have a surface that is too rough (such as saw-cut timber), nor one
that is too smooth (such as varnished and planed timber). If the formwork is not optimised for this
technique, then up to 30% of total labour input could be invested simply in erecting, adjusting, and
dismantling the formwork.
Therefore, the following points should be born in mind:

Boards must be stiff so that they do not bend outwards while ramming is underway.
All parts must be light enough to be carried by two workers.
The formwork should be easy to adjust in both vertical and horizontal directions.
Variations in the thickness of the wall must be controllable within a specified tolerance.
It is preferable that the edges require no special formwork. Therefore, the formwork should allow
varying lengths of wall to be cast.
8.8.a. Tools
In former times, earth was rammed manually, using rams with conical, wedge-shaped or flat bases . If
conical or wedge-shaped rams are used, the different layers are better mixed and, provided there is
sufficient moisture, a better bond is obtained. However, this takes more time than ramming with flat-based
rams. Walls rammed with flat-based rams show less lateral shear resistance and therefore should only be
loaded vertically. The base of the ram should not be too sharp, so that the formwork, if made of timber, is
not damaged. The base should be no smaller than 60 cm 2, and no larger than 200 cm2. The weight of the
ram should be between 5 and 9 kg. It is preferable to use a two-headed ram with a round head on one
side and a square one on the other. This allows the ram to be used with the round side for general work,
and with the square edge to compact corners effectively. Such a ram is used even today in Ecuador (5.8).
8.13. formwork tools.
8.14 Two-head ram used in Ecuador

Electric and pneumatic rams were used as early as the second quarter of the 20th century in Germany,
France and Australia. The electrical ram built by the German firm Wacker, was often used in former
times for rammed earth work, and has been written about extensively. It has a hammer like action with a
lift of 33 mm, and a frequency of 540 strokes per minute. The ram is very effective; its only disadvantage
being difficult in handling, since it weighs 24 kg. It is no longer manufactured. In Australia in the 1950s,
a pneumatic ram was used . This acts like a jackhammer, has a frequency of 160 strokes per minute, and
weighs 11 kg.
Normally, soil compaction tools of the type used in road construction are unsuitable for
rammed earthwork, because their frequency is too high and their lift too low. Tools which only vibrate
might be suitable for sandy soils, but not for clayey ones. The pneumatic rams shown in 8.14
8.15 Pneumatic rams (Atlas-Copco)
are extremely effective for rammed earthwork. The Ram II G, produced by the firm Atlas- Copco, is
fairly suitable because a special feature prevents its head rotating, thus ensuring that square heads can
also be conveniently used. All the rams illustrated require a pressure of 6 bar and an air flow rate of 0.4 to
0.9 m3/min. Due to their high costs and the infrastructure and energy required to run them, these rams are
used only for larger building projects. An electrical vibration
8.16.a. Vibrating ram (Heuser)
8.16.a. Vibrating ram (Heuser)
ram has been developed at the BRL and manufactured by the firm Heuser (8.15 and 8.16 ). Its engine has
a frequency of 1000 to 1200 cycles per minute. The most important part of this vibrating ram is its
specially shaped base, which allows the apparatus to move within the formwork by itself while
compacting the earth. It can compact loose soil in layers 7 cm thick.
8.8.b Method of construction
In nearly all traditional rammed earth techniques, the formwork is removed and
re-erected horizontally step by step. This means that earth is rammed in layers from
50 to 80 cm high, forming courses of that height before the formwork is moved.
When one course is complete, the next course that is rammed is moister than the
one already in place, which is partially dried out. Therefore, there is a higher shrinkage in
the upper course than in the lower, leading to horizontal shrinkage cracks at the joint
(8.17).
8.17 Shrinkage cracks in a rammed earth wall, Ecuador
This can be dangerous, since capillary water can enter this joint and remain, causing swelling and
disintegration. As can be seen in the same figure, vertical cracks can also occur in such walls. With the
French pis technique, this problem was solved by using a layer of lime mortar above each course before
laying a new one. A lime mortar cures over several weeks and remains plastic until the loam has stopped
shrinking; sometimes even the side joint between sections of the course is made with mortar at an incline
. Another method to avoiding horizontal shrinkage cracks is to ram in a way that the wall is produced
vertically.
8.8.c RAMMED EARTH IN INDIA

This home was designed by Chitra Vishwanath Architects for a client at Bangalore.
8.18 Form work is made from prelaminated plywood and mild steel angle section to reinforce it.
.
18.19 The mud block are used as an end panels here instead of having any formwork at all.
8.20 The formwork and how it support.
8.21 The walls are 9 thick.they have sufficient self weight to not need any other attachment or
reinforcement.There is a nice rich mud mortar between the plinth beam on which the bricks rest and then
the rammed earth. The brick or mud blocks can beoptionally done away with. The self weight of the wall
structure is sufficient to hold it in place.In INDIA,we always have built in bricks, stone and cement and
reinforced cement concrete.Except for the roofs ,beams and concrete columns steel is not used to
reinforce wall. Our structural engineer say it is not necessary. The load bearing capacity of the walls is
independent on their own strength and by self weight they hold well in placed .
8.22 Tamping wall by hand.
8.23 scaffolding made of casuarinas poles.
8.24 Stone foundation made from locally available stone and the rammed earth first course above it. One
single course of mud blocks are first laid so that the skirting of the flooring can go over it without cutting
off the rammed earth.
8.25 arch panel roof between rammed earth walls. The basement is 3 feet above the ground level to bring
ventilation. The soil that was wexcavated from the basement was used to build to build the house. It was
mixed by hand with sand and 5% cement then transported without use of machinery. The only steel
reinforcement is in the jack arch ceiling .
8.26 The rammer used on the walls.
8.27 The formwork for the corner in the centre of the photo. Just pre laminated plywood with mild steel
angles to reinforce it. The walls here seen are of the stabilized mud blocks. They take the same mix as
the rammed earth only are passed using a manual machine.
8.28 These are the natural colours of the earth , no special pigments required.
8.29 this effect is created by ramming into a formwork of log
8.30 These ecological homes that we make are cheaper than the conventional designer homes in the same
city.
The finished house from outside we design houses to suit their immediate climate. Its very important that
we
Rely on external sources of energy lest. Appropriate lighting and ventilation is necessary. too much light
would heat a structure quickly and too much air would be difficult to control during winters. Its important
that the design makes way for hot air (vertically up) and brings light into the right parts without using
humungous openings. Helps in controlling cost of structure too.
8.31
to the left of the door a bench upon which to sit and remove ones shoes.cubbies beside for the shoe
storage are made of pipes put in place with mud plaster and some mud blocks which are covered in mud
plaster.
8.32
view of a typical stabilized mud brick and rammed earth house from outside , a different project than the
proceeding. The larger blocks are rammed earth blocks. Meaning that the blocks were made aside and
then placed like bricks. The mud mortar became necessary in this case as the blocks were bonded by the
mortar . the stone used for the compound wall is a local stone thats found in nearby quarries in city.
8.33
The basement ceiling are made from 2inch thick clay tiles which are pre-cast with a little cement cement
and reinforcement and placed trusses or beam to make the ceiling . above its filled up with plastic and
such waste and with plastic and such waste and with a thin layer of concrete to give the floor above.
8.8d. RAMMED EARTH DOMES

Probably the first rammed earth dome was Built by the BRL in Kassel, Germany, in
1983 using a special technique developed By that laboratory. This consists of a rotating
Slip form in which the earth is rammed (8.34& 8.35).
8.34
8.34 & 8.35.
Constructing the rammed earth dome with a rotating formwork
The thickness of the dome was 18 cm at The bottom and 12 cm at the top. The walls,
Which form a hexagon on the inside, were Also made of rammed earth. In order to
Transfer the thrust from the dome to the Foundation, buttresses were integrated with
The walls. The shaping of the top of the buttresses As well as the windows was done
With a kitchen knife soon after the formwork Was dismantled. The formwork of the
Wall was custom-designed according to the Plan of the dome. The earth
Was rammed into the formwork using a Vibrator. The dome formwork itself was so designed
That it could be lifted not just at the centre, Course after course; it also had a guide that
Automatically adjusted the radius and inclination Of the formwork .
8.8.e.
SURFACE TREATMENT
A rammed earth wall requires less labour And material inputs for surface treatment Compared to walls
made using other earth Construction techniques. As a rule, it is Neither necessary nor advisable to plaster
A rammed earth wall. If the surface is Sponged with a moist felt trowel immediately After dismantling
the formwork, Then a smooth surface is easily produced, One that may be painted or wallpapered (in
cases involving interior wall surfaces). If Exterior surfaces thus treated are sheltered From rain by roof
overhangs and against
Splashing by a plinth, a coating of paint is Sufficient to protect them against the elements.
Care should be taken that coatings Neither peel nor crack.
9. FILLED IN: (EARTH BAG CONSTRUCTION, SUPER ADOBE)
The basic idea of the earth bag construction is developed from the bunkers made
by the military. Rows of polypropylene woven bags (or tubes) are filled with
organic/natural materials such as hemp, burlap or other natural-fiber bags (like "gunny
sacks")After the foundation is laid, each successive layer will have one or more strands
of barbed wire placed on top. The weight of this earth-filled bag pushes down on the
barbed wire strands, locking the bag in place on the row below.
Super adobe Is An Adobe That Is Stretched From History Into The New Century. It Is
Like An Umbilical Cord Connecting The Traditional With The Future Adobe World.
Nader Khalili
This concept was originally presented by architect Nader Khalili. Tubular roll of
sandbag-type material is used, which is filled with earth. A barbed wire is use to bind the
earth tube together, and it works like an Velcro. Afterward the earth tubes are plastered
with stabilized earth plaster.
8.36.
filled in adobe
9.1.WORKING WITH EARTHEN BLOCKS

Blocks of earth produced manually by throwing wet earth into a formwork are called adobes or mud
bricks or sundried earth blocks. When moist earth is compacted in a manual or powered press, the
compressed elements so formed are called soil blocks. In their unbaked state, bricks produced by an
extruder in a brick plant are called green bricks. These three
types of blocks are usually the same size as baked bricks. Larger blocks, compacted in a
formwork by ramming, are called rammed earth blocks.
9.1 Industrially produced green bricks
Illustration 9.1 shows different shapes and sizes of green bricks produced industrially
by an extrusion process.
9.2. Production of earth blocks

Adobes are made either by filling moulds with a pasty loam mixture or by throwing moist lumps of earth
into them. Different types of moulds can be used.They are usually made from timber. The throwing
technique is commonly used in all developing countries( 9.2,9.3 & 9.4).
9.2Making adobes
(9.2, 9.3 &9.4) Making adobes
Here, a sandy loam is mixed with water, and cut straw is usually added and the whole formed into a
paste that is thrown into wooden moulds. The greater the force with which the loam is thrown, the better
its compaction and dry strength. The surface is smoothed either by hand or by a timber piece, trowel or
wire . One person can produce about 300 blocks per day (including preparation of mix, trans portation
and stacking). In India, one person can produce as many as 500 blocks per day using a double mould
designed for a smaller brick. In order to facilitate work, bricks can be moulded on a table, as was
traditionally the case in Germany .
.
9.5 Making
adobes on a work table
Another easy method uses moulds with handles 80 cm in length, which enables workers to manufacture
bricks while standing (9.5).
Techniques for producing compressed soil blocks were known in Europe in the 18th century. In 1789, the
French architect Franois Cointreaux developed a manually operated soil block press. Since then,
numerous manually operated presses have been devised. The best-known press worldwide is the CINVA
Ram, developed in Colombia by the Chilean engineer Ramirez. It permits simultaneous production of
three blocks. Manually operated presses of this type produce pressures up to 5 to 25 kg/cm2, and require
three to five persons for optimum operation. Despite mechanised production of soil blocks using presses,
the output per person per day is only 150 to 200 blocks, considerably less than that of the primitive
method involving throwing loam into moulds.
9.6 Metal mould with handles
9.3. MATERIAL COMPOSITION

The loam used in common brick plants requires high clay content in order to achieve sufficient strength
after firing. Illustration 6.21 shows a typical soil grain size distribution of this type of loam, containing
24% clay, 50% silt, 23% sand and 3% gravel. When loam of this composition is used for earth block
work, it creates swelling and shrinking problems upon wetting and drying respectively. Illustration 9.7
shows cracks occurring when these green bricks were used in a project where a wall was drenched by
sudden rain during construction.
9.7 Shrinkage cracks that occurred after rain drenched green bricks dried out
Generally, it can be stated that earth blocks should have enough coarse sand to allow them to achieve
high porosity (and therefore high frost resistance), and high compressive compressive strength with
minimum shrinkage. But at the same time, there must be enough clay to create sufficient binding force
for the block to be handled.
9.4.LAYING EARTH BLOCKS

It is important to shelter earth blocks from rain on site. In industrialised countries, as a
rule, green bricks ordered from factories, are palletised and covered entirely in plastic.
Earth blocks are laid with either loam mortar, hydraulic lime mortar or high-hydraulic
lime mortar. While small quantities of cement may be added to these mortars, pure cement mortar is not
advisable, as it is too rigid and brittle. To avoid shrinkage cracks inside the mortar during drying, the
mortar should contain sufficient quantities of coarse sand. The clay content may vary from 4% to 10%.
The formation of shrinkage cracks can also be avoided when the mortar layer is thinner than usual. It is a
pleasure to work with loam mortar, since it is not abrasive to the skin. Lime mortar, however, attacks the
skin and may also cause allergies.
9.5. SURFACE TREATMENT

If sufficiently moistened with a tool like a Felt trowel, exposed earth block masonry
With uneven surfaces or joints can be easily Smoothened. Plastering is not advisable,
Since it interferes with the capacity of loam Walls to balance internal air humidity.
However, exposed earth Block masonry can, if not aesthetically Acceptable, be given a wash of loam
slurry Stabilized with, for example, lime, lime casein Etc.(9.8). This wash also impacts The walls
surface stability .
9.8. Exposed earth block wall finished with a loam-lime slurry.
9.5.a Fixing fasteners to walls

Nails can be driven into an earth block walls more easily than into those constructed of
baked bricks. The more porous and humid the material, the easier one can drive a nail
through it. Green bricks tend to split more easily than soil blocks and adobes. If very
thick nails are used, it is advisable to drill a hole into the block. Heavy shelves or wallhung
cabinets can be fixed to the wall easily using screws and dowels. Dowel holes,
however, should be drilled large enough to prevent blocks from cracking. In 9.9, heavy
bookshelves are fixed to a green brick wall using dowels and screws.
9.9 Bookshelves fixed to an earth block wall
9.6. SPECIAL ACOUSTIC GREEN BRICKS

In order to optimize the acoustic behavior Of domed rooms, a special loam brick with
Rounded corners was developed by the Author (9.10)
9.10 Special loam brick to improve acoustic behavior
9.11 Detail of loam brick dome
The rounded corners and the Corbelling effect of the bricks (9.11)
yield Good sound distribution, while good sound Absorption is produced by the cut-off joints And the
holes in the brick. Illustration(9.12) .
9.12 Loam brick wall
Depicts a 6-m-high wall of unburned (green) Bricks, introduced in order to improve the Acoustic
behavior of the hall.
10. DIRECT FORMING WITH WET LOAM
Unlike other building materials, wet loam has the capacity to be formed into any
shape. It therefore presents a creative challenge to designers and builders. The manual
shaping of walls from lumps of wet loam or thick loam paste is widespread.
Since no tools are required to work with earth, it is the simplest and most primitive technique. The
prepared mixture is used directly (without intermediate products being formed or intermediate processes).
The higher the clay content and the more water employed, the greater the shrinkage. Thick loam paste
with high clay content may even have a linear shrinkage ratio of above 10%. Illustrations 10.1 show a
bench formed
with wet loam elements where shrinkage was not taken into account.
10.1 Forming a bench from wet loam
10.1.
TRADITIONAL WET LOAM TECHNIQUES
While in the case of earth block work, dry elements are built up with mortar joints, no
Mortar is used with wet loam work. Plastic loam is bound simply by ramming, beating,
Pressing or throwing. In southern India, a very simple wet loam technique is still in use today: using a
hoe, earth is mixed with water to a pasty consistency, carried to the site in metal
Containers balanced on the workers head, and poured on the wall being built. It is
Then spread by hand in layers from 2 to 4 cm thick. As the paste dries fairly quickly
In the sun, the wall can be built continuously, layer by layer. In northeast Ghana, another technique is
used. Here, balls of wet earth are formed and then used to construct circular walls
Simply by stacking and pressing .After the wall dries, the surface is plastered
On both sides and then smoothed and polished using flat stones in a rotary rubbing movement.A
compound built using a similar primitive technique. In northwest Ghana, 40-cm-thick walls have been
constructed with wet loam clods using another traditional technique. Here, they are built up in layers so
that each successive layer slightly overlaps the previous one . The rooms of these houses are more or less
rectangular, and have rounded Corners .
10.2. Loam wet technique house at cokinton
The surface is often beaten and compacted By hammering with a kind of wooden trowel. A technique of
building using loam clods Called cob was widespread in southwest England beginning in the 15th
century, and Was used at least until the 19th century, especially in Devon. Hill describes this technique
As follows: a man stands with a threepronged pitchfork on the plinth of the wall, While a second man
forms clods as large as two fists. The second man then throws The clods to the first one, who catches
them on his pitchfork and, walking backwards, Throws them onto the wall. Where necessary,he also
compacts the wall with his feet. In this way, layers 50 to 60 cm in height are built up. To give an even
finish, the surface is sliced. Wall thicknesses are generally 45 to 60 cm (McCann, 1983). Illustration 10.2.
shows a house, one still inhabited, at Cockington (Devon, England) that was built using this technique in
1410.
10.3. Cob building from 1410, Cockington, Devon, England
10.4. Finished interior wall made of extruded loam profiles
11. LOAM-FILLED HOSES

A new technique, developed GEROT MINKE , was used in 1992 for three residences In Kassel,
Germany. Though the Outward appearance of walls made by this Technique is similar to those made with
the Technique for making stranglehm described , the production, handling and Laying is quite different.
With this technique,
An elastic cotton hose is filled with a lightweight Mineral loam mixture.
10.5Filling hoses with lightweight mineral loam using a pump
The hose can Be filled either using a pump (see 10.5) or By hand through a funnel (see 10.6 and 10.7).
10.6Filling hoses with lightweight mineral loam using a pump
10.7. Manually filling of hoses with lightweight mineral loam using a funnel
When the required length is reached, The hose is cut and the end is stretched and Knotted. Owing to the
reinforcement provided By the fabric, these loam-filled hoses can Then be easily handled. Before being
laid Onto a wall, they are smoothed with the
Hands so that some loam oozes and forms A thin loam cover on the fabric. When
Stacked, these loam coverings stick together . Since these hoses can be
Shaped easily without breaking, attractive Sculptural patterns can be created (see10.8) .
10.8. Making a bathroom wall from lightweight loam-filled cotton hoses
After laying and some drying, the surface Can be easily smoothed with a wet brush. In the wall shown in
10.8 hoses 70 cm In length are laid between vertical posts of 4 x 4 cm turned at 45, or triangular
elements Fixed to the main posts of the end Of the wall.As a rule, three to five layers can be stacked Per
day, but in order to increase this number Some cement can be added to speed up The drying process.
11.1.
EARTHEN STORAGE WALL IN WINTER GARDENS
In order to enhance the thermal storage And the humidity balancing effect of a winter
Garden with a floor area of 20 m2, forming Part of a residence at Kassel, Germany,
A storage wall made of wet plastic loam Loaves was built (11.1 ).
The loaves, measuring 20 x 14 cm, were Formed by hand and stacked without mortar
Or filled joints, thereby effectively doubling The surface of the loam that is active
In thermal storage and humidity absorption And desorption.
11.1 Heat storage wall in a winter garden
11.2.
LOAM IN BATHROOMS
The assertion that a loam-finished bathroom Is more hygienic than a tiled bathroom Astonishes many.
Both experiences Over several years with bathrooms having Loam walls and scientific investigations
Regarding the absorptive and desorptive Behavior of loam have, however, demonstrated This assertion.
Mirrors in a bathroom that is tiled up to the Ceiling have been observed to fog up after A normal hot
shower. With doors and windows Closed, the mirror remains fogged up To a period of 30 to 60 minutes
after the Shower. In a bathroom with loam walls, By contrast, the mirror clears under similar Conditions
in only 3 to 6 minutes. This is Because loam walls absorb humidity from The room when its relative
humidity is higher. Since humidity in bathrooms with loam Walls reduces quickly, fungus growth cannot
Occur, whereas in tiled bathrooms, the Humidity remains high over a longer period Due to the sealed
surfaces, allowing fungus Growth in the joints of the tiles, especially Joints grouted with silicone
material. While formaldehyde in the joint mixture prevents This, it should be mentioned that this
chemical Is carcinogenic. Even the wall behind the shower can be of Loam, as long as the shower curtain
wraps Around to prevent it from getting splashed, See 11.2).
11.2. Bedroom, private residence
11.3.
BUILT-IN FURNITURE AND SANITARY OBJECTS FROM LOAM
As already indicated, the plasticity of loam Allows not only for the building of exterior
Walls, ceilings and floors but also of built-in Furniture. For this, loam elements when still
Wet are particularly suitable as they can be Given a great variety of shapes; they also
Open up new aesthetic possibilities. The bedroom wall shown in 11.3. is both
An external wall and a built-in closet. It is Built from stranglehm elements.
11.3. Bedroom, private residence in Kassel, Germany
The side partition walls of the Wardrobe also buttress the exterior wall. The bamboo rod, built in during
construction, Acts as a hanger rod, and also stiffens The side partition walls. On another external Wall of
this bedroom, Niches and ledges for storing personal Effects were carved out of the stranglehm Wall.
11.4. Bathroom, private residence in Kassel, Germany
shows such shelves And a mirror integrated into the wall. Illustration 11.4. shows a bathroom whose
Central shower, adjacent planter and bath Tab are covered by loam-filled hoses. Even washbasins can be
built from unbaked Loam. It is made Of a special sandy loam with high binding Force, in which
shrinkage cracks were totally Avoided. To this mixture 6% double-boiled Linseed oil was added. After
drying, the Basin was coated with a layer of linseed oil. . In both cases, trap and drain fittings were
Mounted in a small ceramic bowl, around Which the loam was arranged. It is sculpted Of unbaked loam
stabilised by 6% of Casein-lime glue. Both washbasins proved To be waterproof..
11.4. Bathroom, private residence
12. EARTHQUAKE-RESISTANT BUILDING

Earth as a building material has lost its credibility chiefly because most modern houses with earth walls
cannot withstand earthquakes, and because earth is viewed a building material for the poor. In this
context, it is worth mentioning that a census conducted by the Salvadoran government after the
earthquake of January 13, 2001
(measuring 7.6 on the Richter scale), states that adobes houses were not worse affected than other types
of construction. On the other hand, many historical earth buildings have withstood several strong
earthquakes in recent centuries, for example the condominiums of the Hakas in China (12.1) and many
solid rammed earth fincas in Argentina. But also houses with lightweight roofs and flexible wattle-anddaub can withstand earthquake shocks because of their ductility (flexibility). The quality of an
earthquake-resistant structure can be expressed in the formula structural quality = resistance x ductility. .
This means that the lower the resistance of a given structure, the higher its flexibility must be, while the
higher its flexibility, the lower the required resistance.It is not earth as a building material which is
responsible for structural failures, but instead
the structural system of a given building and the layout of its openings.
12.1 Condominium of the Hakkas, China
Earthquakes are caused by the movements of tectonic plates or by volcanic activity.

In Asia, earthquakes with intensities of 8 on the Richter scale have been recorded; in the Andes, ones
measuring up to 8.7. Annually, nearly a hundred earthquakes are recorded with intensities above 6, and
twenty with intensities above 7 on the Richter scale. Several thousand people are affected by earthquakes
every year. Buildings are mainly struck by the horizontal acceleration created by the movement of the
earth. The vertical accelerations created by seismic activity are less then 50% of the horizontal ones.
Therefore, one of the main structural tasks when designing earthquake-resistant buildings is to insure that
walls do not fall out.
12.1.
STRUCTURAL MEASURES
When designing for earthquake-prone zones, it should be considered that the seismic
forces acting on a building are proportional to its mass, and that deflection increases significantly with
height. When designing two-storied buildings, therefore, it is advisable that the ground floor be built
solid, while the upper floor is kept light, preferably with a flexible framed structure. Heavy roofs with
slabs, slates and tiles
should be avoided in principle. Walls usually fall outwards because they lack a closed ring beam,
sufficient bending and shear strength, and because door and window openings weaken the wall structure.
Under seismic influences, forces are concentrated into the corners of these openings, creating cracks.
12.2. ideal shapes
In Order To Reduce The Danger Of Collapse, The Following Points Should Be Kept In Mind:
1. Houses should not be located on inclined sites .
2. The buildings resonant frequency should not match the frequency of the earth movement
during earthquakes. This means that heavy houses with solid construction should
not rest on hard rock bases, but instead on sandy or silty soils. Light houses, however,
perform better on hard rock than on soft soil.
3. The different parts of a house should not have foundations on different levels, nor
have differing heights. If they do, then they should be structurally separated. Since sections
of different heights display differing resonant frequencies, they should be
allowed to oscillate independently.
4. Plans should be as compact as possible, and should be symmetrical. Circular plans give better rigidity
than rectangular ones.
5. Foundations have to act like stiff ring anchors, and should therefore be reinforced.
6. Foundations, walls and roofs should be well fixed to each other, the joints being
able to withstand the shear forces produced.
7. Walls must be stable against bending and shear forces. Masonry work must have
fully filled joints and strong mortar.
8. Load-bearing masonry walls should have minimum thicknesses of 30 cm; their heights
should not exceed eight times their thicknesses .
9. Masonry walls should be stiffened with piers at a minimum every 4 m (with minimum
sections of 30 x 30 cm), or with posts that are structurally fixed in the foundation
(i.e. able to take movement) .
10. Wall corners, joints between walls and across walls, as well as door openings have
to be stiffened by vertical posts of either timber or reinforced concrete, which are
structurally fixed in the foundation, or by buttresses, so that horizontal forces do not
open these elements .
11. Walls have to be finished on top by a ring beam, which has to be adequately
fixed to the walls.
12. Extra lintels above doors and windows should be avoided, and should be formed
by ring beams .
13. Roofs should be as light as possible.
14. The horizontal thrusts of vaults and domes should be sufficiently contained by
ring beams, buttresses or ties.
15. Openings destabilise walls and should be carefully proportioned .
There are two basic approaches to designing For earthquake resistance.

The first and Most commonly used method is to construct Walls, roofs and their joints stiffly
Enough so that they cannot break or be Deformed under seismic loads. The second
Approach is to endow the structure with Sufficient ductility so that the kinetic energy
Of any seismic impact will be dissipated via Deformation. This is the more intelligent
Solution, especially as it entails fewer structural Problems and materials.
If, for example, a vertical wall with a framed Structure stabilised by tensile diagonals is
Impacted horizontally from the right (as Shown in 15.9), there will be a concentration
Of stress on both ends of the tie leading From lower left to upper right. Weakness,
Then, will occur first at these joints, possibly Leading to wall failure. An elastically framed
Structure without diagonals, on the other Hand provided the corners are able to
Take some moment and that no structural Element is overloaded usually allows
Deformation to occur without leading to Wall collapse. In the second case, obviously,
The infill of the frame must also be somewhat Flexible. Therefore, walls built with
The wattle-and-daub technique in which a Flexible network of horizontal and vertical
Components is plastered with loam, for Example, are less prone to damage than
Masonry walls. Illustration 15.1 shows a House in guatemala that was struck by a
Heavy earthquake and was flexible enough To withstand the stress.
Different General Principles For Designing Earthquake-Resistant Structures:

1. Walls and roof are well interconnected And rigid enough that no deformation
Occurs during earthquakes.
2. Walls are flexible (ductile) enough so that The kinetic energy of the earthquake is
Absorbed by deformation. In this case it is Necessary to install a ring beam strong
Enough to take bending forces; the joints Between wall and ring beam, and ring
Beam and roof must be strong enough.
3. The walls are designed as mentioned Under 2, but the roof is fixed to columns
that are separated from the wall, so that both structural systems can move independently,
since they have different frequencies during an earthquake.
Three research projects undertaken by the Building Research Laboratory, University

of Kassel, Germany, analysing earthquake damage to single-story rural houses in
Guatemala, Argentina and Chile, concluded that the same errors in structural design
consistently led to collapse.
12.2.
OPENINGS FOR DOORS AND WINDOWS
Wall apertures will destabilise a wall system. During earthquakes, diagonal cracks often
occur, starting at the window edges .
12.3. types of openings

In order to achieve a good bond, lintels must penetrate at least 40 cm into the wall .In this case, however, the area
above the lintel may be weak and may come off during an earthquake, so the best solution is to use the lintel as a ring
beam on which the roof structure rests. It is also recommended that the section below the window be built as a light,
flexible structure, for instance from wooden panels or wattle and daub.
The Following Rules Have To Be Taken Into Account .

a) The width of a window should not be more than 1.2 m and not more than 1/3 of
the length of the wall.
b) The length of walls between openings must be at least 1/3 of their height and not
less than 1 m.
c) Doors must open outward. Opposite the entrance door should be a large window or
another door, which acts emergency exit .
13. STABILISERS
After the decade of 1950, and mainly in the last years, the interest of earth architecture reemerges
concerning the actual environmental issues in the world. This way, new technologies appear to improve
the durability of earth architecture. New processes were developed to make earth pressed blocks and
monolithic walls with earth
using machines for static or dynamic press, as well as extrusion processes to make blocks or plates and
sprayed processes to apply earth mixtures directly in situ. In the last years studies of soil stabilization
using natural or synthetic additives have been also performed by some researchers in order to evaluate the
durability performance of earth as a construction material. These studies about soil stabilization methods
show that, with the incorporation of appropriate stabilizing agents, it is possible to obtain earth
architecture with greater
durability against water actions. This increase of earth building durability could help to change
the inappropriate and prejudiced perception still existing about the earth material.
13.1 RURAL STABILISERS

Traditional Building Has Used Many Other Stabilisers. There Is A List Of Common, Well-Tried
Ones:
Straw: There is no chemical quality about this stabiliser. In clay soils the straw seems to
minimize cracking, and in blocks the presence of straw tends to make the damp blocks
more handlable. Similar to straw, people in different areas use chaff (bhusa) and various
fibres.
Cow Dung often contains a lot of fibrous material and traditionally is often used in all
sorts of mud work.
Urine is also used. Probably this is because of the urea content and the urea acts as a
binder - a sort of glue.
Gum Arabic and other gums and resins are used, also as binders and water proofing
agents.
Sugar and molasses is used. The crude waste jaggery is a binder and it often contains
fibrous materials, which is also useful.
Tannic Acid and its wastes, used in other rural industries has proved often to be a good
stabiliser.
Oil is used. In such places as Kerala - coconut oil was used, mainly with the intention of
water proofing the surface of mud walls. Almost any oil is useful in this way and the
modern counterpart is waste engine oil or sump oil. This works well as a waterproofing in
cement concrete as well as in mud walling.
RURAL STABILISERS
For some soils 'High Tech' can't improve
on these.
13.1
PLANT JUICES
Stabilisers from
plant juices: sisal, cacti etc.
13.2
Many plants have sticky white sap, as from poinsettias, various cactus plants, sisal, and
so on. These seem to act as both binders and water proofers. Many of the saps from trees
are also resinous and are good water proofing but Often very difficult to use as they will
not mix with water and it is not easy to get then well mixed in with the mud. Local tricks
of the trade often supply simple answers.
13.2. STABILIZATION WITH LIME AND POZZOLANS

Pozzolan is a high fineness material that, when added to lime, becomes cementitious in the
Presence of water. This property can be beneficial in soil stabilization and in mortars or plasters
With lime to coat the earth walls. There is a millennial example of lime-pozzolana utilization in
Earth constructions and mortars, the sarooj. This material has origin in Iran and it has been
Used to protect earth buildings from water action. The sarooj is a binding durable material
And it consists in a pozzolanic mixture based on clayey soil (sand and clay), lime, ashes and
Other additives. This mixture results in a material similar to hydraulic portland cement. It was
Applied for water thanks typical from Iran, as in ice Iranian reservoirs called
Yakhchal .Research works realized by the authors at University of Minho reveal that the soil
stabilization With a mixture of metakaolin/lime (5% of soil mass) increases the compressive strength
Comparing to the unstabilized ones .
13.3 STABILIZATION WITH BIOPOLYMERS AND LIME

Polymers can be from natural or artificial source and from biological (vegetable or animal) or
mineral origin. At the present text the mentioned biopolymers are organic ones from natural and
biological origin, without any kind of laboratorial synthesizing.
The major influence of biopolymers addition in earth construction is the result of rheological
effects developed in clay particles of soil. The main verified action is related with the
biopolymers capability to change the electrostatic charge of the clay particles. This effect causes
dispersion and posterior attraction, that change the particles from a state of face to face
(Fig.13.3) to a state of face to edge
13.3 face to face particles
The incorporation of biopolymers on earth construction was carried out for a long time and they
were particularly used in order to improve the behaviour against water. There are numerous examples
of biopolymers that have been added as stabilizers in earth construction, some from vegetable origin,
such as flours, starches, gums, cactus, oils, waxes or resins of plants and others from animal origin, such
as animal fats, whey, casein, egg whites, blood, excrement and urine.
13.4. STABILIZATION WITH MINERAL ADDITIVES

In addition to the known stabilizers such as lime, cement, pozzolans or gypsum, others mineral
additions have been used to improve soil characteristics, mainly its durability. Between these
additions are some salts and mineral compounds. The most used ones in earth construction are
sodium chloride and sodium hydroxide (Houben et al 1989 and Anger et al 2009). The known effect of
sodium chloride is the viscosity control of clay and its consolidation by flocculation of clay particles,
binding them again by attraction, depending on the amount of salt contained or added to the soil. This
viscosity control is important, once that has influence on the mechanical properties. Consequently, one
can reduce the water content and soil porosity, obtaining a more resistant soil mixture (Anger et al 2009).
In Egypt there is an example of a constructive technique little known, used in the building of a 12th
century fortress, and other buildings, in the oasis of Siwa that nowadays is still used. This is a masonry
performed with blocks of mud rich in salt, linked with mud mortar very rich in salt. The results obtained
in tests with this masonry technique show an increase of the mechanical
14. LITERATURE STUDY OF BANSURA HILL RESORT

The Banasura Resorts is in its kind, claimed to be the largest mud resort in Asia at Vellamunda in
backdrop of Banasura hills, 18 km away from Mananthavady in Wayanad district, Kerala. It nestling in
35 acres of greenery stacked with pepper, coffee and tea plantations and ponds. The 20,000 sq ft twostorey structure in the Banasura hills is made entirely out of mud with bamboo and coconut palm leaf
roofs .Tucked away at an altitude of 3500 feet above sea level in the hills of Wayanad in the Malabar
region, the Banasura Hill Resort has been named Asia's largest 'earth' resort and is considered on of the
'greenest' destination in the Nilgiris biosphere. This mist-clad hill of Wayanad, Banasura is an ideal
retreat for the traveller who looks for a more enriching experience than a mere vacation. Sprawling across
a 35 acre eco- friendly farm, Banasura Hill Resort stands in the middle of a tropical forest with exotic
flora and fauna. It is owned by a Virginia-based software engineer from Kerala, whose company
straddles two continents. Shankar Thiruvillakat initially thought of setting the place up as a getaway for
his employees. But fired by the imagination of Eugene Pandala, one of India's best known architects who
works with traditional building technologies and is an enthusiast for mud buildings, it became an
audacious architectural marvel. When most of India's architects are designing energy- guzzling glass and
chrome buildings that are supposed to mark the arrival of a new India, Pandala offers a different vision the Wayanad earth resort is elegant and utterly modern. The proponents of mud houses are mostly driven
by an urge to build environment friendly dwellings as well as address the question of depleting natural
resources as manifested in the acute sand crisis in Kerala (Gopakumar, 2010). The mud to be used can
often be excavated from the construction site as in the case of the Banasura Hill Resort. Built using mud
excavated from the very site that it stands on, the resort is a fine example of rammed earth architecture,
and a glowing tribute to vernacular construction methods. The mud is non-toxic, non-allergic, rot and
termite proof, controls humidity and offers great sound isolation. Perhaps the crowning glory of the
technology lies in the way it can balance fluctuations in temperature throughout the year, that is store
both warmth and coolness. People from the nearby Kurichiya village played a significant role during the
construction of the resort, contributing their skill and expertise in building with mud. At Banasura, we
believe in making optimal use of environmental resources, maintaining the ecological balance, and
helping to conserve natural heritage and biodiversity. Thousands of Guadua bamboo saplings planted
around the resort creates a bio fencing while improving the already pristine air quality. Vetiver grass
planted in critical areas prevents soil erosion. The Resort value and respect the socio-cultural identity of
the local community. They intend to culturally sensitize our guests through interaction with the local
community. They encourage guests to visit tribal villages closed to the resort. This not only helps in the
exchange of knowledge and wisdom between visitors and local residents, but also helps in inculcating in
the host community a sense of pride in what they are.
The concept of the Banasura Resort is unique in many ways. No air-conditioners are needed as the mud
walls act as an effective regulator of heat and cold. Moreover, there is a cooling stream flowing through
the property (Padanna, 2010). Eco-friendly features include a bio-gas plant that recycles organic waste
and fires the resort's kitchens. Also the resort is completely lit by CFL lamps to minimize energy
consumption. The resort itself has been built from mud and recycled wood and natural light is exploited
to the fullest. Limited natural resources need to be conserved and hence one should reuse and recycle
materials and resources such as water. Preference for readily available materials from indigenous sources
orientate the building activities at the regional level to self-reliance, energy saving, low production costs
and minimum transportation costs. Recycled wood is used for much of the woodwork and periodic antitermite treatment is done using cashew-shell oil rather than chemical agents. Natural light is exploited to
the fullest, while CFL lamps provide extra lighting, minimizing energy consumption. A bio-gas plant
recycles organic waste and fires the resorts kitchens.
14. 1: The exterior view of the resort at dusk
14. 2 : Resort side view
14.3 : Inside the Resort
14.4 : Tourist cottage in the Resort
15. INITIATIVE TO DEVELOP EARTH ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA
The report will be incomplete if no mention is taken on the modern developments in the field of earth
architecture taking place presently in India:
The Centre for Sustainable Technologies (CST) established as Centre for ASTRA
(Application Of Science and Technology For Rural Areas) in 1974, is IIScs (Indian Institute of
Science) interdisciplinary research and technology development centre for providing sustainable
solutions regarding energy, buildings and environment. The Centres focus is on promoting
Sustainable Technologies to suit local conditions of resource availability and habitation. This is
a Centre where extensive research on stabilized mud blocks have taken place.
AUROVILLE Earth Institute is the next remarkable one in India which is at Pondicherry.
This is founded by HUDCO (Housing and Urban Development Corporation), Government
of India, in 1989. The institute is researching, promoting, developing, promoting and
transferring earth based technologies which are cost and energy effective.
16. WORKSHOP AT LAURIE BAKER CENTER
Preparation of mud for

wall construction.
16.1
A complete mud wall

after construction.
16.2
17. BUILT EXAMPLES

"...the reality of architecture is not contained in the roof and walls, but in the space within. It is the space
that is."
- Nari Gandhi
17.1. MOON DUST RESIDENCE, MADH ISLAND
Exterior detail of the roof overhang,

supported by trusses. The overhang
has rectangular openings and is
sheathed in terracotta tiles . Exterior
detail of a roof projection supported
by wooden struts and clad along the
edge with flat terracotta tiles .
17.1
Roof detail showing chipped

stonework at the base of the lower
roof and protruding struts to support
the deep overhang.
17.2
Detail of a staircase on an arch.

Located in the living room, the stair
leads to the bedrooms on the upper
floor
17.3
Interior view of the intersecting

stone arches made from a variety of
chipped stones, large boulders, and
terracotta pots
17.4
View of the dining area with a mural

wall at left. Beyond the glazed
slanted wall is the beach.
17.5
Interior view looking at a stone wall

made in situ using stone chips, large
dressed stones, and boulders .
17.6
Exterior detail of the terracotta-tiled

roof overhang supported by
numerous struts .
17.7
17.2.
FARMHOUSE, WAZIRPUR, INDIA
The single-storeyed house, with a floor area (including veranda) of 206 m2, is mostly set into the earth
berms towards the north of the lake. The south side is exposed to the winter sun and is shaded against the
summer sun by overhangs and louvers. The rooms are arranged around a central patio containing a small
pool with plants.
This enables cross ventilation for all rooms and cooling by evaporation. The plan was generated by a
pattern of octagons and squares. The structural frame consists of load-bearing stone columns which
support
beams and stone slabs to form slightly domical enclosures over all rooms. A light coloured stone roof
above this structure creates an air cavity and thus reflects solar radiation and provides shade to the thin
roof below. The infill walls are built with adobes (handmade mud bricks). Wherever the berms cover the
external face, an air
cavity is formed by an inclined stone slab resting against the wall. All external surfaces of the building
have either air cavities or summer shading by overhangs and louvers.
17.8 Front facade
The stone louvers of all windows are designed to take over the function of the usual steel security grill,
and at the same time provide sun shading as well as the reflection of daylight into the rooms. Additional
cooling in the summer months is provided to all rooms by an earth tunnel system. The distance from the 2
kW fan to the building is about 60 m. The section consists of two masonry ducts at average depths of 3 m
below surface. The maximum air velocity is kept to 6 m/sec.The elements of passive climatisation are
shown in the drawing below.
17.9 plan of building
Architects: Gernot Minke, Kassel, Germany,

and DAAT, New Delhi, India
Completion: 1993
Area: 206 m2
Walls: Stone columns with adobe infill
Roof: Double layer of sand stone slabs with
air cavity
17.10 interior view
17.3.
OFFICE BUILDING, NEW DELHI, INDIA
This office building was constructed in order to prove that domed and vaulted rooms built of earth blocks
are conducive to a better indoor climate and can be more economical than traditional buildings with flat
concrete roofs.
17.11 view of building
The project was built as part of a research and development project sponsored by the
German agency Gate/GTZ. The building provides office and laboratory space for a research group with a
usable
area of 115 m2. The central hall acts as a multi-purpose room for seminars, meetings and exhibitions.
The three domes were built of soil blocks, utilising a rotational slipform that was developed by the
Building Research Laboratory, University of Kassel, Germany .The soil blocks were produced by a
manually
operated press. For heating and cooling, an earth tunnel system was installed. Climate conditions require
that the rooms are cooled from April to September and heated from December to February. For this
purpose, a 100-m-long stoneware pipe system was installed in a depth of 3.50 m, through which ambient
air is blown by two fans. The blown air receives the nearly constant earth temperature of about 25C,
which corresponds to the annual mean temperature. This air cools the building in the hot season and heats
it in the cold season.
17.12 plan of building
The energy saving results in nearly 38,000 kWh per year, about 2/3 of the total amount. The saving in
building costs in comparison with a conventional building with flat concrete roof was 22%.
Foundation and plinth: Burned bricks

Vertical walls and domes: Stabilized soil blocks
Vaults: Handmade stabilized adobes
Surface treatment: Cow dung-mud mortar with water repellent
Skylights: Acrylic glass with openings for natural ventilation
17.13 view of office
In western countries thousands of luxury earth homes have been built in the last few
decades, which demonstrate the many qualities of this natural building material, and
give
the lie to any association with poverty and inferiority.
18. CONCLUSION
The architecture of the future would be gauged not only on the hi tech technology it uses, the heights it
scales, the comfort it provides but also how efficient it is, how green it is and how much does it conserve,
reuse and on how it reduces its carbon emission. The ancient knowledge, adequately used and well
adapted to the new technologies for casting earth material, may enable innovative ways to improve the
durability and the performance of earth buildings. This way, one can conclude that these additions will be
beneficial for earth construction in order to improve its durability against water action, being possible to
build walls without coating
it, assuring a good performance due to reduced water permeability and maintaining the high
water vapor permeability of the material, one of the main advantages of earth construction.
The architecture and design of the future would not aim at standing from everything around but blend
with earth and its surroundings as if it was an integral part of its own environment.
Architecture of the future would have to be based on the sustainable and practical use of the natural
resources available to us. Architects and designers should constantly work at satisfying human needs for
growth and prosperity while making our future sustainable with the limited natural resources that we
possess. The architecture in the future would have to blend with the modern urban fabric, woven with the
traditional cultural and sociological needs of the community.
19. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES

o
Laurie baker center ,NASA workshop: AR. P.B. Sajan & AR. Shailaja nayar
Gernot Minke Building with Earth Design and Technology of a Sustainable

Architecture
Clarke Snell Tim Callahan: Building Green, a complete how-to guide to alternative
building methods, earth, plaster, straw bale, cordwood, cob, living roofs- 1st
edition,2004.
http://www.earth-auroville.com/earth_dug_out_en.php
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_
http://calearth.org/building-designs/what-is-superadobe.html
http://earthstructures.com.au/rammed-earth-construction/rammed-earth-house/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rammed_earth
http://www.rammedearthconstructions.com.au/index.php?mp_id=8
Aslam, M.; Satiya, R.C.: A Technique of Waterproofing Mud Walls. Building

Materials Note No. 14. Central Research Institute, Roorkee, India.
Minke, G.: "Design and Construction of Energy and Cost Saving Vault and
Dome Structures," in: Proceedings of the International Symposium of Hassan
Fathy for Architecture for the Poor, April 20-22, 1993. Cairo, Egypt 1993.
Graeme North - Registered Architect, chairman of the Standards New Zealand

Technical Committee for Earth Building, inaugural chairman of EBANZ
http://www.earthbuilding.org.nz
http://www.smarterhomes.org.nz
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Vol. 05, No.
04 (02), August 2012, pp. 1010-1014
Turab,Yusuf (2012): Sustainable rchitecture for India. Web site

http://www.thehindu.com/life-and- style/homes-and- gardens/article3558934.ece.
Gothi, Deepak, R. & Joseph, Priya (2011): Architecture of the Future-Local,

Sustainable processes and product, Architecture: Time Space & People, Vol.11,Issue 3,
March 2011, pp.26-30.
Jaquin, P.A. Augarde, C.E. Gerrard, C.M. (2008) Historic rammed earth distribution.
International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 2(4): 377-400
Jaquin, P.A. (2008) Analysis of Historic Rammed Earth. PhD Thesis. University of
Durham, Durham

Earth Architcture

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Earth Architcture

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

EARTH ARCHITECTURE

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

AR. KANIKA AGARWAL

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

TEERTHANKER MAHAVEER COLLEGE OF

This is to certify that the Disertation entitled "EARTH ARCHITECTURE

Ar. Akshat Garg

Ar. Manoj Jain

I declare that the Dissertation entitled "EARTH ARCHITECTURE is the

Figure 3.1: Storage Room, Temple Of Ramses II ..................................................................................................... 2

Figure 8.14:Two Head Ram Used In Ecuador........................................................................................................... 17

Figure 8.36:Filled In Adobe ...................................................................................................................................... 30

Figure 13.1: Rural Stabilisers .................................................................................................................................. ...54

Figure 17.10 Interior View ..................................................................................................................................... ...65

2. EARTH AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

3.1 Storage rooms, temple of Ramses II, Gourna, Egypt

4. EVIDENCES FROM HISTORY

4.1 Fortified city, Draa valley, Morocco

4.2 Rammed earth house, Weilburg, Germany, 1828

6. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL:

6.1 section of soil

6.2 Pyramid Of Soil

6.1.For constructing the three main type of soil are:

6.3 soil types

6.2. USABILITY OF DIFFERENT SOILS

swelling and shrinkage-reducing

to increase plasticity without water

increasing resistance to erosion and weather.

SYSTEMIZNIG ACCORDING TO THE EXECUTION

8.1. DUG OUT:

8.1 Tunisia, Matmata

8.2 Fairy Chimney

8.2. Cut blocks: (cut block, mud bricks)

Figure 8.4 mud brick wall

Figure 8.5 making mud bricks

8.3.Formed: (clay-slip straw, light earth)

Figure8.6 clay-slip straw

8.4.Covered: (green roof)

Figure 8.7 green roofs

8.5.Extruded: (extruded adobe)

Figure8.8. Extruded bricks

8.9. Production of extruded bricks

8.6.Wattle and daub:

8.10. daub wooden Lattice work

8.7.POURED (MONOLITHIC EARTH WALLS, CEMENT-LIME ADDED

8.11. formwork methods

8.12. formwork house

Therefore, the following points should be born in mind:

8.13. formwork tools.

8.14 Two-head ram used in Ecuador

8.15 Pneumatic rams (Atlas-Copco)

8.16.a. Vibrating ram (Heuser)

8.16.a. Vibrating ram (Heuser)

8.8.b Method of construction

8.17 Shrinkage cracks in a rammed earth wall, Ecuador

8.8.c RAMMED EARTH IN INDIA

8.20 The formwork and how it support.

8.22 Tamping wall by hand.

8.23 scaffolding made of casuarinas poles.

8.26 The rammer used on the walls.

8.29 this effect is created by ramming into a formwork of log

8.8d. RAMMED EARTH DOMES

8.34 & 8.35.

Constructing the rammed earth dome with a rotating formwork