Lucia Stoicescu

DIMENSIONS
OF
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

SIBIU

Chapter I
INGLlSH LANGUAGE TEACHDVG
Comlderations on the history of language teaching
lt hu been estimated that some sixty percent of today& world population is
mtltilingual, Both from a Contemporary and a historical perspective,
bllingunlism or multilingualism is the norm rather than the exception.
Where:: today English is the world's most widely studied foreign language,
hundred years ago it was IAtin, for it was the dominant language
of
Iducltion, commerce, religion, and government in the We stem world. In
th& 16th
century, however, French, Italian, and English gained an
importance as a result of political changes in Europe, and Latin gradually
became dirplaced as a language of spoken and written communication,
AI the status of Latin dirninished from that of a living language to that of an
"occnsional" subject in the school curriculum, the study of Latin took
on a
different inction. The study of classical Latin (the Latin in which the
clinical works of Virgil, Ovid, and Cicero were Miner:) and an analysis of
Iu grummr and rhetoric became the model fur foreign language study &am
!ha 17th to the 19th eenturies. Children cinte-ring "gram
mar school" in the
16th. 17th, and 18th centuries in England
were initially given a rigorous
introduction to Latin gram mar, which was tzught through rute learning
of
grunmar rules, study of declensions and conjugations, translations and
practice in writing sample sentences, sometimes with the use of parallei
bilrngual texts and dialogs (Howatt, 1983:9). School learning must have
been a deadening experience iar children, for lapses in knowledge
were
oenmetunthbmtalpnnslnnentherewereoocasionalrttemptsmpromate
lltemativeapproachesmedilcatiomMontaigieinne lthoeritnryandOomenius

uidlohnloclce inthe Wdicenturyforexanrplehadmdespecicproposalsfur

cimiculumreformandfor changes in the wztylatin was taught (Howatt, 1983).

"modem" languages began to enter the curriculum of European schools
in the 18th century, they were taught using the
same basic procedures that
were used for teaclzing Latin. The books consisted of statements of abstract
grnmmar rules, lists of vocabulary, and sentences fo! translations. Spealdng
the foreign language was not the goal, and oral practice
was limited to
An

students reading aloud the seniences they had translated, These senterices
were constructed to illustrate the grai-rimatical system of the language and
consequently bore no relation to the language of real communication.
By the 19th century, this approach based on the study of Latin had become
the standard way of studying foreign languages in schools. A typical
textbook in the rrud-mneteenth century thus consisted of chapters or lessons
organized around grammar points. Each grammar point was listed, rules on
its use were explained, and it was illustrated by sample sentences.
In
of a chronological perspective, the GrammapTranslation Method
dominated European and foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the
19405, and in modified fond it continues to he widely used in
some parts of
the world today. Although Grammy-Translation oen creates ii-ustratiou
for students, it makes few demands on teachers. It is still used in situations
where understanding literary texts is the primary focus of foreign Language
study and there is little need for a spealdng knowledge of the language.
Though it may he true to say that the Grammar-Tianslation Method is still
widely practiced, it has rio advocates. It is a method for which there is no
theory. There is no literature that offers a rational or justitcation for it,
or
that attemps to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational
theory.
Towards the nrid-.nineteenth century several factors contrihuted to a
questioning and rejection of the Gramrnar-Translation Method. Increased
opportunities for communications among Europeans created a demand for
oral prociency in foreign languages including the English language.
Initially this created a market for conversation books and phrase books
intended for private study but language teaching specialists also turned their

memwwdwwwmideuilangmgeswereheingmiglnmseeondaryschmlsln

England and otherparts of Europe,

new approaches to language teaching were
developed by individual language teaching specialists, each with
a speciii::
method for refomiing the teaching of modern languages. Some
of these
like T. P., Preridergast (1806-1886) did not
imiiage to achieve any
lasting impact, though their ideas are of historical interest, The
T.
Prendergast was one of the rst to record the ohservation that children
use
oontextiialandsimationalcues tointerpretutteranrmandthatieyuseuiemryriaed
phrases and "rolztincs" in spealdng.

He proposedlthe first "structural syllabus" advocatjng that leameis he taught

the most hasic structural pattems cecuri-ing in the language, Iii this
way he
was anticipating an issue that was to be taken up in the l920s and
1930s.Prendergast's work, like the work of other individual language
specialists (Marcel, Gouin and other innovators) reflects the changing
6

aliniate of the times in which they worked. Educators recognized the need
for spealcing prociency rather than reading comprehension, graminar, or
literary appreciation as the goal for foreign language programs.
As with the &animax-Translation Method, the Direct Method is not new.
Its principles have been applied by language teachers for many years. Most
recently, it was revived as a method when the goal of instruction became
learning how to use a foreign language to communicate. In her Dook, Diane
Larsen-Freeman points out the principles of the Direct Method as inferred
&om previous observatiort Going hand in hand with the observation steps,
objects are considered to be used to help students understand the meaning.
'I`he teacher should demonstrate, not explain or translate. Students are
supposed to make a direct association between the target language and
meaning, whereas no native language should be used in the classroom.
Students should leam to think in the target language as soon as possible. As
die purpose of language learning is communication students need to learn
how to ask questions as well as answer them and vocabulary is acquired in
context, rather than rnernorizing word lists. As to the pronunciation, this
should he worked on right from the beginning of language Ieamiugvas in

diecaseofwdnngsldlGramuiarissupposedtobetaughtinrhicvelyand

explicit grammar rules may never be given Leaming another language involves
learninghowspeakers ofthat language live (Iarsm-Freeumn, 1986: 12),
To conclude, learning a new language naturally by living, working, and
interesting with other people who speak it as their mother tongue is a
normal, everyday occurrence. The success of learning a language, and
particularly of the child acquiring its mother tongue, has always iinpressed
language teachers, aud attempts to reproduce the same effect by creating the
sanie causes have been a regular feature of language teaching history.

A brief history oi' the English language teaching

The history of English language teaching is a vast subject; yet, let us
consider at least a limited perspective. The spread of English round the
world in the wake of trade, empire - building, migration, and settlement has
ensured the teaching of the language a role, sometimes central, sometimes
peripheral, in the educational history of virtually every country on earth.
It was towards the end of the Middle Ages when the teaching of modern
vemacular languages hegan in England when French died out as the second
language of the kingdom and gradually surrounded to English. The process
of linguistic change in England from a bilingual feudal community to a
large rnonolingual nation was slow but irreversible. The author of the
7

History of English Language Teaching, A.P.R. Howat views the break

with the past, represented hy the usurpation of the throne &om Richard ll by
the House of Lancaster in 1399, the expression of a linguistic departure too.
The order deposing Richard was read in English and Henry lV himself
elected to use English both in claiming the crown and later in his acceptance
speech. The uadition was cari-led on by his son Henry V who adopted
English as the language of royal correspondence in place of French. By the
end of the 15th century even the statutes of the realm were written in
English, and the affairs of state handled through the royal secretariat were
conducted in the vernacular. Ta the Tudora, English was the language of the
nation, spoken hy all &om the King himselfdownwards. French was seen as
a prestigious accomplishment necessary for anyone with amhitious towards
culture or advancement in high places and Latin remained secure as the
mark of the properly educated man or woman.
The same book, a history of English Language Teaching, takes into
account early language teaching materials, which, in the absence of
grammntical and other descriptions of vemacular languages, relied mainly
on texts, and the dialogue form as a" slice of linguistic life" (Howartt 1984;
9, p. 5) was the obvious type to choose. Yet, the proper rst textbooks
designed solely to teach English as a foreign language do not appear until
the late 16th century aer the arrival of large numbers of French Huguenot
reliigees in the 15705 and 15805, but there are signs of sn interest in
learning the language among members of the mercantile community on the
oier side of the Channel. Double-manuala in the maniere trudition airning
to reach English to French speakers as well as the other way round started to
appear at the end of the 15th century. The first of these double mannals ms
a short book of dialogues and other texts prepared by William Caxtnn and
printed on his newly ~ established printing press in Westminster (1483). The
dtle - page of the book is said \io have been lost but it is known by its subheading as "Tres bonne doctrine pour aprendre brielinent franaoy: et
engloys or / Right good learning for to learn shortly French and English"
(Howatt, 1984: 9, p. 6). The Caxton manual follows the tredition of the
older 'manieres' except that, unlike them, it is hilingual.
There were other signs of a growing interest in learning English in the early
16th century. The polyglot dictionaries and phrase books began to include
English alongside the more widely-brown languages like French, Italian
and Latin. Beside these another example of early handbooks for the
teeching of English to oreigners before the more serions work with the
Huguenot refugees was a manual discovered by Aistan (A Very Protable

Book To learn The Manner Of Reading, Writing And Speaking English

And Spanish 1554).
The next stage in the development of English language leaching was
determined by major events in me mainstream of late sixteenthwentury
religious politics. The French Huguenot and other Protestant refugees from
Flenders, Italy, and even Spain, were for the most part skilled cratsmen and
artisans, dyers, weavers, smiths, lace makers, diamond-comm, and S0 on,
though some had a more intellectual' middle-class' background among
them, of course teachers. Such refugee teachers, standing for a cross section
of the language teaching community of the time, as Jacques Bellot,
Claudius Holyband and John Florin, deserve special consideration. The
first, I. Bellot the author of The English School Master and Familtar
Dialogue, was the most significant in the present context since he devoted
hirnself to the teaching of English to the immigrant French community in
london though he also taught his mother tongue to the nativa population.
The second, C. Holyhand, the author of The French School Master And
The French Littleton, the leading professional language teacher of his day
clairned to be "a professor of the English tongue" (Howatt, 1983: 9, p. 13),
although his principal work was teaching French to young children at a
suooession of schoola he founded in. his career give us a clear picture of the
high level of pedagogica] expertise that the irnrnigrant group brought to
their language teaching. The third teachcr, J. Florio, was much more than a
language teacher and textbook Writer. His interests and taiem took him into
virtually every aspect of linguistic and literary studies in the "Golden Age"
of the English Renaissance.
Apart from hrave attempts hy men like Holyband and his fellOw-refugees to
run Schools in which classical and veruamilar languages remaiued a small
scale enterprise, usually with a private tutor but occasionally in small
classes, throughout the 17th century. Young children arrived at the grammar
schoolatahomthcageofeighthavingaoquiredhasicliteracysldlls intherrxither
tongue, aud were irnmediately "force-iad with a diet of \mrelating Latin grummar
rules and denitions" (Howat 1984: 9, p. 32). Sclwolroom violenoe is a constant

themethroughmnthehtmauneofreformghtuptothepresentcenunxandit

was clearly very prevalent in the 16th aud 17th centrala. Germany takenfar the
best-selling language teaching textbook ever written, A Short Introduction 01'

GrarmmnalsolmownasmeRoalGranunarisusuaHycreditedtoWiHiam

Lilyandprovesmbeonesotnceoftheseinamousrules.
In terms of the role ami function of language studies, there were, hroadly
spealnng, two schools of thought in the late 16th -and early 17th century
education. The rst represented the humanist tradition established earlier
9

and reiterated in Roger Aschanrs irriluential bool The Schoohnaster (1570)

- comparable to John Locke's famous essays on education a century later_
'l'he other was a more puritanical philosophy set out at some length in
Francis Sacoris AdvancernentOf Learning (1605) which reached its :mm
elahorated expression in the work of Ian Autos Comenius. Of grea!
importance for the deseendants has been considered the work of Joseph
Wehbe belonging to the 'anti-grammar' strand of 18119333 mching
methodology, author of the treatise "An Appeal to Truth" (1522). In
Howatfs view Webbed was actually proposing a fond of a `direct method:
of language teaching, without the use of reference Gramrnars, which would
depend heavily au spoken interaetion and aim tu develop an internslized
knowledge of the language through the exercise of communicVacliviijes
("reading, writing, and spealcing atier ancient cirstotrf) conducted in
m,
foreign language. The second half of the 17th century was a ricmy
productive period in the history of theoretical and practical linguistics in
England, but, paradoxically, it was also, after the Restoration of 1660,
ercely reactionary pei-iod so far as education is concerned. Innovam a
ideas that had enrerged during the Cromwellian revolurion, under the
influence of thinkers like Comenius (and others in the Hartlih circle). Were
&usual/ed by the reassernon of the traditional gram mai 5611001 and
universiry system controlled through the established Anglican Church. GW
Miege prevad m be an ousandmg personality of the paiod, author of Nouvgne
Methode (whichhe n-anslated. as TheEnglsh Granturi-HSS).
The teaching of English as a foreign language was a rather 1555 Coming!,
activity in Britain during the 18th century than it had been in the 17m
century. The interest abroad in English philosophy and literature that had
prompted the gram mars of writers like John Wallis continued to grow, but
the textbooks needed to reach the language were no longer written by naive
speakers. The teaching of English outside Britain had beglm in the
Netherlands and the tradition had conlinued strongly throughout the 171;
century. France was the only other Emopean countfY 59515159 the
Netherlands with a history of English language teaching before 1600. Many
leamers of English acquired the language via French. It was the langue of
the Enlightenment, spoken by the largest amd most powerrl nation on th:
continent. Most important works originally written in English ?W115 their
way into a French translation and thus gained a wider audience.
'l`he real hrcakthrough for English language came towards the end of the
century in Germany where an interest, almost an ohsession, grew up mul&
the dramatic works of English literature, and particularly Shakespeare,
When the Germana umed from the formal classicism of French drama 1nd
10

its measured Alexsandiincs to the tree-wheeling Lyricism and passionate

romanticism of Shakespeare and other English dtarnatists interest in
learning the language quickened and it even began to cam a place for itself
in the school towards the end of the century. Denmark and then Italy
completed the 'inner circle' of neighboring countries with their gram mars as
well as Portugal and Spain, Russia and India later on.
There are three major strands in the development of language teaching in
the 19th century which rwine together in the great controversies of the last
two decades. The first is the most obvious and the best chronicled, namely
the gradual integration of foreigl language teaching into a modemized
secondary school curriculum In 1800 very few Schools laugh: foreign
languages except as "optional extras" (Howatt, 1984: 9, p. 129) ta the
principal work of the school, the teaching of classical languages. By 1900
most secondary schools of what could generally be called 'the grunmar
school type' had incorporated one or more of the major European languages
into their cote curriculum !n England the most significant development in
middle-class education, and the device that levered modem iinguages on to
the secondary school curriculum, was the establishment in the 18505 of a
system of public examinarions controlled by the universities.
The "warh back eect" as considered by Howatt (p.133) of this examination
had the inevitable result of determining both the content of the language
teaching syllabus and the meiodological principles of the teachcrs
responsible for prepsring children to take them Though public
examinations did not create the Gramar-Translation Method, they xed its
priorities.
lnterestinimprovedmethods oflanguage neachingine Dthcezrhrrywasnot

oonnedtodreRefomMoverrmtofshsttvmdecadesItmsesteadyusdie
prwdcdneedfororeigirhngrmgesgrewmnnpomnogandzfameofe
publiceducationsyrtemwrmetthechallengebecamemnreapparent

Dnnmgthersthalfofdiepresemoamnxdreteachingofglishassfotegn
hnguagecrngedasmarmnonnuspmusmhemtelleartalfumdanmrsisr

drisauwnomyresnedondiersionofdretvmrcfmnnnghadionsinheritedom
thepreviouscennirr. theappliedlmguisticapproachoftheReformMovement

andthenvnnlingualmethodologyoftheDirectMerod.'lhetatalysf Waste
of Harold Palmer in the Department of Phonetics at University College,

work

Inudombetween 1915 and 1922.

The development of English language teaching in the modem sense of the
word derived from a reinterpretation of the role of English in the Empire.
During the 19th century there was a largely unquestioned assumption that
English should be taughx in colonial school: in essenrially the same way as
11

in the mother country. 'I'he basic educational aim

the assimilation of
British culture via English literature. By the twentieswas
the notion that English
was a second language with a utilitar-ian function in the communication
of
knowledge had hegun to emerge, though it
was not until the ties that the
modem distinction between English as
a 'foreign' language (EFL) and
English as a 'second' language (ESL) became widespread.
In keeping with the mood of the time, the post-years in English
language
teaching were a constructive period in which earlier initiatives
were
consolidated in an atmosphere of methodologiml
consensus. The bsttles
over 'grammaf and 'translation' were over, and the most useful thing to do
was develop a modified 'direct method' approach which teachers could
handle with confidence and leamers could assimilate with
The switch
of attention from teaching the language system to teachingease.
the language as
communication highlighted a potentially difficult problem in
syllabuses, materials, and other forms
of classroom activity. In such terms
of interpreting communicative language teaching, the heart of the language
lesson is the coinmunicative activity itself, and communicative
syllabus
a
would presumahly consist of a series of such activities organized
round
some central principle.
To conclude, the history of English teaching is not only large
topic but an
a
extremely challenging one, the more 50 as it provides a better understanding
of a contemporary distinction: English as a mother tongue and English
foreign language, a separaon that cannot be projected back into the as a
past
too uncritically and that partially makes the subject of the following chapter.

Chapter l]
LEADERSHIP
Program
Leadership styles and leadership structures. In fact we are talking ajcgit
eople We always have to handle with students, teache-rs, the non-teac g
n&
we also have m handle with the influence of the world abroad., for
instsnce the local government and with the dernamt of the work-ESI&

Iwoiud like to talk about the following subjects.

l. Personal style.

In the am place 1 would like to talk about the personal styl& gaclitmon
has his own favourite style. A style more or less corinecte wi your
personality. That does not mean that you have only one style. It depends
from the situation.
I

5333x555&

211;.

going to talk about systems. What system, what climate exists

in your institute and on what vtmy you have to fit in?
3. Models.

& Blakem YOsPwDl-e

model, named the managerial grid by 3131& 3nd

production is
this
mtuedIn the glnizontal are two axes. The concernis for
illushed
for
people
0D the
axis. Concem
on
IIIOddClS cfan beodredicled to that
alll
important
fact
vertical axes. In
two
smtemeiits, care for peop e an care 401' P' C
3.2. Hersey. In this model a hnk is made between the behaviour of the
15355; ami the competencies of thsub-ordmates,
'
F :iamewor .
Val
e tililinnban
more complicated model, named the competing

Meat we

?mare

values liamework. In this model we will point out four areas. Each area has
his own properties.

Mgelfg-m

oiganization

relationship between the size and the age of au

will be considered.
13

4. Metaphor.
Then I will introduce a model based on a material metaphor. We Compare
an organization with a physical system and we try to nd similarities
between an organizational and a physical system.
S.

Situational approach.

Is there a best style of leadership? Or do we need a situational approach? [5

effective leadership the ability to adapt our behaviour to the Changing md
oen contradictory demands?
6. Power.
7. Autonorny, decision freedom ofdie manager and selfdirected team; '
8, Kets de Vries. lmrospection.
9. Irratjonal factors.
10. Cascs.

l l Video
Foundation course 25-02-1999: 1,2,3,5 and 10. Extension course; au the
topics
.

LEADERSHIP STYLES
Introduction
The concept of leadership inherent in the term school head" has a 11mm
of different meanings. In the braad sense, leadership means managing the
school as a whole. That is to say, taking a leading role or other special
position in:
school's administration,
- developing and running the
and strategies,
plans
thinking
and
setting
out
up

~ converting decisions into day-to-day activities.

Leadership in the narrow sense is pan of this. It has to do with influencing
staff to work in a desired directiei: in order to achieve the desired goals
ln this chapter we will be discussing leadership in the narrow sense.
The Chapter is organised as follows.
The first paragraph examines two definitions of management or leadership
In essence leadership is the exercise of influence". Influence or powe;
be seen as an important foundation for management. This aspect wm be
considered in the next paragraph, where various sources of influence am
different strategies for exercising influence are discussed. Then fouows a
short, historical survey of the research on leadership, which, Gradualll,
concentrated upon the personal characteristics of leaders.
variat
however, attention turned to hehavioural characteristics. This led to
l

14

styles

recognised styles are

of leadership being distinguished. A number of

reviewed.
enough to ensure
The identifrcation of styles of leadership is not, in itself,
to know
good management of a school. At the very least it is also necessary
the
achieve
best
which style of leadership tits which situation in order to
theories
leadership
are
objectives of the organisation. The simation-specic
paragraph takes stock
concerned with this and are dealt with. Finally the last
discussed.
of the literature on leadership which has been

Leadership
to bear in
It is important, when discussing leadership in the narrow sense,in which
a
The
way
mind that leadership is not an isolated phenornenon.
which
toward
aims
the
related
to
school is mn ou a day-to-day basis is
the exercise of
activities are being directie& Leadership can be defined as
furthers the
influence over the conduct of staff, in a way that best the
context
aehievement of the objectives of the organisation. However,people being
die
(including, for example, the administrative structure and
their Schools. So,
managed) also affects how school heads can best manage
the context must
and
when leadership is being discussed, both the objectives
be continually borne in mind.
definition of leadership,
Drake and Roe (1986, p.l 15) give a comprehensive
the following:
In their vision leadership is a planued process iuvolving

ever-expanding vision of
The challenging of people to work toward an
objectives.
excellence in the achievenient of organizational goals and
growth
so that the creative
2. The creation of a thteatsfree environment for
talents and skills of each person are used to best advantage,
relationships that are
3. The e-noouragement and building of working
and streugthening in
unifying
satisfying,
individually and organizationally
the realizationof mutually determined goals and ohjectives.
4. The optimization of available material aud human resources.
iniluenoe" and
The key elements of the definition given earlier, namely
Drake and Roe
"objectives", can also be found in this definition. However, and they also
influence,
supplement the definition with their vision of
be. In essence
specify how they would like the context of the Organisationto
influence
over the
exercise
of
the
though, their definition also amounts to
the achievement of the
conduct of staff, in a way that best tiirthers
objectives of the organisation".
1.

15

To nd out more about leadership, it is, of course, important to know how

the phrase "in a vmy that best furthers in the above definition of the
leadership task can be fleshed out. In other words, what is the best way to
give substance to leadership? Drake and Roe have given one interpretation
in their description. However, there are other vmys to describe leadership
too. In general terms one can look at two aspects when interpreting the idea
of leadership:
l. The techniques which are employed in the daily management process;
2. How a person rnanages, or leadership style.
These two aspects will be discussed in turn in the following paragraphs.

Influente and power

If leadership is to do with influence over staff, then one has to ask where the

opportunities to exercise influence come from. Since the notion of

democracy penneated schools, it has no longer been in" to speak in terms
of the head's higher position vis-a~vis the other staff. Especially in primary
schools, the head is a primus inter pairs", a rst among equals. Although
he acts on the team's behalf in dealing: with the outside world, within the
school he does not really have any greater influence than the other members
of the team Nevertheless, in this situation too, one can still speak of the
influence of the head over the teachers and nomteaehing staff and vice
versa. Frequently one is not even aware of power relationships. They only
come out into the open when conflicts arise, if some action has to be taken.
The influence of the school head can be defined in tenns of power theory,
The definition of power which follows strongly resemhles the denition of
the leadership role given above. The exercise of power eneompasses all
actions by which a person attempts to influence the conduct, feelings and
opinions of another person Locked at in this way, leadership is a way of
exercising power. That does not have to have to negative connotation that
the word powef so oen has. Power is associated with coercion, with the
loss of free will on the part of the person being ruled over. However, the
exercise of influence can be mntually beneficial, by giving the other person
more opportunities so that he does not experience a restriction, but rather a
broadening, of his choice of action.
One must he careful, however, when applying to schools theories on power,
which were developed in research on companies. The differences between
school culture and business culture means that there appear to be less
opportunities to exercise power (influence, leadership) in schools than in
16

companies. This can he illustrated by nnming a number of factors which

inhibit the exercise of power in schools:
- teaching encompasses elements which are not really open to influence (for
example, the personality of the teacher, ties of affection with pupils,
changing circumstanees in the class);
- the limited role which educational goals have in the organisalion of the
schools and the impossibility of Ielating (exam)results to the methods of
teachers, so that it is difficult to assess teachers on the basis of performance;
~ the fact that schools
are organised in an island structure", so that the head
has little or no opportunity to influence what happens in class.
This sketch of power-inhibiting factors really relates to a very traditional
school with a segmented, organisational structure, where there are no
nations of educational leadership. However, this picture only applies to a
proportion of schools. In more and more schools class teaching is subject to
discussion, teachers' activities are linked to educational goals and there is a
collegiate organisational model rather than an island structure.
Alongside the power-inhibiting factors, education is experiencing
developments which necessitate more attention being paid to management,
leadership and the exercise of power in schools. These are:
the schools' task (through specialisation,
- the increasing complexity of
different
transfer
pupil support, mergers,
pattems etc);
fall back
is
- the identity crisis, by which meant that teachers can no longer
develop
gained
training,
but
the
knowledge
they
originally
in
must
on
further professionally;
- increasing deniands from the community (parents, employers, further
education, government);
- the continual and- gradual reforrn which has been introduced into
education; changes in school organisation characterised by more
consultation and a greater involvement of the school as a whole in decisionmaking.
As a consequenee of these developments the need for leadership has
become more eonspicuous. Power is necessarily a factor in the management
of these developments, their coordination etc.
A number of sources of influence can be distinguished:
- the option to use a reward or positive sanction. This can take the form of
approval or a compliment. It could also be the allocation of a desired
function or appointment to a coordinating function. Financial reward cannot
usually be used in schools because of the regulations. However, teachers
17

can be rewarded by, for example, being granted free periods, being awardcd
a prestigious function, or being appointed to a desired position
- the option to use a punishrnent ar negative snnction. Many fonts are
conceivahle, varying &am a reprimand or demmciaon to the withholding
of a desired position or function.
- the holding of a certain position. This source of influence relates to &ie
head of the school's position in the hierarchy of the organisation. His or her
influence stema &om his/her specific position in the organisation.
Subordinates in the organisation give the head the right to influence themby
virnre of his/her position in the organisation.
- expertise. This source of iniluence applies when staff accept instructions
or orders &om the head because they feel that he/she has the most
knowledge and experience, and that these instructions will probably
produce the best results;
- identificat-ion. This source of influence comes into operation when the
staff identify with the school head, usually because of hs/her natural
authority or charisrna.
To these sources of power, which can apply to all types of organisation, can
be added: statutory regulations. School heads may be granted powers by
force of law or by mandate &om the school board. This source of power
runs through all the other sources. The &ist three sources (reward,
punishment, position) deiive, in part, &om the heads position which is
regulate/d by law.
With all these sources of influence one can speak of influence by the head,
on the one hand, and the acceptance of this influence by the staff (teachers
and other sta) on the other hand. Acceptance by the staff is central in the
case of the last two sources (expertise and identication), In the case of the
rst three (reward, punishment and position), influence can be exercised
even if it is not fully acoepted. However, there are certain limits: ifthe staff
do not accept the head as their leader but do accept a deputy head for
example, then the heads use of reward and punishment or "standing on his
dignit' will not be as eiective as he would wish. [n that case the deputy
head rnay have more influence by virtue of his expertise or through
identification, even though he does not have the means to use reward and
punishment and he cannot appeal to his position.
Ncrevayschoolheadwlusedxesesmucesofintrencemthesanwdegxee.
One

willmakegreamrrmeofiewardartdprmislnnentwheanodmwrlldevehis
auiority more &om expertise. The highly education-minunati head will derive

hisauthontyprmryomlseiqiersqwhileiebmemwracyonemamdhead
18

vdnhasehisatnhotyprinnlyonhisposionandappealwdieregtaonland
the law.

The school head has various means at his disposal to secure and maintain
his authority:
l. concrete means upon which others are dependent. (By allocating or
withholding these, the head can influence the conduct of others).
2. information and management of information channels. (The selective
dissemination of information and the gathering of information on
individuals can be used to exert an influence over others).
3. relationship& with others. (lntluence can be exerciaed over others hy
building up a professional reputation for example or by inducing a feeling
of dependence in others). The head can employ these means in a number of
different ways. In other words, there are a nrnnber of diterent possible
strategies for influencing people:
l. the problem-solving approach, wherehy the head tries to convince the
sta' of the usefulness and ndvanlnges of agreeing to a request and, at the
same time, tries tn &ante the request as far as possible in a way that
coafor-ms tn the wiahes of the staff.
2. the confrontational approach: giving an order or irnposing a prohibition.
In this approach the head concerns himselt' primarily with the objective to
be achieved and not withthe bother of obtaining agreement to it,
3, numipulation
ofa situation: the heads inuence is less vidble, but he can

inuenoedecionsnoughforumphconollrgnesmdreamuwsmng
tbetinieofameeting. (Hernayjiirexample, saytbatthedeadlineforarequestfur

aprojectwhichhedoesnotwanthaslapsedheanwhisperhifonmonni
stmieondseanhecandecidewhetherornottobiingupawpicatiesta
uieeung).

4. psycholngcal

whaeby the head appeals to people& feeling

(Wheyeitpectthisofyoroucannotdolhisinyourpotiorwoforuisof
intluence canbe
a) the exercise

in this connection:
through
the power of credentials, where the head
of power
derives his authority &om the fact that staffplace their trust in him;
b) the exercise of power through the authority of expertise, where the head
makes reference to his own expertise (`do it this way, I have years of
experience in this).
These strategies for exercising influence are not equally eective. They
make a minibar of assumptions with respect to the person exercising
influence and his/her relatiomhip with those being influenced.

19

In the ease of the problem-solving approach it is assumed that the member

of staff !S dependent upon, or has an interest in, the outcome of the problem
solving process.
The confroutational approach assumes that the member of stat is dependent
upon the head's formal position, in that the latter rnay impuse sanctions if
his mstructions are not carried out.
The srtuatronalapproach assumes that the head possesses power by virtue of
his position and that this power is founded on his authority to make rules, to
form bodies, call rneetings and set their agendas.
Psychological rnanipulation requires that there be a certain friendship
relationship between the head and the staff uiember that they get on as
colleagues. As far as the power of credentials or expertise is concerned, it is
assun-red that the head is in a position where he enjoys the trust of the
teachers as a person or as an expert.
The strategies also vary inhow stable they are:
- The problem-solving approach is quite power-proof.
- The confrontational approach is not, however. A member of statnay, for
example, evadc the head, seek the support of colleagues or for-ni ctions,
eausing the influence of the head tn wane.
- Ifthe organisationofa school allows situationalrmnipulation, it cango onfora
long time. The head rermins behind the scenes, althougi stairnay become aware

hmlwafebengnmupldatedandputirpremnce.

- Psychological rnanipulation would also appear to be finite. Rewards lose their

eoacy. ne power oforedentials and erqiertise are, as ariile, fairly long lasting,
as long as the head continues to enjoyrespect.

These sources of influence and strategies for securing and retaining power
hardly provide an insight into the characteristics of leadership however.
They are certainly not the factors which reflect the nature of leadership,
even less what constitutes "good leadership". This will be looked at in the
following paragraphs.

Characteristics of leadership
The issue of the specic characteristics of leaders, and in particular school
heads, has occupied many already. Academic research into leadership has
led to different phases being distinguished. The following have been
explored in succession:
- the personality traits of leaders,
- characteristics of leaders' behaviour,
- patterns of behavioural characterisdcs, or "styles" of leadership.
20

In each of these three phases people have sought to identify the typical
character traits, behavioural characteristics or styles of good" leaders. Only
later did researchers take account of the fact that a good leader in one
situation may well be a poor leader in a different context. Then research
went on to look into the relationship between leadership and context.
Information on this is necessary if one is to be able to find the right kind of
leader for a particular situation. This research &om the so-called
contingency approach is discussed below.

Personality traits of leaders

At an early stage, attempts were made to identify the factors which
determine the influence which leaders have over other people, by describing
the character traits of great leaders" and stndying their biographies. In the
first half of the twentieth century a great deal of research was directed at the
question of what characteristics distinguish a good leader from a bad one. In
1916 the Frenchman Fayol published a theoretical model of the
management process. In addition to specific knowledge and experience, he
differentiated a number of general qualities which are important for
leadership, such as: physical characteristics, moral qualities, general
development and intelleetual qualities. Since then, research into the
characteristics of leaders has identied a number of specific traits:
craits, it has been found that, in general, leaders
- on the question of physical
are taller than those who they are leading;
traita, it rums out that good leaders have more
- with respect to personality
self confidence and more awareness of what their staff are tbinking than less
effective leaders, and that they take more initiative;
that good leaders are, as a rule,
- regarding intellectual qualities, it appears
leaders.
less
effective
intelligent
than
more
l.n general though, these studies into the personalities of leaders are of little
value. In the first place because the cortelations which have been found
between personal characteristics and the etectiveness of leaders are not
1948
very convincing. This was the conclusion to which Stogdill came in
1904
conducted
between
had
been
124
studies
which
such
aer analyzing
and i948. In the second place the study of personality traita is of little value
because:
a) it connes itself to only a few characteristics of leaders,
b) the characteristics in question are not linked in any way with the context
of leadership: the specific organisaticn, the characteristics of those being led
and the interaction between leader and staf (It is likely that the fact of
21

disregarding the context accounts for the inconsistent

results of these
studies).
c) no recommendations for the
conduct of leaders can be drawn &om these
studies. The last objection has been
overconre by focusing research ori the
conduct of leaders.

Cunduct of leaders
The next phase in the research into leadership
was the study of the
characteristic behaviour of leaders, and
of successful leaders in particular.
An example of this is provided by Likert (1967),
who discovered sharp
differences in the hehavioural pattems
of effective and inetective
managers. He found that eeccive managers share the following,
typical
behavionral traiti:
- they support their subordinates,
- demonstrate confidence in the integrity and skill of their subordjmtes,
- have high expectations of their subordinates' achievement,
- ensure that people are well-trained for the johs in hand,
~ help those, whose achievernent
is below the norm,
- work on group-formation,
- function as a link with other groups in the organisation.
This concept of the supportive leader" displays
renrarkahle sirnilarity with
studies which were carried out in the 19705 into the
characteristics of
successful school heads.
Styles of leadership
Various researehers have studied, quantifred and charted
the behaviour of
leaders in detail. If a lot of variables (characteristics)
is
oen possible to discover particuJar pati/eros, clustersare rneasured, it
characteristics
of
which one comes across time and again with certain
types of leaders, while
other leaders typically show different Cluster
characteristics. A clnster
a
of
of associated characteristics like this is called a typology. A typology is
given a name, which, as iar as possible
covers the characteristics of the type
of leadership style, A well-known example of a typology is the distinction,
taken from Lewin, between the democratic,
autocratic and Iaissezvfaire
styles of leadership (for a summary
of the research into this typolcgy, see
White and Lippit, 1953),
Many of the studies into leadership behaviour and leadership
styles have
come up with a two-fold division. On the one hand there is leadership

22

lnheaglg

geared to the needs, goal: ?nd results oignggs

there is leadership whic ocuses ori e ne& .

[llrlieg-mnmrd

g series of studies into the behaviour of school heads was

carried out in Ohio (USA) from 1945 onwards. A questtgtnzelm'
for these studies which concentrand on the conducatn; se o&
YSIS,
:han aspects of their personalities. Using. afclo!
ue w
_qmed
charctertrstics)
Halpin
and
Winer
clusters
iso
of
uncover
two main types: structure
carui era e.
Structured leadership is a leadership style m which the leader ecsl:
work of the staff in a clear and unambiguous way by aloca_ S

drawing' up work schedules

beingd CXPM 55 exlwaums' Th'
leader makes plans, organises, directe an 5|1PTV'_55
adm_
Considerate leadership, in contrast, 15 B lwdashltyklbmbesm
we
creates an environment which pmmotes the pers:)
(sushi
He prarnotes cooperation, team work, good contact andre l auf:
P s _nu
leader is conscientious in his dealings with the staff and, in prmclple, \T335
them as equals.
The definitions of the terms structuredn and considerate Ishow_ atg
deal of conforrnity with the terms task-artemated and peope-cnen a
d;
another pair of concepts which one comes acrosstime and agsaell
TlJBY
and them-les on leadership style.
a mmeumes exp es
words, or with a diiferenn/t ernrhasis, but they always assume this twoiold
division into orgauisatlo P60? f*
best-known
based o 'm
f
Blake and Monitor) (1971). They disni3gu1shtw
&nu Blake md
production" and concern for people , It is interesting
Mont/cris typology the two dimensrons are not mutually exclue. A leader
time
demonstratmg a large irieasure of concern
:d
distinguished by Blake and Mouton are charactens hY a wnbmon of
the two dimensions.
This is shown gaphicllY m 531W 1-

mm

L_

mt

am

mm

23

Figura l. Blake and Mouton's five styles

& J .S. Mouton.

i !Malamut

win

t'
u

imuni
u

ulllyhm Iul

'

of management. From RJ. Blake

'

u.:

u. !Muia

'

m, through
wunuhqt

yuna-unu

Invttncnn

m
nl

u&

mu.

.ut

l
z

'J'

l.

Nu

'

MM

LII

lui
ll
n IIClan
n

IIIIIIIIII

ultimul]
Z

I!
l

Catelul lut Praluetlun

The l/l style is a very 'poor' style which

pays little attention either to
results or personnel.
The 1/9 style is a more cosy" style, where the leadefs attention is almost
wholly taken up with the well-being of the staff and the objectives
of the
Organisation are more or less neglected.
The 9/1 style, in contrast, is a highly 'task-orientated" style
geared
primarily to achieving the objectives of the Organisation and with little
time
for the personnel. The 9/9 style is the *eam-orientated" style, where
the
leader Creates a cohesive group, dius raising the level
morale and
of
efficiency as high as possible in order to achieve the objectives
of the
organisation.
The 5/5 style is an average style, where the leader strives strike happy
to
a
medium between efficiency and human aspects.
For each of the styles the authors discuss specific characteristics
regarding:
~ direction and control,
- goals
24

boss suhordinates relationship,

cominituient of boss and subordinate

development,
management
- personal behaviour,
- conditions and consequences the organisation style.
A self-assessment list from Blake and Mouton is reproduceri in appendix l.
This list throws further light on the distinction between the five
diterentiated styles. Appendix 2 reproduces a scoring system, to determine
one's own or anothefs task/people-orientated style of leadership. This list is
specifically geared to the work of the school head.
One might ask oneself what is the use in distinguishing between dierent
styles of leadership. It might be nice to be able to categorise a persorfs style
but a more interesting question would be: when is it best to use each style?
The 9/9 style seems perhaps the ideal, hut it is questionable as to whether
this style is to be prefer-red in all cases. Sometimes an Organisation (and this
applies just as well to a school as to an ofce, for example) can be managed
better with a strongly people-orientate& rather than goaLoi-ientated,
management style.
House (1972, 486) found am some staffmembers, especially those Who are
new to a job, became confused when faced with a strongly relationshiporientated leadership. They needed a structured leadership, rather
a
considerate, people orientate& leadership, in that situation. EXPCTWDCFd
staff, on the other hand, were hindered by high level of task-structurtng
a
and Consideration. For them, a low level of structuring and considerauon
best.
ms
The question of when each style can best be used is deal( with in the
following paragraph on contingency theory.

w,

enma mu u nino-n
vlpll IMI !I IINOMIM
al tru
u.

!Il timpu.

m. nu

\iat
sun!

- impact of the style an creativity and change,

- approaehes to managing conflict,

Situational theories of leadership style

'I`here is no general answer to the question of what ccmstitutes the best style
of leadership. What is "best" depeuds upon many factms.

The context or situation, which provides part of the answer to the question
of the best style of leadership, comprises:
- the school environment (for example, the schooPs position in the
surrounding eld, the demands of the lahour markeg the wishes of parents);
- the Organisation of the school (for example, horizontal or vertical);
_

25

the goals or mission of the school (for example, whether it has an exam
orientate&mission or a mission geazed more toward personal development,
a mission geared toward preservatiorn of the status qua or an innovative
mission); characteristics of the teachers (their interpretaon of their job,
experience, expectations of the head) and differences between the teschers;
characteristics of the pupils (background, motivation);
~ characteristics of the head (background. experience, personality).
It is not as easy as it seems to answer the question as to what is the best
style of school management in a given simtion.
In the rst place there is little available research cn the subject. The context
or situation is nlvmys quite complex in the case of schools. lt has proved
very diicult, in studies which have been conductei w take stock of all
&ct/urs at the same time. information only comes to light in hits and pieces,
pointing the way towards an answer to the question
In the second place tlw question of the best leadership style is not easy to
answer, because the leadership style and situation influence each other to a
certain extent, Parents, for example, may mut a certain nrission, but the
school head can try to change their view.
~

Reddin (1970) exterlded Halpixfs theory which distingiished between the

stxuctnred and considerate styles of leadership (see above). He dierentiated
hetween four types of leadership (see gure 2).
This typology is very similar to that of Blake and Mnuton. lt is inwerestjng
that Reddin diferentiates between a more and less effective variant within
each style and visualises it in a direc-dimensional structure (see figure 3).
Figure 3. Reddiiis 3-D theory of the effectiveness of leadership. From:
Reddin, WJ., Managerial effectiveness. New York, (McGraw Hill), 1970,
p.23o.

Mostofdwzesemchintdiesuihizyofdirmmyleswfemmsiiams,

begins with the distinctie:: between the task-orimtamd and peoplemientated

style, or the structured Ind considerate style.

Figure Zt Four types of leadership (Rcddin)

High Tnsk
and
Law

high

ecnsidemion
(concems tor
9909i?)

initiatingstructure
(concern: lor production)

26

According to Reddin, the eectivencss of leadership behaviour is not a

quality of the le adet. lt is what the leader does to hand le a particular
situatie:: in the right way. ln other words, none of the four styles is eiective
in itself, but the effecliveness of each style depends upon the situatjon. A
leader may well have a basic style, but lmows when te avail himself of a
different style if the occasion demands. To this end the leader has to know
which aspects of a situation determine what style is needed. These factors
relate to:
- the vision, philosophy of the organisation (culture, climate);
27

is can-led out, teaching metlwds fo:

- techniques (the way in which the work

example);
superior-s, colleagues and subordinates.
- styles and expectations of
Using a management-style diagnosis, it is possible to cot-tipare a leader&
style with the style of leadership that would be most effective in a given
simation. Where they difier, consideration can be given to whether the
situatjon can be changed or whether the manager needs to adept a new style.
This adjustrnent of the style to a changing simation is known as "flexibility
of style". In itself it is a good thing. However, over-frequent changes in
style ("drifting style") are not to be desired.
Hersey and Blanchard (1977) extended Reddin's model of leadership styles.
They pointed to the degree of team development (mnturity) as the
situational factor which is the most important determinant for the right
leadership style. In their trwdel team development is seen in terms of the
degree of:
high, but achievable, goals);
- motivation to achieve (the capacity to set
bear responsibility);
(the
desire
and
capacity
responsibility
to
- experience of individuals and the group.
lt is important that team development (mntuxity) is viewed in relation to the
tasks w be carried out. Teachers may be very experienced in traditional
teaching methods, but very inexperienoed in adapting lesson material to
differences between pupils. Where this is required therefore, the team has a
low level of matur-iti.
As the team's nramrity increases, they require a different style of leadership
to guide them in cazrynrg uut that task. In principle, Hersey and Blanchard
differentiate between four stages of team development (see figure 4).
Stage I:
level of team development with respect to a particular task.
- a very low
This requires a leadership style urith a high level of task-structuring and a
low level of consideratie:: (relationship-orientated behaviour). The authors
call this the telling-mode" of leadership behaviour.
Stage [l:
the group gain in self-confidence and gain skills
- the individuals and
related to the task. The leader still needs to exhibit a high level of taskorientaned management, but, at the same time, a high degree af care is also
desirablc as a supporting dirnens-ion. The authors call this the sellingrnode of leadership behaviour.
Stage III:
level of responsibility and ski ll with
- the staff have developed quite a high
style can now he less task
leadership
task.
The
the
given
to
respect
28

otientated, the staff have now taken over the responsibility for the
of tasks thernselves. The leader continue& to be relationshipolientated. This is the "participating-mnde".

Organisation

Figure 4. The theory of situational leadership. Taken from; Hersey, P. &

Blanehard, KB., Management of organizational behaviour: utilizing human
resources. Engelwood Cliifs, (Prentice-Hall), 1977, p.246. NB The scale of
marin-try progresses from right to lati.

EFFECTIVE STYLES

35

EE;

'
.

54

?are
=M4|M3{M2lM1
TASK BEHAWOUR

(Low)

'i

nou

MOL`4RAIE

(am)

Low

E
:I

Z9

Stage IV:
- the team has Iriatured to be fully competent in relation to the given task.
The staff only need a minimum of structured organisation to carry out the
task and relationship-orientata] behaviour (consideration) is no longer so
important. Hersey and Blanchard call this the "delegatingmode Tasks
which used to be earried out by the leader are now delegated to the su&
Other tiieories are vaiiatious oo the theme of situational leadership. An
example is provided by Houses Pam-Goa! theory (House 1973). 'This has
already been touched upon at the end of paragraph 4. The theory is named
after the school head's most important role: to help staff along the path that
leads to the achievement of the goal that has been set.
According to this theory, the school head has to he aware of two important
variables, when decidiog on sn appropriate style of leadership:
1. aspects relating to the staff (especially their needs, skills,
sense of worth);
2. aspects of the working environment (the degree to which tasks are
smictured and organisation formalised).
House distinguishes four styles of leadership. He designates each of these as
being appropriate for certain typical starting situations and working
euvtroiimerits,
- Directive behaviour, which is comparahle to task-orientated leadership. It
consists of making clear to the staff what is expected of them. andplanning,
organising, coordinating and supervising their activities. This type of
leadership is most effective if the staff members are unsure of themselves,
have little experience of the task in question and if the working environment
is fairly informal,
- Supportive behaviour comprises giving staff support and, at the same time,
!along account of their needs, demonstrating concern for their well-being
and cultivating a pleasant atmosphere. This type of leadership is particularly
fitving where sta!! lack self-confidence and where the work is dull, roune
or unpleasant.
- Participatory behaviour is expressed through the sharing of trifoi-imnuri
and the use of ideas aud suggestions &om the staff in arriving at group
decisions. This type of leadership is most effective where the staff need a
level of autonomy and the simation is unstructured.
- Achievemeni-orcntated behaviour makes high dermnds of the stati and

consmndyseeksminimveielevelofaddevenmtlhisldndofladeishipwi

be most eEeL-iive inunsmirtined working situations.

Houses theory shows some similarity to Hersey and Blanchards path-goal
theory, but the similarity is not so great that they can be ljnked together.
30

compared vIithHeIsEy
Thus Houses directive leadership behaviour can he
Blanchards telling-mode, but
the
lhlne'a
can
so'
and
question::
behaviour (House): What is 'mare _rt
participatory behaviour in House s terrrunology has 'Very mh in mmmm'
with the participating-mode in Hersey and Blanohards theory. .
on imnagement do :smeV/fm t
The typologes constructed in the

Yedieyarenotconspicuousfortheirongnahtydnmostcases
Iypohgy can be \mood hack m \he

manmiamilpwrlwmm di&wm

OocasinnaHyomcmnesauosaWWWEYWhEMShHMWmMHWWf
of ma is provided hy Handys (1981) typolosv whch mm "E PWPWP

ieaammmoamsocietyaoaramcreekgolmfhhb

.Mamganmgodr-' is not about Schools hu: organisations in genn-L

typolngy can still be applied to school heads (see for example Vassd 11001
also indicatie in which type

of organisauoo the !cdem n

amy
Su
ourishhetypclogyisrepmduoedinsimnmryfomm
1986).

' haory' wiispcuous.

whic|h
gzlrcmgytiirss
amsttlemt
can 'be used toadclassyd
a

*seee

mi:: JW

m
kwm&
*mm
Mostly
there
rmxtute
model
is
a
these
types.
of
am ms- the work: A
one

Handy states on page 43, r: ns suport-tot _thai th?

1
impossible. Tbs. SCHOO S. 005
.

m
Zeus culture in the accounts department is
school
traditional
'
'
in
good
figure
a
would
cut
Athena
not
a
verl that
possible
fm
teacher is king in his own class. It is
school_ (for (317332
prevail
in dierent departments within one
culnires to
wherfn
lower school/upper school). More/over, situations may anse
IDDdCTDISBUDD-n PC7333 T
g
follow-ing
prevailing culture no longer ts
god
right
call
the
able
be
has
to
in
to
smdm numbers. The good manager

mm
A_

i::
Sm

siltilndemonstrates

theories
some affinity with the leadership
_is probably
I!
earlier, but djffers from them in some ways tom
diicul, therefore, to choose a particular analYuca- mwk
adc tm o'
m study ar andy leadership style& &Palm
5613911
ortant extent
which
led by the usefuhiess of the theory,
:l 1m?
Imkmsl
The
a Cmice
FW ?m
upon which aspects of context it contains.
13!
m of
su!!
only
theorY
an
T335
leadership
!s
is that situaonal
Which 15 35143 m:* e the
situational
lteory,
clear
really
development. A
is
best way for a school head to function in various circums ces,
something which still lies far in the iture.
l

31

FigureS. Handy's typology. Source: Handy, 1981,

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a nl
dem
him of leading and being led indicatcs
leadershipnis
aodm. inflauencen
.
people who are to be led, but also that
of
umemuce. fiice and counterfarce.
has nl
Kmi
'ded Pafcutl
p' to now researc into styles of leadershipcombiiatzilogvilh
Insight into the situational factors which, in
a
style of leadership, would produce an optimum result. Combining the
2158:1&
055& rzarch with the literature on power theory, one can. in an;
e
t the mterplay of factors which should lead to successfu
.
leadership is rather complex. In any avem i mludes:
'
'
a co ervative culture m the Work [antum or I"'
- the school culture: is therechang?
the school culture geared (o
_

32

of development of activities:

cmhe

Conclusions

is one concerned with the

do people have years of
activities
relatively
or
rrtanagement of
new
experience?
is it highly segrnented and/or hierarchical, or is it
- the school organisation:
collegiate and horiznntal?
task-orientated oz people-orientate&
- the leadership style:
is confrontational approach used or a problem
- the management strategy: a
approach?
solving
which the head derives his authority: is it, for example, his
- the source &am
position in the Organisation or his expertise? The extent to which teachets
differ in this respect is important. One teacher will identity with the head,
while another scarcely accepts his position. There may also be various
the style and/ut
groups of teachers who each have their own view of
strategy of the head.
which the head deals with management problems: does he, for
the way in
example, rely on his formal position, or does he adapt to what he think:: the
majority of the team expect?
the flexibility of the head: does he emplay a unifonn management style or

- the stage

adapt his style to the situation?

All these factors are inter-related. They are not constants, they intluence
each other. That is why it is so difficult, but not impossible, to point to what
the ideal management style is. The ideal management style always depends
possible to say precisely
is
upon the management context. Although it not
which style is best in which context, nevertheless it is important to be able
discussed in mis
to ideutify the issues and rneehanisms which have been
is,
probably
what
or is not, a good
chapter, so as to be able to work out
method of managing in the given context.

Summary
Leadership has been defined, in this chapter, as the influeticing of the
behaviour ofstat in a desire/d direction to achieve intended goals. Influente
is not seen as a one-sided process from leader to suhordinates, but as a
plays an
of
process of mutual influence, in which the context management
for
opportunities
less
to
he
would
Although
there
seem
important role.
specia!
of
the
organisations,
because
industrial
in
schools
than
in
iniluence
need for
target group, objectives and organisation, there is a clearer
to
addition
leadership as a consequence of a number of developments. In
number
of
influence,
a
ve sources &om which school heads derive their
33

leadership strategies are discussed. The outcome of strategies is closely

linked to factors in the context of the management situatiou, that is to say
the school and/or its surroundings.
Studies into aspects of personality have revealed several typical
characteristics of successful leaders. However, the practical application of
this research has proved to be very limited, Studies into behavioural
characteristics produced clusters of behavioural traita which give styles of
leadership. A number of well-known style typologies were discussed.
Typically, the various typologies constantly return to the distinction
between the so-called task-orientated and people-orientated styles, albeit
some use other terms. Blake and Mouton's typology was discussed as an
example of a typology which does not see leaders as either task-orientated
or people orientated, but where both aspects can be present to a greater or
lesser degree, independently of each other, in the same leader.
The contingency approach has produced a number of leadership styles. 'lhis
approach looks, not just at the style itself, but at aspects of the context,
which in combination with a particular style, could result in optimum
leadership. One example of this approach is Reddin's theory, which argues,
in fairly general terms, that the style has to suit the culture of the
Organisation, and the techniques and expectations of the other staff. Hersey
and Blanchard developed this theory by taking the level of maturity of the
team as a context factor with which management style must be in tune.
House's Path-Goal theory takes parcular account of the level of experience
and (in)security of the staff, on the one hand, and the extent to which tasks
are structured and can be done in a routine way, on the other hand. These
context factors were also used by Handy in his typology of management
gods".
Research into different management styles among men and women show
that aspects which are related to "educational" management score higher
among women. Furthermore, the style of women leaders can be described
as !note *people-orientated".
As a general point despite the fact that their scope is rather limited, the
typologies are a useful tool for analyzing styles of leadership.

34

Chapter l]I
DIMENSIONSOF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT
Introduction to the book
This introductory chapter has two objectives:
l) to introduce the concept of management and management of schools in
particular
2) to give an overview of the book.
These two objectives are connected with each other. The structure of the
book and the composition of the parts and chapters is based on the
dimensions of school management to be discussed in the first part of this
chapter.

What is management?
Nowadays the word 'management' is more and more used in different areas

of society. Otten it means something like 'having things done'. One says that

a mother who has a job, cares her children and runs her household properly
is good in 'managing' her busy life. It is also said that teachers have to
pay
attention to good 'classroom manage-ment'. Which means something like
creating an orderly atmosphere in the classroom, giving attention to children
who need special help, lmowing who is doing what and so on. So in the
general meaning of having things done' it is not only the director or the
leader who is a manager, but everybody who pays systematic attention to
such matters like the organisation, planning of his or her activities is seen as
a manager.
When people use the word 'management' they oen think more special of
'having things done hy other people'. The manager is seen as someone who
leads other people (not necessary subordinates) and co-ordinates them in the
work to be done. When using this meaning of management not only the
director of a school is a manager, but the coordinator of a year group the
ar
team leader of a group of subject teachers is managers as well.
35

lt is this meaning of management (used as a verb) which is used in this

book. Of course, the characterisation of 'having things done by other people'

rs

snll Vague and needs more tiLling-in. But, by using this popular meaning

of the word, rt might become clear that management (as a verb) is not

reserved _for top-drreetors but for everybody who has a leading or

coordinanng task.
This leads to a second meaning of the word, namely management as a
substantive (noua). If one speaks of 'the management' of a school, same
people think of the director of the school. This is quite logically it' it is a
V635'
school. with only one person who is active in things like
coordniatmg the activities, representing the school, and otganising the
nanccs. lut most schools have more rnanagers. Besides the director there
are dgputzes, and different coordinarors of departments or groups that arc
organized around certain activities. Thinking of this situation 'the
management' is more a group of people who manage the school. lf they
111::: good co~operation 'the management' can he see-n
as a 'manager-num

iunie people use the word 'management' in a more narrow sense. They
Smnh managing' a school &om leading' a school. They see
management' more as being involved in aits such as frnances,
I

administration. the building and facilities. On

the other hand 'leading' would refer more to such aspects like educational
9100955& the Grgauisatin, the personnel. This is nor how the word
management is used n this book So management is used as a broad

concept, which covers all of the activities and fields of attention of people
and teama who 'having things done'.
Dimensions of school management

Management, described tn this way, is very complex. If one reads the

descriptions of activities of school leaders it is amazing how mici; amateur
nVme-S alei' have during the day, how much different fields of attention
they have and how many skills they have to use in steering and guiding the
school. There is not only an enduring shi in activities, they are inerwoven
as well. The school leader knows for example that a discipline problemhe is
working on !s at the sai-ne time a problem of personnel policy, while the
decision structure in the school possibly is not good enough to solve this
problem. So, a problem never covers an isolated field of attention, but
always more than onc connected fields.
36

lf one wans to study school management, however, it may he helpful to

distinguish a number of areas, Just to concentrate on one area at a time.
Knowing, of course, that such an area in real life situations never exists
isolated. Therefore in this book is chosen for a suhdivision of the complex
and interwoven field of educational management into different parts. Such a
suhdivision into different areas of attention could have been made in
dierent ways. In this book has been chosen for a suhdivision of the
activities of school leaders into two dimensions.
Dimension l: the steering and guiding capacities of the school leader;
Dimension II: the areas of concern (attention).
The steering and guiding capacitie: (dimenrion I) refer to the way the

school leader behaves, the characteristics of a school leader, the way he/she
dimemion can be
uses him/herself as au instrument of rmnagement. Tim
subdivided into different steering and guiding areas:
known and often practised in training programmes are
- well
communication skills. These refer not only to the usual communication
skills like listening or discussing, But also to the more cornplicated skills
like problem solving, decision making, negotiation or conflict handling;
skills that make it possible to 'have other people
the steering skills refer to
done' thing. Exarnples are: goal setting, planning, setting out procedures
and directives, installing work groups, monitoring processes, modelling of
people, motivating them, dissemination of information,
to mistake with personnel management) refers
- persana] management (not
the
leader
school
manages, nrganizes his/her own life.
to the way
with time and with stress; the amount and sort
like
coping
lt regards aspects
delegating;
of
styles focuses on psttenu inleadership behaviour or
- the area of leadership
clusters of leadefs characteristics called 'styles of leadership',
innovatian concern such
- the capacity and skills concerning management of
aspects like choosing strategies or preventing barriers.
The areas of concern (dimension I!) refer to the areas to which the steel-lng
and guiding activities are addressed. Five areas have been distinguished:
the school. It
~ the area of education. This is the central or core area of
the
educational
short:
curriculum.
In
guiding,
like
teaching,
refers to aspects
and
function
of a
is
unique
school.
it
the
the
Because
core
in
processes
school to teach and to offer good learning opportunities this area of
attention is mentioncd as the rst one. AII other areas are actually in service
of this area;
school forms a special point of attention for school
- the organiratian of a
the school management. The way a school is organised can be an important
37

Condition for the functioning of processes in school. The diaguosis of school

organisation and the shaping of an appropriete organisation culture is and

essential field of attention;

- matters regarding people in the school (the teaching and the non-teaching
suit) ask a lor of attention from school leaders. To this field belong aspects
like personne] planning, recruitment and selection of personnel,
appointnient, dismission, the legal status of personnel, job interviews,
appraisal, internal and external support and invservicetraining;
~ with the
resource: of a school is meant the finances, but also the building,
the facilities (furniture, iriachines. etc.) and die information;
- the environment of the school as a field of attention of the school
management regards especially such activities like strategic management
marketing, PR as well as how to cope with parents for example.
Both dirnensions l and H are complementary and can be seen as two axes of
a coordinate system. Actually every area of attention (dimension l!) is
n-eated hya school leader with al] of the distinguished aspects of .steering
and guiding: he or she works on, for example, matters concerning personnel
using communication skills and steering skills in a certain way, he or she
devotes more or less tin-ie to certain aspects, delegates in a certain way,
works according to a leadership style and uses certain strategies and copes
with resismnces in a certain way.

38

Chapter IV
STRATEGICSCHOOL MAVAGEMENT
Orientation of strategie management
ln recent years, schools throughout Europe have, in one way or another,
been moving toward a closer relationship with their contexts. The
int/erectiei: between school and surroundings is undergoing change. The
context is becoming more inttusive and the school is being compelled to
look towards the cornnnmity in a more active way. The orientation with
respect to the commimity is less than self-evident. Various reasons can be
indicated as to why the inmraction between school and surroundings is
changing.
Iri the first place there is the general debate on the role of the national
government and the way it exercises that role. Tough detailed regulations
are, to a certain degree, being replaced by a hroaclcr form of tegulation.
Funhemwre, many national governments are attempting to achieve a shi
in the contents of the regulations from provisions whose main concern is
equipment and the orgonisatirmal aspects of the education process, to
provisicns which are more concerned with the results of the education
process. Provisions relating to the authority of teachers, a uniform legal
status, class size and standard tirnetables have heen telaxed or set aside in
favour of provisions relating to performance, cost per diploma, test results,
the eompiling of annual reports and. the like. Finally, national governments
are not only trying to regulate less and in a dierent way theinselves, they
are also trying to stirnulate the immediate community around the school n
have a more active role vis-a-vis the school and not to direct every
organisation through the national channels rst. These three aspects
(broader regulations, regulation through results and promotion of
community involvernent), reduce, to a certain extent, the strong domination
of the governments share in the community nud the eomnninitfs percepiion
of the school. This change in the official position is one of the reasons
which has cncouraged schools to take an active position
Another reason lies in the [act that regions and commimities are no longer
etl-inic changes,
so domimted by national governments. Demographic and
39

changes in technology, the organisarion of manufacturing, animal

experiences, European cooperation and integration almost always also
include components which go to the heart of educational intimrjong_ Whgn

thegovunrnentsltemrgmlersreductheseicmrshaveammehrmredjate
anddirectaccesstnthelifebloodofsohoolsTheirrpacrisampleam-Ifmogm1;
is nota mple matter for a school sirrmltaneously to learn to absorb newgroizps-of

immigrnnts from ditferent cultural ethnic groups, m jnagpgmg new,

mmm
*dmnismve technology in the minunat
introduce rnodulaon, guarantee
o
97mm' develwmm m- Mll' the expectations &omthe cmmunityseemm
Warning. A strategic invesligation
md/ady
can ser-ve 35 a
PIEPMMY and diagnostic tool.
The third reason is of a more theoretical nature. Partly in connection with

the teasons which have been mentionat already, the concqat of school
'g"15 15 ndegmg Change. The rather static school organisation
WhCh_
W? uuusfdesigzrate by the term professional bureaucracy,
an
organrsanon in which borcan/antic and professional elements interact, is
being. replaced and/or supplemented by features taken from other
organism-ional concepts The interaction between school and neighbourhood
#5915 Pmmmes. 33 it W515
al! open approach system But even more
ur-rportant are elements which have been borrowed &om concepts such as
cmmjltr 153mm& *JYSMWYOE CEPCW fm' rcnewal, mission and
ese new concepts are attempnng to give a more adequaw
NYSE Of. and a more comprehensive recornmendation for the
development of organisanons. To put it another way: we see the set-lup of
:hmrgamsathriorlrg the tinkering with
components of the organisation, as
thing
and
be
done
w
must
c
can
o
in connection with the orientatinn
wrrh respect to the relevant surroundings. First then, a school will be ablg
n,
draw up a combtnatron which suits it and set up educational technology,
professional qualrficanons (staff policy) structure and culture. Many kinds
of mteracnon and link arclconcervable and cari be developed between these
contponens. Sorne cornbmatrons will achieve a reasonable frt with the
"WWW Sh1 strategy and therefore with the results ofthe school in the
broad sense.
A? 3 esu" f Cwafmg
le 3nd th!! &thing of autonorny, Schools are, in
pnncrple, better equrpped to undertake strategic activities then-iselves &om
inside the school. Small schoals can only put in the effort to carry out
a
sywwm 1C mvgam i Cmljuncion with other schools. Formerly
this Jorning together meant that action always went through the umana]
mmm Nm& however, a large, regional, professional training nega
_.

40

do
can, in principle, generate the capacity and qualifications necessary to

something about strategic management itsel.

is
The orientation of the school vis-a-vis developments in the community
in
its
plays
part
Snategic
:management
strategic
management.
what we call
locating a school in a context where the school will be able to expand, and
adequate advantage of sslient local
can itself learn in time to be able to take
changes so as to achieve good school results.
Strategic management refers: a) to management directed to matters which
the main sims of the
are important in the longer term, and b) to
also
concerns c) the organisations
organisation. ln addition the concept
focal points (surrounding
three
These
surroundingr.
towards
its
orientation
orientation, long-term planning and principal aims) throw light upon three
facets of strategic management. Central to the rst facet is the question of
what the limite has in store for the school and how the school can anticipate
it. Strategic management is, therefore, the formation of plans and rranslalion
of plans into the main routes along vrhich the organisation can move to cope
with (unire problems. Cer-mal to the second faoet is the question of what
results the school really nads important. What kind of school do dtose
involved want to create? What face does the school wish to present?
Strategic management includes, therefore, the setting of principal alma, the
formulation of a philosophy and of the identity which the school wishes to
factors which
express. The third face: concerns the administration of those
Strategic
management
means
are crucial to the survival of the institution.
ensuring the maintenance and improvement of a relatively independent
position vis-a-vis the conrmunity. This includes upholding and developing
the skills that are needed to realise any adjustments in the organisadon.
Schools are already engaged in various aspecm of strategic management.
We reoognise the results oi' this under headings such as development plan
and policy plan.
Strategic management is, thmeforc, ooncemed with decisiws which are crucial to
the vinole school and which locate the school in a changing local environment
Strategic management has advantages. Howver, there are also disadvantages.

Thefollowiugadvnniagesofstrategicrmnagemmtcanbenmned:
identity;
- it contributes to a Stronger sense of
the part of those involved;
vision
broader
contributes
it
to
on
a
perspecrivcs for the future;
the
placed
in
context
decisions
of
are
freedom;
~ it offers alternatives and gives a view of the measure of
and
criticisrn;
discussion
it provides a forum for
information-exchange about
- it stimulatcs the construction of a system of
developments.
internal
external and
41

The disadvantages of' strategic management are:

- it demands more information than is readily to hand;
- it involves a great deal of work for which there is no clear remuneration;
- it sometimes exposes unpleasant realities;
- it produces frustration because ideas are brought forward which cannot
(yet) be realised.

Inlluence of and influence upon the local community

In former paragraph a number of aspects of the school's environment have
already been demonstrated. For example, the limitation central
of
power and
the more direct influence of certain social factors have been pointed
out,
There are groups and regulatory bodies in the school's locality which
are, or
are becoming, important to a greater or lesser degree. This view
of the
context looks primarily toward organisations which are operating within the
context: important client groups, resource providers, regulatory bodies and
conipetitors, We will designate this view with the
term plui-lforrn
interpretation of the comrriunity. It is primarily concerned with the
mixture
ofintluences operating upon the school.
The second model regards the school less as the victim of' rriixture
a
of
influences from the community. A school is player
too and can try to
a
influence its surrouridings to suit itself, either
on its own, or (usually)
through coalitions with other organisations, such as ,other school:
or other
types of organisation. This model will be tenned
conttol-orientated
a
interpretation of the community.
We will now look in more detail at these two interpretations
of the
community. The pluriform interpretation oen su-ives to characterise
the
community in terms of stability. In stnlile surroundings the
mutual
relationships within the mixture of influences do
not change, change very
little. In a dynamic connrrunity the relationships do change or
but there is
reasonahle rneasure of predictability in the manner change. In turbulenta
of
a
comrnimity there is a great deal of change which is also on-going
and it is
difficult to indicate how the patteni of influences will look In the
controlorientated model, an educational esmblishment makes deliberate
use of
oppommities which exist to fully or partially control and/or influence
its
surroundings. We can break down this control under the four
most
important types of organisation, namely:
resource suppliers, client groups,
comperitors and regulatory bodies. The management of
resource suppliers is
concerned with financial and material matters, and also with
access to
training places and the advance of educational equipment. lnfluence
over
42

client groups implies, for example, a permanent relationship tvitli the client group
involved. lnfluence over competitors can be given substance in_ wnous ways.

Methods which we would recognise &ortithe business world: driving competitor:

out of m rmrket, price agreements, cattel-fonmng, It is
more diticult for
individual schools to exercise influence over regulatory bodies,
schools
work in corrjunction with one another they can probably 9x311 3 130115931 mmm
upon the public administration
One interesting mechanism through which schools can exert an _influence
over their neighbourhoods is by entering into networks with other
_

organisations. These networks can he directed toward the four types

control which have been distinguished:
Body to be intluenced
Resource suppliers
_ primary 135k;
_ secondary ask;
Client groups

of

Exmllle
Network of schools, collaboration
Shared library, foundation, equipment
Parent-teachers association
Cartel, all forms of agreement
National association

companion

Regulatory bodies

Theformation ofnetwotkscanoteranattiactve opportunity to intluenoethe

neighbourhood. However, italsoentailscertainiisks.By cooperatingtheschml
relinquishes some of its independmce. Autonornyisreducedbecauseanumberof
mamers are plawd \within die liamewotk of the network The degree of
mdependemethatieschoolcanretamdependsnponitsrehvepowerwithmdie

networkanddiepowerwhichdienetworkisahletodevelopforitselfovera
periodoftime.'Ihusannallschoolandalargeschoolconrrrmttymayfornia

network togetherinwhich agteeinentsaremadeabout the placement ofpupvils.

The relative power of the two Schools within such a network may di`er

Networkscanbe acoordingtotheintensity otdzexriom! _ami/NSK

diesuengdiofdiefonnalbondHowghtisdienetwmkbemgenteredmmlllie
purpose,toexertanhifluenceinthecormumitxmayiudeedbetlnearenedifthe
bondissosnongthattheschoolcaunolongerescapethenetworkAswellasthe

snengthofdiebordonecanslsolookatammherofmattenwhichaectdie
fotuntionofnetworks,suchasthedimensionoftimeandthestamsofthe

participants (teachers, head

BGDhEIS,

school governois). Thlls there is a complete

sealeofnetworksvaryhigommarkettoconcemhiandiesecasesaschoolis
not merelydependentatarget forinuencesfromthecxinminity, butanacuve
43

operator. Sueamegicmanagementisnotdictatedlvytheoomrmmityalonehmalm

hyihewaymwhichthe schoolgoesoutnouieetthecomrmmityandsometinies
together wnh other organisations, strives to join forces.
The formation of strategies
Strategic subjects
Suategc managemmt is concerned with crucial and non-roune

deoisioris. The

conlemofiesedecisionscanbeimherdisngirishedinmdesiomwhich

display much or little technical complexity, and decisions which are,

or are nor,
socially _or pohuully umtentious. Strategic management decisions vary in
oomplexity aud the degree of ctmtmversy they involve. These dimmsions
can be
made to work as follows:
Wmlliity: how serious are the possible consequences? How many panies are
'
involved?
How radical is the possible decision? How far-watching will the
Wmcesbe? Whatprecedentswill the decision cinte?
controversy: what
pressure is being exerted, the level of externa]

mvolvement, imbalance in inluences, disparity of aims.

Strategic management will Valy, therefore, according to the matter in hand.
The introduction of new curriculara, fusion and modularion, for example, will
each display their own form of strategic management. Complex, commjous
matters and issues where external pressure is being applied, demand a
different type of internal approach from simple, unequivocal, self-chosen
matters.
Process offormirig a strategy
Strategic management, in the formal sense, encompasses a number of ste-ps.
Of course, in the real world they are not always taken in the same way one
aer another. These Steps can be given as follows:
a) analysis of the context
b) analysis of a strategic prole
c) iuvestigatiori of alternatives
d) choice and implementation of strategy
a) Analysis afhe context

By way of example we will outline a number of context factors which are

relevant to a school for vocational education The most important, general,
contextual factors lire:
- demographic developments (minibar of pupils, ethnic profile of pupils,
gender);
44

technolcgical developments [employment opportunity

- economic and
structure, techuological innovation. 'Wu-kile number of new industrial
coi-porations per year);
developments (value placed on education and training,
- social aud cultural
takemp of education, business culture, youth culture);
(training as a component of industrial relations urithin
- labour relation::
and within the economy and industry as a whole);
companies
separate
stimulare
employment ami regionalization (advancing
to
- measures
repartization aud the consequences for balancing specific and general
interests and its obstrucrion of innovatiou and ntodunisatiou).
A context analysis covering client groups, regulatory bodies, resource
suppliers and competiwrs includes, in the example of a school for
vocational education, factors such as:
- patiems of Contact with client groups;
whole (total investment in education);
- sketch of the training market as a
training offered by private firma,
including
cornpetitors,
occupied
by
share
industrial associations, branches of industry;
- growth in the share of cornpetitors;
with cornpetitors;
- opportunities to work together
with competitors;
exchange
experiences
opportunities
to
(under-investment
in Vocational education, atuaction
- access to resources
of own resources, contribution from the business community);

and national netwcrks (links with other social organisaiions and groups,
- regional
sector and the whole Vocational
networking at the level of the
regional
and national suuctures),
relationships
between
education systun,
l:) Analysis ofa strategic profile

An internal analysis tries to discover the strong and weak points of the
school for Vocational education in question. The analysis can be aimed at
the following aspects. For each aspect the question will be asked: how good
is the school on this point?
uniform/varied, orthodox/innovative, quality control
- curricula (many/few,
per school/per cmriculum);
into depamnens, sections and sectors,
- structure (principal division
coordination structure);
(quality audits, external and internal
- organisation and management
regulation);
profmsional development of
- staff policy (human resource management,
teacliers, primary and secondary working conditions, quantitative aspects:
45

supply and demand, motivation and status of teaching profession in far

so
as
the school can influence this).
c) Investigation of alternative:
At this stage alternative courses are investigate/d. Which directions
can the
organisation take? Strategic options can be sought out by making
comhinations &om different opportunities and threats from the community
analysis with the strong and weak points from the internal analysis
to
produce a SWOT- matrix. In a SWOT-matrix (stxengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, threats) the box with opportunities and strengths
can provide
an Overview of strategic spearheads. The box with threats and weak points
can fumish an Overview of strategic attacks.

Figure l.
Internal and external analyses brought together
External opportunity
internal strength strategic spear points
internal
Lwealmess

"ships
night"

passing

in

the

where, following an audition, the unsuccessful candidate is asked not to ring

k.
bGas/en
a particular combination of opportunities/tineam and strengths/
wealmesses a school can ask itself which actions can he taken in tts
formation of a strategy. Which curriculum is appropriate for which group?
A distinction is usually made here between existing and new curricula and
current and new target groups. Because, ineducation, adjustmnts n
usually directed toward adding value to existing canicula, ?nul
infrequently toward setting up new cumculi, Bddd-Vame WW a v
been shown as a separate category in gure 2.

fi:*

Figure 2.
Curricula for target groups
Matket/
Existing curriculum
target
penetration of market
(eg. measures to

Added-value
curriculum
Adjustment to
cumculum (eg.
longer school day)

New
curriculum
new.
Cumchlm

markets/new target
groups (e.g. extension
to other
denominations)

modications for
new markets (e.g.
English-Language
parallel stream

con1plete

External threat
"don't call us we'll call

you.,

grow

existing

strategic attacks

A community analysis can he converted into

an analysis of opportunities
and threats:
- analysis of threats: an unfavourable trend ar specic disturhance in the
community which, if the school fails to take action,
will lead to stagnation,
decline or closure of the school
or part of the school. Bach threat must be
examined to see how serious it is and the probahility it occurring.
of
- analysis of opportunities: sn attractive field of possible actions which
might enable the school to stand out favourahly against others. Bach chance
must he examined to see how attractive it is and the chances of taking it up.
Figura 1 combines these Oppommities and threats with the
strong and Weak
points of a school, An external opportunity together with
an internal
strength Creates an opportunity for the school to make
an important choice
and cany it through. An external threat together with
an internal weak point
results in a danger for the school with respect to its position in the (near)
future.
The other two boxes in gure l are designated by English sayings.
An
external opportunity which cannot be exploited because
internal
of
weakness is a missed opportunity. An external threat which is an
warded off
from an internal position of strength
can he compared to the situation
46

combat dmpping out)

new

(tg-FM w059
0 w

ITIOVWS

hbo)

mnovatlon

(e. g, contract

education)

A strategy does not always come about through 01 fmmhl1 f a

strategy and its subsequent implementation. The converse occurs Just as
oen: a strategy can sometimes be read out of a Schools actual way of
doing things. This "reading" needs to be looked at carefully therefore. A
school rnay aualyze its most important events and decisions over a series of
years and try to detect a pattern in it. This pattem is then the most important
7361118
step towards reconstructing the strategy which was evidently
employed. Naming and discussing this strategy can contribuie to 3 FDD"
conscious experience of the identified strategy. The cycle of steps for _the
construction and reconstruction of strategies move, as it were tn opposmon
to each other. Figure 3 give the steps for the two types of strategy
formation.

47

Figure 3
Strategy construction and strategy reconstruction
Strategy construction
Strategy reconstructie::
community analysis
analysis of events and decisions
analysis of strategic profile
identication of strategic
analysis of patterns
alternatives
recognition of strategy which was being
formulation of strategy
implementation of strategy

en-tployed

naming, experiencing of reconstructed

strategy using strategy to analyze
community

The last step in the strategy reconstruction column can result in the
rdentication of a signicant discrepancy between the strategy being
operated and the community. A discrepancy of this nature may provide the
impetus to start a process of strategy construction as laid out in the first
coluum.

Strategy and Organisation

As has already been observed, an organisation does not have to take these
Steps one aer another in the order given. There is a great deal of Variation
in the way in which the process is organised in practice. The process can be
sent down &om the top of the organisation, or it can he initiated from the
hottom up. Direction &om above is easier but does not always result in
aeceptable results enjoying broad support. Processes which are initiated
&om below do, more easily, produce results which can be implemented, but
can also lead to major differences between the strategies of different units
within the organization, which each formulate their own strategy fo: their
section. In addition to these two forms (top-dom and bottom-up),
intermediary forms of strategy formulation can also be identied. In total
four variants can be distinguished:
- bottorn-up approach
~ from sections, departments, work-groups
- point to be considered: consistency and coherence
- top-down approach
- from the management
- point to be considered: translation to smaller units
- interactive or Consultative approach
48

joint formulation

point to be considered: intensive, input of time versus ease of

implementation
- semi-autonomous approach
- separate formation of strategies at central and local levels
~
answers questions &om different levels
point to be considered: strategies fonnulated at section/depunem level
have to be discussed and approved at school level.
The process of strategy formation cam be classied as top-down, bottom-up,
interactive or semi-autonomous. We can relace this classification to the
characteristics of organisations. Not every organisation allows every type of
strategy-formation process.
~

Themyinwhichsnateprsarefonmddoesrtotonlydependrxponiesunmne

ofdieorgnisationbtrtalsoupondtecirlwreofieorganisannmdits

surroundin. Ietusbeginwithtrtesnmoundingsmthebegirmingofthisarticle
wepomtedomtltatdwneedfhrsnategjcnzanagunemasesatfdmein
ccommnnityfromsmbleandregtzltedtodynarttounhulcmand
As far as culture is concerned, we can distinguish between school cultures
which strongly promote good relationships between the teachers, those
which place knowledge and expertise at the centre of things, and those
which strongly eneourage a searching, investigative method of worldng on
the part of teachers. What is considered most importam at a school: the
promotion of close relationships, the promotion of arm knowledge base
Working?
or the promotion of an investigative method of
commimity, structure,
connections
between
these
Figure 4 demonstrata
culture and strategy formation.
Figure 4.
Commmtity, organisation and straie
stable regulated
Community
Organisation structure
Organisation
culture
Type of
strategy

forunation

Individualised
mofessional
close
relationships
and/or firm
knowledge base
top-dowu/
bottom-up

formation
Dynamic deregulated
Sectoral "fixed"
departrnents
choice between
developing
relationships or
erqrertise
interactive

Turbulent
deregulated
collegiate
searchingexperiment

a1

semi
tnm
S

49

The assumption behind figure 4 is that a certain lcind of community

demands a compatible type of structure and culture and a type of strategy
formation that tits in with this. In other words, not every organisational
structure and culture ts into every community just like dm. Changes in the
community, such as we are currently experiencing, from stable and
regulated to dynamic and deregulated ar turbulent and deregulated, require
a transformation in structure and culture and require that the process of
strategy formation he organised in a certain way. These changes also need
to be translated into the working methods and professional development
of
the professional staff. Strategic educational management is, therefore, not so
much a technical or formal procedure, but rather an expression of the extent
to which "irtletesed parties" within and around a school organisation keep
their eyes open to changes in the community and to the structural, cultural,
technological and classicational components of the organisation which, in
a plan under consideration, together make up the face of the school in the
cornmmnity.

Chapter V

MANAGEMENT OF FINAN CES

Introduction and deruarcation

ln schools all activities must take place in order to maintain the continuity

of the primary process: taking care of education. A number

of
supplen-ientary operations, not of purely educational
a
nature, can be applied

to stimulata a successful attainment of the organizational aims.

Thus for example personal, commercial
en iinancial processes will take
place. As a consequence for these activities targets
must be fonnulated, so
that the effects can he measured. On the strategic level
of the organization
these targets can be global, but tinally school
management must be able to
control and to evaluate the results. In older days "nmnirig school"
was
considered to he a rather specific (handy) cra, for whicha
managementtechuiques and financial knowledge were not equipped. However,
the
development of school management as discipline of full value
and the
a
consciousness of regarding school organizations as relatively
autonomous
units in a financial respect, justify a dissertation about financial school
management. Thus the main issue deals with the consequence cf schools'
autonomy in a financial and material respect. lt will become clear that
especially on a strategic level fmances cannot he isolated &om educational
and personal policy. Moreover this will lead to the vision that the schouPs
fnances are too much related to other disciplines that they cannot be taken
care of by purely nancial experts. However this must finally lead to the
conclusion that also the not-tinancial (schoohmanager to certain level
a
must acquire the sldll and knowledge to translate educational policy in
financial plans and to judge the repom he she receiver from the financial
or
expert.

50

The financial matters will be dealt with by walking through a number

of
management-phases explicitly. Aer having given
a picture of the
characteristics of traditional financial management in schools and the
preconditions for a fully fledged financial system, it must be possible walk
to
through the tinancial management-process. First the strategic level will
pass
in review, then attention will be focused
upon the structural financial school
51

management and finally the operational side

evaluation will be thrown light upon.

of the matter with th:

The financial management process and management levels

Every administrative process takes place in a number of phases which have
to be gone through explicitly. These are the following:
1) establishing the aims of the organization,
2) formulating (central) policy choices,
3) planning the activities,
4) designing the organizational layout,
5) providing leadership and direction to the organization,
6) establishing process management and checking procedures,
7) evaluating the process.
In the same way, financial management for school organizations will have
to go through the same stages as the ones mentioned irnmediately above. In
essence a financial system of full value should contain all the financial
aspects behind the various stages that just have been distinguished.
In this framework should be added that various stages
of the management
process will be provided with appropriate terrninological adjusnnents from
a financial point of view. These are the following:
- planning' financial activities will be labelled 'budgeting'
- 'providing leadership' in a financial process takes place in a system of
'budgeting'
_organization of financing takes place with the assistance

of the
administrative organization,
- the registration, verification and evaluation of financial matters takes place
on the basis of book-keepmg regisuatjon_
Before taking you through the process of nancial management it will be
important to make a distinction between the various
management levels that
operate in organizauons, including school organizations. We can make the
following distinctions:
a) strategic (financial) management: determines aims
and policy ' has final

Control

and powers of evaluation;

b) structural (financial) management: plans and organizes;
c) operational management: provides leadership and
controls processes.

52

Characteristics of current forum of financial school management and

the points of departure for a financial system of full value.
The present situation in schools with regard to financial matters is
determined by the general characteristics of school managements on the one
hand, and by government-created hudgeting conditions on the other hand.
ln general we can ascribe a number of distinguishing marks to school
management. These matks are also pnrtly responsible for the way in which
the financial system in schools has been shaped.
l) Emnlicitly formulated aims and policy clioices seem to lack.
2) The planning rarely exceeds the current nancial year.
3) Schools usually possess en organizational structure that is too flat and a
thorough analysis of a schooPs fiinctions hardly ever takes place,
4) Progress-checks and evaluation are often practically non-existent.
5) Schools rarely show an organizational unity, culture elements are diverse
and innovation takes place at pleasure.
From a financial point of view we can say that
l) The financial side of the organization has no established independent
aims because hitherto the system of financing has had the characteristics of
a reimbursement system.
2) The area of school financing has hitherto been regarded as practically
impervious to influences of any kind, which has in tum led to passivity in
matters of fmaucial policy-making.
3) Budgeting is not aimed at continuity and rarely goes beyond the financial
year.

4) Task-assignments for budget supervisors are few and far between, or in a

financial respect delegation hardly takes place.
In discussing the setting up of a fully fledged nancial system for schools, it
should he made clear that such a system has to meet a number of preconditions. In fact these should farm the points of departure for the financial
structure and the nancial climate at schools. We thus arrive at the
following seven componenm for a financial system of full value.
Autonomy
Schools should, in principle, be viewed as independent units with their own
individual financial systems. In fact the resources and conditions mentioned
iri what follows seem tailor-rrtadefor an independent financial policy.

53

The need far active (businessdeeonamic behaviour

In the past legislation and the nancial conditions for schools
were
extremely tight. Schools appeared to be in a straight-jacket, which oen
resulted in passivity.
A 'lump-sum' system aud its greater flexibility in parts will necessitate
greater economic creativity. Sased on (sub-Margets choices will have to be
made that lead to greater efficiency, which must not only be regarded in
nancial terms.

Cantinuity in financial thinking

The individual financial basis of a school's economy is not confined to the
expenditure of subsidics for a (school) year.
For a great number of funds the educational transformation
process is not
restricted to the school year. Long-range estirnates,
reserves and financial
policies that go beyond the school year are essential conditions. In this
respect financial policy would en-inlate education policy, which is inevitably
long-term for schools.

The only option or the strong emphasis that exists today, namely that of eciently
spending the available resources, is too restricted. it is too defensiva. An making
andcteative view ofrmnagementisneeded.

Evety jzcet of a school should be involved in its financialplanning

As a conseqnence of an active iinancial policy school management should i-ealize
thatboththeproductivityaa allcost-elementsruustbe asubjectto athoroughand
conlinuous evaluation. For school managements
miphes that
of a
school orynimtion such ns mainmiatme, depreciation and unlizmon will, by
their very nature, inevitably have to be included in the i-iancial imnagement and
_

planning.

Cheatingjnancial posts in the school organization

Financial management will become so fundamental in schools as regards its
size and scope that the way it has been carried out more or less traxiitionally
will have to change. A fully tledged financial post will have to he created
for each school, with proper j0b- and duty-speclcammsProfessionalization will also be part of this process.
Aer having formulated the points of departure the management process
within a financial context can he dealt with. Hereby the seven mam points
mentioned will be taken as a basis.
_

Oeating connections betweenproductivity andfinancial space

To a greater extent than has hitherto been the case there exists connection
a
in the set-up between the intended increase in educational and financial
space and the efficiency of the education provided.
whether schools like it or not, there will have to be a check (and possibly
a
standard for) the length of schooling for registered pupils. This
means that
more oen than has so far been the case the readmission policies for pupils
who return to school and adrnission policies for those who join the school
will have to he the subject to progress-checks. The educational, and
possibly the social desirability of these consequences
are le& out of
consideration at this moment, but should be subject
of policyqrialcing
activities eventually.
The necessary expansion /nancial
of
space

So far financial thinkiiig in schools has concentrated

on the spending side of
education. A new way of looking at the educational/nancial
system and
possihly a new egislation opens up the opportunities for contractual
education. The governments policy Ol' political changes concerning the
legal status of schools seems to tie in with this and the conclusion is
justiiied that contractual education needs to supplement regular education,
in order to increase the viability of Schools.
54

Strategii: nancial) management far school&

The financial targets of a school organization do not exist outside a context.
In fact even the main financial targets of a school must derive from its
primary target. This primary target is formulated with reference to the
primary school process and forms, obviously, the raisan ifetre of the
organization, which is, the business of education" or educating the
_

..

targets of the school should contain the conditions which

contribute tn die attainment of the primary main target.
The main targets of a school organization may be of the following nature:
- educational
- promotional
financial
- cormnunal
- social
- political
Schools can no longer afford to confine theinselves to educational, or
possibly, social aims. Apart from the primary aim of 'providing education'
_.

55

there will have to be a set of rriain financial aiins, for which the following
may serve as ilmportant exarnples:
l) Create space for the attainment of educational targets.
2) Provide information for policy-making, policy implementation and
financial accounts.
3) Guard the direction and eiciency of the implementation.
4) Create space for successful personne! management.
5) Provide for continuity in the school organization.
Imagining ourselves in a situation where main targets have to be orniulated
in each of the policy areas mentioned, all of which have to lead to feasible
sub targets, we soon find ourselves in a veritable fog unless certain
measures are taken. That is why the strategic management of a school has to
create structure and order in the totality of main targets. This will lead to an
aggregate of expressly formulated policy choices within the organization If
we use the policy-concept of 'contractual education' as an example, then
there is a necessary choice attached: is contractual education being used to
make good a possible deficit or is it a consequence of 'attacking' attitude
an
towards maximum expansion, in order to achieve cptimalization of the
regular education package?
Below some more examples will be given of binary policy choices of
a
financial nature. A school can chose between:
1) a comprehensive education service
or a narrow (and more specialized)

SQYVICC;

2) a coordinatii-ig or subordinating service of tailor-rnade contract-activities

carried out by the school;
3) a centralized or decentralized financial organization;
4) a centrally guided system of budgeting or a budget demand-procedura for
separate organizational units;
5) stafng or no staing debited to a constantly recalculated
personne]
account,

Theprocessofenunanngdisaepanciesmthevanousmamtargetsfommlang
explicit choices and piiorities is called 'the policy-making process' of the school.
Suategic financial management means that as
an example the tbllowing niixtiire

hastobetranslatedintoanancialdevelopmentplan,inwhichabovealLa

numerica] or financial value has to be put

on everything. The iriixtuie iri question
looks as follows:

educationally tinted policy choices, for example, as regards

the admission system
- the teaching methods tnancially tinted policy clioices, for example, as
regards
v

56

the Enancial organization

the budget procedure
- the nature of the reserves socially tinted policy choices, for example, as
regat-d.: - the system of supplementary training
-

and promotion communally and promotionally tinted policy

. hiring
'
h
.
soiiimtywlhavembeone
_

than
penbds :ntprrteant
t
lt is

oftliemainainsplanningwillhavemwwf

stire: connection
.

to state that strategic nancial

management, which, in broad outJineS, has the task of setting targets and
determining policies, should initially be le& to those members who bear the
ultirnate responsibility within the school organizat-ion
It could or should therefore never be
case that Vnancial experts or
level. This would lead to a
this
at
controllere determine the choices
disproporrionate ernphasis on the financial aspects of the school
organization, whereas in fact it is the primary educational process that
should be central.

Structural riancial) school management

If we translate the development plan mentioned in section IV into a
specification of profita and losses or revenue and costs, Such 35 may !fe
expected for any school organization iii the longer term, _theo we have m
fact ended up in the area of long term planning. In iiancial terms we call
this a long-range estimate with indicators, since its long-term nature
necessitates the use of global targets and estimat/es.
However, since more concrete data are available for one school year,
including the number of pupils, the size of the budget, stating costs and
investments, we can draw up a more exact short-term plan or 'an annual
budget for the year x...'.
Budget for operating costs covering the year 1991
Revenue:
5.100.000."
Subvention personnel
135.000,'
Subvention material operation
60.000,Subvention housing
3900-'
Proceeds contract-activities
10.000,Proceeds cantine
+2500
Letting out rooms
5.315.500,Total
Cnsts:
A

'

games

4.950.000;

57

Rmtbilins

Depreciation inventor
Depreciation audio-visual
Staff facilities
Other costs
Balance l993/addition general reserve
Total

50.000,

22,000).
1.5003_

102.000,149.000 -

31300).

5.315.500,-

As a consequence of the continuity in financial thinking the budget also

must contain a number of costs that cannot be considered expenses, foiexample depreciations and additions general reserve. As a 'modern'
gilau-Cuil system cannot be based
on receipt and expenditure we talk of
leaving the cash-basis' and taking the transaction-basis'. It must be clear that
within the hook-keepmg system a overview of costs and
revenues for a
period will not do any more. Even for schools a balance which gives a
picture of a school's assets and liahilities will have to be made up. In this
balance the reserves, depreciation and debts can be shown. Since &om
a
strategic point of view the
have been established at this stage, the
technical iiishing and filling in of the budget can be le& to middle
management or controllers.
In the higher echelons of a school organization airns are forriiulated in
general and global ways. The closer the planning stage is to the
administrative process, the more concrete the airns become. What is
a

componentofnancialplanningaschoolnnnagementsuchasanesrmtema

budget, oilai becomes for teaching departments

or education support staff a set of
targets, vnthinwhichaseparatematzagememeyclehastoemerge.
Intliiswaya
54311901 59731015
mm a
of management cycles at levels of increasing

cmuednatinlhvytmemleroftheorgammtionwillhavetoheclearaboutthe
E0315
P0 C155
are pursued, in order that opaatiooal p amma'g
m be

revisedaccordingly.

It should be stressed again here that everything that ends up in the annual
budget must be a retlection of the i-nixture of policy choiees that
were made
in the various areas.
The budget also forms the basis for the distribution of the nancial
resources over the various parts of the school organization. This is so
because once the costs have been divided into type of costs and it has been
established for each type of costs which part of the organization
can
influence and expend that particular type, then we are at the
same time
concerned with budgeting. In this way the following organizational
operations can be can-led out on the basis of budgeting:
58

a) applying elements of the financial policy plan to the various parts of the
organization,
b) issuing task assignments or delegating authority,
c) retrospectiva checking.
Apart from their actual execution, clarity about planned operations is
created for every section of the school organization subsequent to, and on
the basis of budgeting.
Once targets have been set, once policy choices or indications are clear for
every organizational level, and everybody knows the budgetary limits
within which operations have to be carried out, then the people and the
resources should be such, or be deployed in such a way that operations will
result that are eicient in both the educational and the financial sense. The
actual structure of a school organization is crucial to the practical
implementation of the administrative process. If members are not clear
about their place in an organization, that is, about their duties and activities
then we cannot reasonably expect satisactorywork. Justice will have to be
done in the organizational suuctiire to the more important place occupied by
financial management.
It should now be possible to provide a Summary of all the activities and
duties that are associated with the financial system of a school. Aer this
iiiventory of activities we caii provide a specification of the levels of
management at which each of the relevant activities have to be executed.
On the basis of this specication we can sketch the broad outlines of the
nancial and administrative organization.
The organizational levels of the oancial system:
A. Strategic-structural: administration and management
- determination of aims,
- determination of policy,
budgeting procedure and structure,
- financial and administrative organization,
- tina] verification and evaluation,
- external contacts with subsidy-providers.
B. Structural-operational controllers, administrators, budget supervisors
processing,
- budget layout and budget
~ fomiulation of lower-level financial aims,
- administrative organization,
- direction and control, coordination,
correction and (budgencontrol,
- preparation of annual account.
59

C. Operational: administrative and assoeiated sta& processing financial data.

of
- in charge ofpetty cash,
- reporting, supplying data,
- nancial transactions,
computer irtanagement.
D. External operations

Tlmsweseethatthexublemssunmmdnigtenamreafleadershipinschool

organizationshaveaformalandinfonnalaswellasasnuounaland
mvnomnexihlsidefheeonponentsinvohedmayherepresenteinadiagmm
FORMAL ORGANISATION

\NFORMAL ORGANISATION

- external financial management.

olglnintmn

Indneorythedisnatnionoftasksoverthevarimrsn-embersofaschnol

rtrucmre

organizationrmynotseemnmchofatnoblenbtxtmpractioethecieationofthe

financial organization oen poses problems. Not seldom the creation of mctions
isbasedupon a specicpersods knowledge, ltmustbe clearthatinorganizatiuns,
thatoiendeirmnstratealzckofnanalezcpcrtiseoas
school:: do), diesimaticm

canarise thatitproves ditimrlttonansmitttnereqnsirednancialeiertisemthe

right people. Moreover usually informal mocesses are at work that brings about a
more infetiorplaoefarie nanoesinschoolrnanagememasaresultofalackof
CJQCHBDOC
or lcaowledge. Consequmtly (not seldom) wrong strategic tasks might
beasmhednotheoontroller. 'Ihisbringsusmthemanagementlevelwherealot

WWW

of informal processes are at work.

Operational (tinantial) management

Even if everything has been arranged as clearly and oorrectly as possible
from the stnictural point of view, in essenee all operations are deermined
by the way in which leadership works throughout the entire system
Parrieularly at this stage of the management process informal processes are
at work which can stinmlate but which can also deeelerate other processes.
The fact that financial management in every organization is seen as
nonensense and busiuesslike, oen leads to a disregard for the informal side of
this type of management.
And yet a number of informal aspects have to be taken into account where
new staff are concerned.
These include:
- the manner of communication and information transfer,
- the leadership style used,
- the motivation or required motivation of the staff,
- the material or non-material remuneration for members of sta'
- the way in which the nances are looked upon in a educarionally tinte(
organization.

60

ataramoddrmuh

Culture
The way in which tasks are assigned (Communication),people's motivation
and their pznly hidden reactions aud attitudes, are all part of the informal
part of an organization. It is the task of management, where necessary, to
force everybody in the organization to change their views about the place of
financial management. Members of the school organization must he made
totally avute that consciousnesyraising about financial matters is of vital
importance for the way their schools mcons as au educational institution.
In addition, the imminent changes in the structure of school organization
will inevitably lead to changes in behaviour.
Process control, inspection and evaluation
As an operation, budgeting servea to apply parts of the budget, and !hus
indjrectly certain financial policy choices, to every secon of the
organization, The loweHevel targets or sub-targets set by the strategic
management in tum constitute themselves prospective targets for all the
members of the organization. Within the limits of the budget provided
budget supervisors are allowed to operate.
Their rnanner of operation is connected with;
61

- the nature

of the assigned task

the &eedom provided,
- the organizational environment,
- the education or training of the members of the organization,
- their personal characteristics.
During and ater the financial
process corrections have to be car-lied out.
This is possible only if conditions
are constantly rnonitored, which in rum
requires that attention be paid to the system
of two-way communication.
With the aid of automatic information processing
the nancial system has to
be set up in such a way that financial information
he made available in
formalized, standard ways. Every participant has can
to be able to 'come up
widi' information at any moment. Standard procedures
have to he set up
which fit in as much as possible with the data
intended for external
accounting.
When a budget supervisor
or a cost centre has operated within a provided
budget or a given task assignment this might
signal an excellent
performance, but it might also signal
a lack of initiative. This sort of
amliivalence can be cleared
up by progress-check: rather than by
retrospective checks alone. Targets (in particular, lower-level
targets) must
be formulated in terms of assessable quantities.
In addition, indicators n-lay
serve as aids, e.g, concepts such as 'liquiditgn 'solvency 'protability'
or
'current ratio'.
-

realize that the creation of a revised financial system f a shlcgues

an approach which does Justice to all stages of the ntling zanga-man:
Especially on the strategic _level of the _Kmadimlsnes
_me
should stil-mulate the contribution of mire-rental] S01?
geam
ugh;
attention for financial matters should, part/dom? Y 911
m lead to a
dominnting place of nances. In the end (along care Of 641mm 1? 3_take
and financial management is just an important means to reach qualltY 111
c
Aer having set the priorities and policy of the school. planning
njzin can take place in a significant waY- Financial P1335 1'
dgsg :houldg
form a reflectrion of the school's choices and accents. Finallg
budgeting the elements arld idngthe Pmcedms mu be @CDDSK: ?e
a school's delegatiei: policy. In this respect 353111 553m m a
p
and not an exception.
_

"n.

Non-attainn-lent

of financial targets invariably indicates failure of the

a
financial management process, The failures
may be any of the following:
l) inexactly dened or formulated targets,
2) nometective or non-targeted policies,
3) operational failures involving
-p1ami_ng_

- organization

management

- progressiorl or verification.
Evaluation means compar-ing targets with
results, plus correetions in terms
of l), 2) or 3) above.

Ils Aso goes without saying that people's

attitudes can be more easily
iniluenced in direct (informal)
ways if problem spots can be identied
concretely. With an appointed person in charge, the administration
will have
to play a central role. That person will also, aer examination
results,
of
have to take the initiative
as a member of management in correcting aiins,
policies or planning where
necessary. School boards and managements must
62

63

more specically, state the aspects which led to the EC and the EU nally
being established
- descrihe the opportunities the EC has for :ze-operatingwith other countries
and die relations from the EC has with the EFTA
- describc, in hroad outline, the "enlargement" of the Communities
- report on developments and aspects in the de bate on political union Outline the significance of the Single European Act
- gain an understanding of the origins, the framework and the scape of the
Maastricht Treaty,
-

Chapter VI
!listarical aspects of the European Communities

&Part of course, the origins and subsequent development of the European

@W595 (EC) ?md ?he EUWPCBD Union (EU) are considered &om a

hiswncal perspective.
_

lnderstchapnewevnoonsidertheideasandaspecswmchmmampe
integrationsuehastheywokshapeaherthe SeoondWorIdWar.

Wewill&

bneily at a few international cooperation structures winch

came into existenee

As
e11

rt was the first European organisation with supranatiooal

powers,
on the esmbhshment of the BC. By way of Conchsign_ m5

wa
5m
chapterwdlfeatmenneraoemptsatrxopeaninegraonuthasirsnal
_elen-nem the establishme-nt
ofthe EEC (as of 111.93 ammded to ECbythe muy
force
v

into

of the Maastricht Treaty) and Eumwmm 1957_

luChapterl, thebmadoutlinesofthehistorical developmentofdieECasaH

international orgunisations are considered &om its esablishmeut right

up to the
presentday. lnaddition, wewillalsoexamine the co-operationbetweentheEC

andothereountriesandthe 'enlargement' ofthe Cenmnmityiiomtheinitialsjx

the present twelve Member _States (16 members hy January 1995). We

at how the important political debate about the struggle for political
has progressed. aud how r_ resulted m the Iatiiicatzion
of the Single
mm
European Act (28.2,8_6). Attennon will be given to tins Act in
separate section,
a
gmmmwntwbnci; contains 11329 gathsbjecve for the estahlishment ofthe
_Y
mised high hopes among a large
W317 v
m
,
PP15W1 gard W 51mm' Ewopean integration Finally,
we will
at the estabhshment of the European Union and the Treaty
European
on
Union, also known as die Maastricht Treaty
or the Union Treaty. The
1511151411118&

i?
_

numi;
fdermwwlbeeirplainedandwewillalsoeicaminethediicultieswhich
the
Union
Treaty.
of

have ansen during die ratiicanon

OBJECTIVES
You should, ater studying this pan_ be
Unioninahistoricaloomeirt
64

1.

After the First World War

As a result of the horrors of the First World War, the idea was conceived
aer 1918 that the European states should maintain even closer ties so as to
prevent any escalation of hostilities in the future. In 1913, the Austrian
count Coudenhove-Kalergi, founder of the PanEuropean Movement, put

forward a proposal to establish a kind of United Stares of Europe'. In his

vision this cooperation was to include every European country with the
exoeption of the Soviet Union and Great Britain.
Since the establishment ofthe league ofNations in 1919, the idea that dominnd
the twenties was that the diiculties in Europe could be resolved in a peaceil
mannerbyproper consultation& l9l5amnnberoftreatiesweresigrtedin
Iocamo between several European nations which expressed their oonderwe in

megoodwmoranaepamcipamgwmmcs.
signedbyGei-maur.

'iliemostimportanttreatieswae

ontheonehandwithFianceandBelgiinninorderm

absolutely guarantee the eidsting western Iiontiers and, ou the other hand, with
Polandandczeohoslovaladiatdieynnglunottakeanyunatemlacon,with
respect to the eastem iuntiers, but seek changes to the borders solely through
international negotiation, agreements or by arbitration. Another major step was
Gmnany`s aecessiontothe League of Nations in 1926.
In this optimistic atmosphete, the French foreign minister, Aristide Briaud, widi
the support ofhis German colleague Custnv Stresernanll, in 1929 addressedthe
League ofNations iuGeneva, inwhiehhepiltforwarddieproposaltnestahlisha
European Union, within the anework of the League of Nations, Even though his
plan le& the sovereignry of the Einopean states intact, Btiands proposal was not

wotlcedautindetailbecausethenationalisticviewsthenheldbydiedierent

31,1310;

'plaoediemigiusingenemtorcbee mape Co

THE DEVELOPMENTOF THE EUROPEAN VISION

'n'

mm'

es

mam;"nm"

countries pmved to be too powerful. Under the influence of the economic

crisis in the early Thirties, the rise of Nazism in Germany and the Second
World War that ensued, the European vision faded into the background.
65

2.2.2. The changed situatiun in Europe

Co-operntion since 1945

2.1. CHURCIDLIJS SPEECH
2.

Whittherealisaonthatoooperatonwasvimlwpreventlmnewarsandm
mclmge the post-wreconsuucm ofEumpe, alte: the Second World War, the
*fE'?1Pn_'Pm_liun received a new impuls& The

!wm

sm

tangihle

Wefsmmlwcmwasovmbywmsmncnuchiwhoonsepmmig
Wmaspeechbefomagammugnuwumvemnyorzuchmgedchacm

lmbbefmzedarmngmempemmmmirnhsweumebassfmmsm
tobeformedbydoserco-operaonbetweenFranceandGermanyanideawhieh
indmdaysbareyayeauoanemaormesemmwmmwu
of: oouldbe

tenned revolutionar-y. Great Britain would noi need to be part

(hi5
new
EumpeanalliancebtttwouldinCluuchls view together v/iththeUnimd States
'
have mqely a suppoming m); mp1,
2.2. BACKGROUND T0 EUROPEANINTEGRATION AFTER 1945
2.2.1. The problem of Franco-German relation:
The bckground to this renewed push towards fonn of European Co.
a
operation was iniluenced by severa.! aspects. First there was the problem of
FEF'GGYG5UOHS th& key to peace Europe. France was ataid of
a
VW 0
armin threat. Both countries sougbt close economic cooperation on a sweepmg scale to reduce that risk. This approach presented a
new element in French policy towards Germany. initially the government&
lsolutiton was a guaranteed peace through a restrictiona at least
on Germanys
strength. But then people woke up to the
frn-tu: economic and
F ?*V
C
P80m In both economy and politics, based ou
egahhnomsm, would be a better basis for lasting peace. The reason fo; the
911311&
in attitude was the stance that the United States took towards
GETTDMY- Atompts
were made by means of aid distributed as part of the
European Recovery Program to boost the economics of the post-World War
II European nations. Aid from this programme, Le. the Marshall Plan, went
t @many m0- PGIY du? this, Gerrnsny was able to expand in next to
no time and became a major economic and political influence within
Europe. ln France people carne to renlise that there was no oontaining this
trend and that the only guarantee for peace lay in cooperation \with Germany
within a broader European context.
_

66

Secondly, European cei-operation was boosted by shifts in relations among

(he cornu-ies of Europe Mier the war, a dividing line was drawn between
:astern and Western Europe so that the :astern part of Europe found itself
within the sphere of iniluence of the Soviet Union.
As a result of the increasing n-tilitary strength of the Soviet Union - a
country which since 1949 was capable of building its own atomic weapons ~
fear grew in western Europe that the Soviet Union, as an expansionist
power, would try to extend its sphere of influence into western Europe. This
reinforced by a number of events in international politics, such as
fear
ms
the corumunist coup fetal in Czechoslovnlda in 1948 and the bloelrnde of
West Berlin from June 1948 to May 1949. Because of that, this period is
oten seen as marldng the beginning of the Cold War. Germany wns no
longer rcgarded as the major potential threat to peace in Europe. The three!
now was more likely to come from the Soviet Union that with its huge
military streugth constituted a real threat to the western European nations
which in the first few years atter the war only had a small-size& military
capacity.
To deiend their interests, the western European nations were nzncially aud
from a military point of view totally dependent on the United States which

msdieonlyworldpoweriatwildnnmbthesovietonlnthisrespect

Europe had become a potential flash-point where the two post World War II
face. To avert
superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, stood lce to

thisthreattitewcstemEmvpeannationswiththebaclcingofieUnited
mcollabomesoasmformaimitedfrontagainsttheSovietUnion

&embed

2.23. Econonuc mntives

Lastly, economic motives also played a part in sowing the Seeds for
European integration, though they were defmitely at that stage still only of
minor importance. The United States insisted on economic cooperation
the aid offered
among the countries of Western Europe because, in that way,
This
cooperation
could
be
better
spent.
was also a
under the Marshall plan
Europe's
economic
expansion
Western
continuing
of
the
prerequisite for
economic
ended.
European
oothe
plan
4-year
strcngth once
recovery
United
the
the
instigation
of
started
initially
therefore
at
opemtion was
Suites in order to facilitate post-war reeonstruction, and, in the long term, to
boost the economic development of the Westem European nations.
67

23. MAJOR ORGANISATIONS SINCE 1945

Against this background, international :ze-operation structures hegan to
spring up after the Second World War in several fields within which the
goal of European integration could take shape. 'I'he main organisations are
the OEEC, NA TO and the Council of Europe.
2.3.1. OEEC
In 1948, on the initiative of the United States, the permanent Organisation
for European Economic Cai-operation, the OEEC, ms established - the rst
to be established in the eld of economy. The object of this organisation
was to distrihute aid from the European Recovery Program as best it could
by co-ordinating economic cooperation among the recipient European
countries. To achieve this, objective effort were made to ljbemlise trade and
the movement of capital between the participating countries. The OEEC
was intended, in particular, for European nations that wanted to avail of
economic aid under the Marshall Plan. At first, Czechoslovalda and Poland
also showed an interest in this form of aid, but under pressure from the
Soviet Union these countries were forced to \vithdraw their participation.
In 1961 the OEEC was replaced by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, the OECD, With its headquarters in Paris.
Besides the western European nations, the United States and Canada also
joined this organisation in 1961, as did Japan in 1964, Australia in 1971 and
New Zealand in 1973. The object of the OECD is to co-ordinate the general
economic policy of the Member States, so as to boost economic growth and
to stimulata OECD members aid to developing countries in the Third
World.
The present 24 Member States of &ne OECD are characterized by a &ee
market economy and a relatively high level of indusrialisation. That is why
reports, advice and recommendations by the OECD are oen of importance,
as they can he indicative for the economic policy of the leading
industrialised countries. Particularly the reports that the OECD publishes at
regular intervals on the economic development of the Member States are
most important.
The OECD is an intergovemmental organisation. The main body, in which
all the Member States are represented, is the Council. The Council is the
OECD& decision-making body and meets at least once a year either at
nnnisterial level or among its permanent representatives. In principle, the
CounciPs task is to make decisions and issue recommendations which are
6X

reached following a unanimous vote. lt must be remembered that the

withholding of votes does not prevent decisions being reached. These
decisions are only applicahle however in those countries that have cast their
vote. The OECD's importance does not lie in its capacity to make binding
decisions but rather in the nou-binding reports and recommendntions that it
draws up. In this way it tries to influence and guide the Member States
economic policies along the lines advocated by the OECD.
The OECD is made up of a number ofbodies all of which are subordinate Io
the Council. The most important of these are the Standing Advisory
Committee on Economic Policy and the Development Assistance
Committee which co-ordinates development aid for Third World countries.
In addition to this, there are a number of autonomous bodies. The main
autonomous body is the International Energy Agency, the lEA. The object
of this organisation is, on hehalf of the Member States, to enter into
consultation with the Organisation of Oil-producing and Oil-exporling
countries, OPEC, in order to bargain about the prices and to set quotas for
the production and distribution of oil. This is essential in achieving
economic growth at equal speeds and in order to control crisis situntions,
should they occur.
2.3.2. NATO
As a reaction to the military threat of the Soviet Union and partly in
response to events in Czechoslovakia and Berlin the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO), was founded in 1949.
A military alliance was concluded in Europe as early as 1948 under the
Brussels Treaty. Signatories to this Treaty were France, Great Britain and
the Benelux Countries. As its military objective, the Brussels Treaty obliged
Member States to pledge mutual military assistance. In addition, cooperation was sought in economic, cultural and social spheres. Aer the
founding of NATO the military signicance of the Brussels Treaty was to a
large extent over, In 1954, the Treaty was arnended whereby West Germany
could be incorporated within the western military alliance. From then on the
alliance is known as the Western European Union (WEU).
NATO, with the participation of the United States, was set up because, at
that time only the military strength of the United States in Europe could
form a counterweight to the Soviet threat. The most important provision in
the NATO Treaty is Article 5 which states that an attack against anyone
n11
member of the Organisation shall be considered as an attack against
69

Member States. This applies exclusively to the territory of the Member

Smtes in Europe North America.
or
Article 5 of the NATO Treaty is based on Article 51
of the Charter of the
United Nations, which entitles countries, in exercise
of the right of
individual or Collective self-defence, should the necessity exist, to take such
action as they deern necessary. The Member States ofNATO are: Belgium,
the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, Portugal,
Denmark, Norway, Iceland, the United States, Canada, Greece Turkey and
since 1955 _Germany (foi-merly West Germany). In 1966 France withdrew
from the integrated military Command structure
of NATO though it
remains a member of the organisation.
NATO too, is :in inter-govemmental organisatiori. The supreme body is the
NATO Council, toli the Secretary-general as its Chailman. The Council is
Wmpsed oftlic
offoreigi aiis &om each ofthe Member States and
)

1115913.

35311115,

NvtceayeaLMeetingsareheldatleas-touceaweekamongthe,

peunauent represectauves. 'l'he Council considers any business which has to do,

generally, with the safety of the Member States. Decisions

are taken uuanirnously.
Specific ruilitary business is disoussed iri the Defense Planning Coiiumitee,
composed of the defense ministers frorntlie Member States.

2.3.3. The Council of Europe

The Council of Europe was established as political organisation in 1949.
a
The members of this organisatiori wanted to
Co-operate more closely in
order to promote economic and social developirient. The &ist Member
States to sign the Articles of the Agreement
of the Council of Europe on
May 5, i949 were: Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy,
Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Ireland. The organisation is
now made up of 32 members while several countries from the former
Warsaw Pact have also applied for membership.
The Council of Europe has never been able to achieve its original objective
of political cooperation, socially or economically, because the diererices
between the Member States are too great. The Council Europe, however,
of
is important in terms of the various treaties between the Member Smtes in
cultural and socitrpolitical spheres. The Council of Europe is also key
a
@hmm SWEDSV-heriing ties between the European states and for voicing
views y share with respect to the fundamentals of the Constitutional state
and the protection of human rights.
The best-known and, at the same tinte, the most important international
agreement to be established within the framework of the Council of Europe
70

is the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and

Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR). This Convention was concluded on
November 4, 1950 and binds all the parties of the Coimcil of Europe,
The ECHR is of great signicance, in two respects. On the one hand., this
Convention species a riiinimum level, with regard to the protection of
human rights, which should be guaranteed hy the present Member States as
well as by any member that has still to join. Ou the other hand, the
Convention sets up a number of bodies which are to secure corripliance with
the provisions of the Convention by the Member States and to which, in
particular, individual citizens can make petitions. These bodies are:
- The European Commission of Human Rights. The Commission is asked
with investigating Complaints, in the rst instance, due to a violation of the
coiivenrion by the Member States.
- The European Court of Human Rights. In the cases referred to the coint by
the Commission, it is charged to see that the rights and &eedoms of the
Convention are observed.
The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe. If a complaint is
not or cam lot be referred to the Court, then the Committee makes a
decision as to the violation of the Convention. On the other hand, the
Committee of Ministers has an important supervisory duty, as it must Check
whether or not the rulings of the Court are actually observed by the Member
~

States,

The greatest number of complaiuts is filed by individual citizens. Member

States too may file a Complaint because of an infringement of the
Convention's provisions, even though this is seldom done. Another
important covenant which was drawn up within the framework of the
Council of Europe is the European Social Charter (1961).
lt includes minimimi pruvisions with regard to socioeconomic rights. Unlike the
ECHRdie SocialCharter, however, has no bodies ofitsownwhichcaube
petitionedtoenforce the observance of the provisioiis.
Although, initially, some said that the Council of Europe should be founded
as a federal organisarion with suprnnational powers, in the end during talks
on the Articles of Agreement in 1949, it appeared that most Member States
were not prepared to give up part of their sovereignty. That is why the
Council of Europe has remained an intergovemrnental organisation. The
main organ of the Council is the Committee of Ministers, which is
composed of the ministers for foreign affairs of the Member States or their
representatives, assisted by expert conrmittees. The Committee makes
decisions about the conveutions which are drawn up vtrithin the framework
of the Council. Besides the Committee of Ministers, there is the

7l

Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe, which is cornposed of

representatives from the national parliameuts of the Member States, The
Cmlsmmjve AssemblY 1335 11 Pwer of decision but
can, at least put
recomniendations to the Committee of Ministers with regard to the
oonventions to be drawn up. The Consultative Assembly has, in this
way,
talcen the first step towards
many _conventions which have been concluded
within the framework of the Council of Europe,
the ECHR_

eg,

3. The estahlishment of the first European organisatiou with

supra

national powers: the ECSC

3.1. BACKGROUND

'ro rrs FORMATION

The rst co-operation structure in Europe to have sirpranational POWCIS,

a hmited field, was the European Coal and Steel Communty, the
.

This organisation was born out of a wish, aer the Second World War,
to
place the heavy industry of the Ruhr, which formed the basis of the German
War machine. under international control. It was with that purpose that, as
early as 'l949, the International Ruhr Authority was fomied.
The &Ilied army of occupanom through this body, controlled industrial
output in die Ruhr. Further continuation of tills set-up, however, ultimately
cauaslediprobes. Ori the one hand the western Allies, in view
of a possible
5 211? e C015 Wah Wlted admit the
Federal Republic
nember of_ the Atlantic Alhance. The unilateral control of heavy
iisda
id not fit in with this concept. People were also afraid, just Like
usre ltirst
World War, of creating a breeding ground for possible
r
thaughts o tevengve in Germany by restricong that country's
powers and its
freedom to do business. On the other hand, there
especiall
was still a fear
wa);
in France, that the horrors of war might be repeated if Germ)
any
allowed to expand its heavy industry unchecked.
3.2 THE SCHUMAN PLAN
Ori May 9, 1950, iri order to
overoome this deadlock, the French foreign
minister, Robert Schuman, pot forward a plan that bore his name (though, in
fact, it had been drawn up by Jean Monnet, a civil servant within his
own
niinistry). The basis of this plan was the co-operation between France and
Germany in a wider European framework. an idea which md been
fmhwd 5371131' 5)' Clfllthill. The Schuman plan provided for the
esta shment of ari organisation, designed to integate the European coal

72

and steel induse-ies. The indamerital new element in this plan was the
creation of a central institution, the High Authority, which was to have
supranational powers and which could make decisions that were binding fot
the national governments. The new organisation was to serve as a model
and could be used as a basis for a broader based European cooperation on a
federative basis,
The Schuman plan was favourably received. Germany, Italy, Belgium, the
Netherlands and Luxembourg agreed to the French proposal, with the
approval of the United States. Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries,
however, did not want to join the new organisation. The main stumbliiig
block appeared to be the conferring of supranational powers to the High
Authority. The envisaged inception of a European federative cooperation
also met virith opposition &om &iese countries. The ECSC Treaty
was thus signed, on 18 April 195i, by France, Italy, the German Federal
Republic and the Benelux Countries, after which, the Treaty entered into
force on July 25, 1952. The headquarters of the new organisation were
based in Luxembourg.
3.3. THE INSTITUTIONSOF THE ECSC
The object of the ECSC, as worded in Article 2 of the Treaty is tn contribute to
economic development, to provide more opportunities for employment and to
raise living stnndards in the Member States by establisbing a common market for
cool and steel. In order to make that common market tiehievable a set of sii-ici
rules was listed inAIticle4 to whichthe Member States had In comply.
The most important organ of the ECSC is the High Authority, composed ot`
independent experts appointed by the respective governments of the
Member States. To perform its duties the High Authority is allowed to issue

orders, reoommendations and advice. Orders and recommeridations are

binding on the Member States and on business tii-ms which fall under the
provisions of the Treaty. Although the recornmendations are only binding
with respect to the aims and not with respect to the means. ln the sector of
the coal and steel industries, the High authority is thus the competent body,
which, in this area, has superseded the national government of the six
Member States. At the time the ECSC was formed, the confeniiig of
supranational power was virtually a new element within the privileges of
international organisations. The necessary provisions, however, are included
in the ECSC Treaty, in order to regulate this power.
Firstly, under article 14 the High Authority is bound by the provisions and
the content of the ECSC Treaty. As a judicial authority established under
73

.
Euromall!) 3651190 C
4. Further attempts at integration.. the
(E )~
Community
(EDC) and the European Political
COMMUNITY
4 THE EUROPEAN DEFENCE
<

the Treaty, the Court of Justice must monitor the legitimacy of the legal acts
of the High Authority,
The High Authority must also diseharge its duties in consultation and in
close cooperation with the national governments or with other parties
concerned: Article 46 of the ECSC Trenty. In many cases too, pursuant to
provisions in the Treaty, advice must he sought &om the bodies established
under the Treaty, the Special Council of Ministers or the Consultative
Committee. The Special Council of Ministers is tasloed with coordinating
the policy of the High Authority with the economic policy of the national
governments, To perform this task it gives advice to the High Authority
with regard to the common policy to be pursued. In a few cases, for
example in crisis situaticns. the Council of lvnisters itself has the power of
decision. The Consultative Committee is a body which has to support the
High Authority in its work. The High Authority may consult with the
Committee in cases in which it deems necessary or if this is prescribed in
the Treaty, The Committee consists of representatives of produeers,
employees, traders and consumers &om th: coal and steel sector.
lastly, a join! assembly was set up under the ECSC Treaty. This assembly
was, under Article 20, to be eomposed of representatives from the national
parliaments of the Member States. The assembly was ernpowered, in certain
inslxnces, to advise the Council of Ministers. The High Authority, too, was
politically accountable to the assembly concerning the policy it pursued. ln
accordance with Article 24 of the ECSC Treaty, the assembly received the
right to pass a motion of no confidence whereby the members of the High
Authority were collectively obliged to resigu.
The ECSC Treaty was (hus, pnmarily, an answer to political and military
diiculties in the period after the Second World War. Economic moves
were, certainly at the time of its formation, of secondary inaportance. The
complex institutional structure of the organization, which, aer all, only
operates in a limited sector, can be explained by the need, in a specific way,
to incorporate democratic control so as to sufeguard the principles of the
constitutional state. Great importance was attached to this, of course, just
aer the mr. The ECSC is the first attempt by a number of western
European nations, albeit in a limited sector, to engineer a concerted
development, which has served as a model for co-operarion in other fields.

'
950 , France came alonS mb
'
Shortly after the outbreak of war in Korea m
as (he
propusa l was kmwarn
the proposal of forums l' BMW PY
an',
that
timedefence
at
the French minister of
Pmm am named am:
?Wim
as
to
'
countries
b:
plan; Pam cum M312::l t::
f rces of the ECSC European were
dgfmce*
nrinislIY
f
command of a
a European ami&
NAO_
of a larger Atlantic force, as pm o
form
part
to
then
This army was
ossrble m Emope, 'D S93 P mlhmy M' 3gam(
uld be l/iew
In th WF), '
ai:
developments in Korea, constituted a real
'
&inech,
Atlhe
rearmarnent of Germany
same time the inevitable
Waaw
mwgwd into a European army, which given the lack of
be
'
0115 III Walm WH, was for
experience of the other Western European na
mai grxaled neagtns
May
the EDC Trestii' W fmany sigma

ms

uz;

mt

>

27_ 1952

hy the ECSC counmes.

4.2 *rm: EUROPEANPOLITICAL corvnvrmvm(

the
.
oftheE-DC T3533'- 'he km' Ass embly of
In accordance with Article 38
in
by severnl new members
'
ECSC - whose number had since increased
EDC
the
'dedfo?
oxarsaaslshlasblpvl
f ?European
order to satss' the requirements
'
B *lt
&as
rittycalwlifymera
essential, With 3 VW m Emmmg
EPC
'

mm;
t Common
=
\Vas ,
Editie
P EPCpolicy on Defence and also a c333:: zf
through
a
geam
'
.
the low democratii 5
Policy_
rarse
reagaon ale commn &face
th:
Puhmmmry comm' '
sY-Swm
f
in the bill for au EPC for a
Fm am reason' Fromm was made
the
d; two houses. One of these two houses.
y am ar
cream
be
@VIE
(M153 D
based ?se the
corifederal
structure
federal
or
Num, goal was a
&Y
!gmm of
pr-iuciple of distribung_ power and moorl
fo' n
represenmlve* "m" *d.`"
the
of
Assembly
Joint
the
17***** m?'y';f`$r-xa3i
and in March 1953
Spaak,
ECSC' cxlbmrglaillers
for foreign affairs of the scsc.
'
"7 P!
wrder suprananona l powers than
institutions of the EPC were to get
'

site tts;

ww comun
v

ne

'

am

Em?

74

'W

0mm

w d:
-

75

institutions of the ECSC and the EDC. The niechanism of purliamentary

control would, in addition, be tiglitened, The bodies of the EHC would take
powers &om the EDC and the ECSC. Provisions were made in the
constitution to arrive, in the long term, at a community foreign policy and
for the establishment of a single market. These Treaties for a European
Defence Community and for a European Political Community, both drued
within a year aer the ECSC came into operation, seemed, to bring about an
accelerated process of integration in Europe.

1954. This Treaty stipulated that West Germany could proceed to rearrn, on
occDPYDS fm? Wmd
m5 m a
a limited scale, and that the regime of
end. It was also decided that the Federal Repubhc could become a member
of NATO, which this country then joined in 1955.
TTCZY V735 3
The refusal by the French parliament to ratify_ !he EDC
lthe
massive blow to the concept of European unification In ordr rlrelsatart
worked
out y e ene ux
process along those hnes, new initiatives were

4.3. FAILURE OF THE EDC ANI) THE EPC

5. The Benelux

The pursuit of European integration had, however, to cope with a major

setback when, on August 30, 1954 the French parliament, the Arremblee
Nationale, retsed to ratify the EDC Treaty, so that this Treaty could not take
effect. And with that, the constitution for a European Political Community
was also blocked.
There were several reasons foi' the French refusal to ratify the EDC Treaty.
In France, especially under the influence of the Communist party, the
opposition to German rearmament had increased considerably. The ceding
of sovereignty over the French army was, given the iricreasing influence of
the German Federal Republic within Europe, considered unacceptable.
Other reasons foi the French attitude lay in the changed international
situation. The death of Stalin ori March 5, 1953 and the ending of hostilities
in Korea on July 27 of that year, marked an inter-im period of deteiite in
relations between the Soviet Union and western Europe. The cornniunist
threat was, at that time in Europe, held to be less of a threat. With the fall of
Dien Bien Phu in August 1954, France now had bigger problems to face in
Indo-China (South Vietnam). In order to rectify this situation, the French
government went out of its way not to antagonise the Soviet Union, the
country which had vehemently opposed the formation of the EDC. France
was also indigiiant about threats from the United States, in particular on the
part of its foreign minister, Foster Dulles, about taking action should the
EPC not come into operation, This led to a hardening of views in relations
between France and die United States, which did not exactly foster
wlingness, on either side, to ratify the ENC Treaty,
The entry, however, of West Germany inm the Atlantic Alliance,
was not
blocked by Frances attitude. On the initiative of the British foreign
Secretary, Anthony Eden, the Gennan Federal Republic was able to join the
Western European Union, as part of the Paris Agreemerits of October 23,

the Benelux Countries came up with a new initiative in order

that end they
new life into the pursuit of European integration. To
913'
memorandum,
?'35 '-0 557W?
presented the other ECSC nations with a
which
and
of
the
date
were o e
venue
a working paper at a conference,
P13
the
Beyen
of
underlying
later.
The
assumptions
55V? a? a
determined
_QIMEII
the
Dutch
devised
by
This
plan,
memorandum.
basis for the
ability
the
m
1953,
of
for
in
drawn
purposes
Beyen,
minister
up
was
establish
the constitution for a European Political (lornniunity. 'I'he Beyen
Plan departed from the idea that political integration only niakes sense a;
the same tirne, a move is made towards econoirnc integration. Institutiona
political structures need to be based on a shared rate of economic growth so
that the essential interests of the Member States are on a par.
Although the Constitution for an EPC never took efect, the ndenymg
tions of the Beyen Plan were incorporated n the Benelux
niuxhlanduin.
This paper contended that economic integration should
precede political integration. The Benelux counesthugcgsxiD316;
conference be called to discuss the memorandum bt s
possibility of establishuig a common market had to e examined. Another
_bl
issue thx-it needed to be considered was whether C0>0pEl`l0n was possi e in
the sectors of transport and nuclear power and in the area of coordinatiiig

76

Countries.

memorandum

titi breaythe
Ma 1955,
1

liiciiggoicehce

in which the Member States of the ECSC were represented

by the ministers for foreign affairs. was convmdn JW 1331i&
Messina. The proposal by the_ Benelux Coun es, as
N133'
mms at the
mmmrmdiirn was agreed to m gcnfl bl' 'he
governmental
representatives
conirriittee
was set up_to
of
conference. A
Belgian_
,bmgu
chairmanshi?
'he

under
the
elaborate these ideas,
vacl;
Britain
invite??
Great
too.
was
minister, Paul Henri Spear
the work of this Comimttee, but aer assisting nutia y.

lfl

77

withdraw, The 'most serious objections of Great Britain were against the
likely. su-pranational structure of the
new form of cooperation and, the
intention of the ECSC nations to establish a customs union instead of a treetrade zone, which the British prefer-red.
6.The Spaak report
The
point for the Committee of govemmental representatives was
not, primarily, the creation of an institutional structure for a new co~

operation structure. This had been the basis of the Schuman Plan, but in
VM" ?f dlmfmnes regarding the gi-anng of supranational powers to
collecnvebodies. the rst option to be examined this time was the prospects
for establishmg a single market. The object of such a single market was the
creation of a zone without internal borders and coupled to that, a common
economic policy. It should then be possible to promote closer lies between
the Member States and., on the economic level, to ensure harmonious rates
of growth within the Community, steady and evenly distributed industrial
expansion, greater stability and a steeper rise in the standard of living. This
obiective, as formulated by the Committee, is reproduceti word for word in
Article 2 or' the EEC Treaty. The three stages, to achieve this Objective, are
elaborated in the report:
l. - A consohdation of markets will need to be accomplished. The entails:
the setting-up of a customs uman, the abolition of quantitative restrictions,
&ce movement of services, free movement of employees and capital and
a
Common Agricultural Policy.
2. - The consolidation of markets will need to be accompanied by a jointly
devised economic policy. For this to happen, it is necessary, among other
things, _to have: co-ordimtion of national economic policy, hannonisation of
legislation, a Community policy on transport and a joint competition policy.
3. - If the single market is to expand to the full, iinancial support will be
needed particularly for the henet
of new investment and for relocating
employees. The support IS needed especially for business conversions,
financial assistance to economically deprived areas and to encourage people
to seek work other _areastmobility of labour).
The key talcsn reahsmg this Programme were assigned m the institutions ofthe
new orgamsation. ln order to decide on the institutional stiu/sune thereof, the
Spaak report was based on four basic principles:

In anticipanon of a possible, ever closer co-operation in the iture, a

distinction was drawn as follows:
-

78

of general political concern: these are reserved for the national

governments of the Member States
b) points that are connected with the activities of the single market: these

a) - points

are reserved for the institutions of the Community.

accountahle to the
- A community body, equipped with its own powers,
Community, yet operationally independent, will become inevitable. This
can be gathered, among other things, from the need for legal security on the
part of EEC subjects and in the defense of their rights, and &om the need to
have a system to monitor Member States in their undertakings in observing
the provisions of the Treaty.
jurisdiction of the national
- General political issues which are within the
far-reaching effects on
have
the
Member
States,
of
may
governments
community policy. It is therefore imperative that a body be set up in which
national governments can reach agreement so as to achieve covordination of
policy.
It is even argued, in the Speak report that certain measures could be so
crucial to the operation of the single market, that the rule, in decision
making, of a majority vote might have to go.
judicial authority to which appeal cases could be
is
- It necessary to set up a
referred. A parliamentary body would also he set up, which could oversee
community decision-making.
On the basis of these principles the committee of governmental
representatives (the Int/er-governmentalCommittee) concluded that, for the
establishment of a European Economic Community, the following four
institutions were necessary: the European Commission, the Council of
Ministers, the Court of Justice and a parliamentary assembly. These bodies
were also necessary for the establishment of a joint organisation for the
peaceful development of nuclear power, which also had to be decided on.
The central point of this institutional structure, in the Con-iiriittees view,
was the European Commission. This Commission ms to be composed of
independent experts who, primarily, would protect the interests of the
Community, The Commission& principal task is to come up with initiatives
regarding Community policy and with respect to the co-ordiriation of
Community adjustments to the economic policies of the national
governments of the respective Member States.
7. The establishrnent of the EEC and Euratom
The Spaak Report, in which the aforesaid proposals were draed, was
submitted in April 1956 and debated on May 29 and 30 of that year by the
79

:epialrsrtinjsters durtin a cogiferece in Venice. At this conference the

cj'

d'

wereaccepe asa asiso r nego anons esigned to lead to the

dmjng the &ml team&
Strenuous negotiations followed. One hindrance was the weak osition of
Thep
French economy within a future common market.
financial
llucma"legscltCrime; had twards oetzisneas dependencies,
notably in
'
1
'
S, d.e ma tzreanes
e pro ema.
P
0
were on
site

Much 25) 1957mR0me'

hese treime& were the Treaty establishing_ the European Economic

e_EEC and the Treaty establishing a European Atomic

Ellmmul
DFIEY ommumty, Euxntnm. Aer the
signmg, ratication followed quite
swily, so that both Treanes could take effect as of January l 1958 The
original Member States of these community organisations were: Belgium,
tilyNetherlands, Luxembourg, the German Federal Republic, France and

Chapter VII
Gramrnar
Articolul
Articolul este partea de vorbire care individualizeaz obiecte i
fenomene ndeplinind funcia de determinant. Este considerat
determinantul proprio-zis", pentru c el nu poale fi o parte de vorbire
independent, el contribuie doar la determinarea unic sau individuala a
substantivului pe care l nsoete.
Aproape fiecare substantiv dintr-o propoziie englez este nsotit
articol,
iar felul articolului folosit este departe de a coincide
de un
ntotdeauna cu acela din limba romn.
Articolul este redat prin:
a) articolul hotrt the;
b) articolul nehotrt 12 sau an;
e) articolul zero sau neexprimat.
Articolul are poziie fix: naintea substantivului.
_

Articolul hotrt (the)

window...

[ ]

- se pronun

naintea consoanelor: the look, the pupi!, the

]
semivocalelor:
- se pronun [ naintea vocale lor sau
the eye, the artist, the honour...

subliniere :

- pronunarea leste, de asemenea, folosit pentru

The" is un article. The" este articol.
Articolul hotrt se utilizeaz cu substantive nurnrahile (au form
att la singular, ct i la plural) pentru a indica un anumit obiect, clar
[

individualizat:
The box is an thefloor. Cutia se afl pe jos.
7712
bate: art on thefloor. Cutijle se afl pe jos.
The student is learning English. Studentul nva englezee,
The boys were running st. Be alergau repede.
The apare dup prepozi :
in the library (n bibliotec)
an the table (pe mas)

80

81

to the museum (la/spre muzeu)

In mod obligaoxiu folosim articolul hotrt cu:
` mbsm-nuYe "W115 Pmpm de ape, rmintdealuri, oceane, mr-i,
lacuri, insule, golfun, canale:
the Danube (Dunrea), the Iharnes (Tamisa),
the Catpathtans (Carpaii), the Alps (Alpii),
the Atlantic (Oceanul Atlantic), the Black Sea (Marea Neagr),
the hetlands (insulele Shetland), the Gulf of Mexico (Golful
Mexic),
the English Channel (Canalul Mnecii).
substantive compuse:
'
nume de ri:
the United States (Statele Unite), the United Kingdom (Regatul
Unit)
nume de instituii oficiale:
the White House (Casa Alb)
the Kremlin (Kremlin)
the Ministry ofF oreign Amir: (Ministerul de Externe)
the British Museum (Muzeul Britanic)
substantive care denumesc obiecte din univers, astrologie etc.:
the sun (Soarele), the moon (Luna), the sky (cerul),
tile world (Lumea), the earth (pamantul)
nume de vase, ambarcaiuni:
the Titanic, the Christina
de
nume evenimente istorice:
the First World War (Primul Rzboi Mondial),
the Gulf War (Rzboiul din Goli),
the Plague (Ciuma)
nume de ziare:
The Iimes, The Morning Star
construcii genitivale cu of
the streets of the town (strzile oraului)
the waves of the sea (valurile mrii)
:ul siubstantive urmate de o propoziie care rspunde la ntrebrile: care?, ce
_

e17:

The man who is spealririg is my brother;

Barbatul care vorbete este fratele meu.

This is the house which I live in.
Aceasta este casa n care locuiesc,
the transforma_ ad; active n substantive
v

82

beautiful (adj. -frurnas)/the beautiful (subst. - frumosul).

denumete clase, grupuri persoane de acelai fel:
the rich (bogatii). the poor (sracii)
the blind (orbii), the sick (bolnavii)
the English (englezii), the French (ancezii), the Romanians (romnii)
ajut la formarea superlativului relativ:
the best (cel mai bun)
the earliest (cel mai timpuriu, primul)
ajuta la formarea adjectivelor i numeralelor ordinale:
the second (cel de) al doilea
thefl{ty-sixth (cel de) al cincizeci i aselea
n expresii:
for the time being (deocamdat, pentru moment)
in the long run (pn la urm)
on the whole (n general)
at the beginning (la nceput)
in the end (la sfrit)
by the way (apropo)
in thet seventh heaven (n a1 noualea cer)
on the rocks (pe geant (familiar)
the day after tomorrow (poimaine)
Not: De regul, numele de persoane nu primesc articol. Dax cnd apare un
sensul de "familia...",
nume de familie laplusal, numele capt
the Browns (fansiliaBrown)
the Kramrn (familia Kramer)
the Danes (danezii (popor)
the Poles (polonezii (popor)

Articolul nehotrt (a/an)

a cu substantive care ncep cu o consoau:

a box, a child, a magazine
vocaBi:
an - cu substantive care ncep cu o
an egg, an idea, an actor
Not: Se utilizeaz co substantive la singular! Presupune ideea de numr.
numeralul one:
poate ntocui
hundred) - una sut
hundred
(one
a
map)
(one
and two paintings - o hart i dou tablouri
a map
substantive care se pot numra (countables):
- se folosete cu
a mari (im om) an idea (o idee)
v se folosete obligatoriu cu:
83

denumiri de meserii, profesii, nationalitati:

Mr. Brown is teacher. Dl. Brown

este profesor.
a
My sister became a doctor. Sora mea a devenit medic.
He is un Englishman. El este englez.
- numerele, pentru a indica o cifr aproximativ:

(about) a thausand people (aproximativ)

o mie de

persoane)
- prenumele little (puin) i few (puine), crora le confer un plus de
cantitate:
I have little nme. Am puin timp - deloc.
- se folosete cu denumiri de msuri (timp, disrant, cantitate):
1 have little time. Ampuin timp destul.
a
once a day (o dat pe zi), twice a week (de dou ori pe sptmn), three
miles un hour (trei mile pe or)
- se folosete n expresii:
to have tz mind to (a avea chef de)
to take a _zncy to (a ndrgi)
once in a blue moon (din an n Pate)
to keep an eye on (a nu stbi din ochi)
al! af a :udden (brusc)
Atenie! Articolul nehotrt nu se folosete substantive nenumrabile:
cu
I bought an iron yesterday. Am cumprat un er de clcat ieri
- dar: Thisfence i: made
of iron. Acest gard este din fier.

Articolul zero

Desemneaz lipsa articolului. Se folosete:

cu substantive la plural (indic obiectele oarecare n general):
Clothes do not make the man. Nu haina face
pe
Books aire on the table, Pe mas se afl cri. om
!like mil/c, coffee. music. 71mm, games.
'
plat: laptele, cafeaua, muzica. teatrul, jocurile.
n proverbe s. limbaj tiinific:
Haste makes Waste. Grab& stric treaba.
Light travelsfarter than sound.
Lumina se deplaseaz mai repede dect sunetul.
obligatoriu:
cu substantive ce denumesc zilele sptmnii, lunile anului, anotimpurile:
I 'II meet you on Monday. Ne ntlnim luni.
He Ie/I m May and returned in Morch- A plecat n mai i
s~a ntors n
mame.
S4

3172123:"unii- iedtctitgnte

gg

provincii, comitate; orae (exceptie: the

1
:ti, cldiri. strzi, poduri:
France. Anul trecut, am vizitat Italia

(Ehaugtesar
ani
mg m1viiitadctabr

i Frana.

we

The United Kingdom ts made up

_

t
of Scotland. Englund,

WIIeS ?m1

Nonhern Ireland Regatul Unit este format din Scoia, Anglia, ara Galilor
i Irlanda de Nord.
l Iive in Bucharest. Locuiesc oBueureti.
We visited Bran Castle. Am vizitat custclulvBran.
Our house is on Ojom' Street. Casa noastra se aflav pestrada Oxford.
We went for walk on London Bridge. Am facut o plimbare pe Podul
a
Londrei
nume de materie:
' cu substantive
Oil is Iighter than water. Untdelerxmul este ma: uor decat
apa,
cu denumirile limbilor:
I learn English. nv engleza.
substantive
abstracte care nu au form de Pllllal V5- hme' 107*
cu
happiners, wisdom
Same people believe in love atjrst :tghL
Unii oameni cred n dragoste la ?mm Vede":
- n expresii:
at random (la ntmplare)
in time (la timp)
for good (pentru totdeauna)
hand in hand (mn n mn)
al down (n zori)
bag and baggage (cu cei i cu plcel)
by eur (dup ureche)
side by side (unul lng altul)

by

"llralniepnetc
.

Ng
a

dup sine

apmmwyicd

se schimbri

funcii precise, iar nlocui-rca lui P03

e pur i sinlvlv greeli de

de nteles
,
,

eminem articolul (situaii care nu produc modificri de

n vorbirea familiar: (A)

Friend of mine told me about

tt.

sanii);

Un prieten

meu mi-a spus despre asta.

n limbajul jurnalistic: Elmployees have ta obeyj/BW'egulflom
.
Angajaii trebuie s respecte regullle de protecie a 'mmm
A

85

- n indicaii scenice: (The) Old woman

goes to the rettee (on the)
right.
Btrria se ndreapt spre canapeaua din dreapta (scenei).

Substantivul
Denumete obiecte n sens foarte larg, adic fiine, lucruri,
fenomene, are categorii de gen, numr i caz, i
pe lng funcia de subiect
n propoziie mai poate echivalentul unei propoziii
sau fraze.
Substntivele din limba englez pct clasificate din mai multe
puncte de vedere:
1. Dup form
simple: boy, meal, day
compuse (formate din dou elemente): childhood, schoolbay,
classraom
prin conversie (din alte prti de vorbire):
- din adjective the good, the evil, the rich
- din verbe: cook, foii, reading, box ing
prin contragere, abrevieri: ad (advertisement), jidge (rejigerotor),
gym
(gymnastics, gymnarium), Iab daborarory), MP (Member
Parliament),
of
Mr. (Mister), Mrs. (Misser), Mirr
sau Ms - apelalive pentru femei cstorite
sau necsatorite.
2. Dup coninut
comune; denumesc:
- un element dintr-o categorie de obiecte de acelai fel: table, school
v mai multe elemente de acelai fel: family, people
- substana constitutiv a unor obiecte: Wood, steel
- abstraciuni: di/fculty, worry,
peace
- nume proprii:
- persoane: Churchill
- localiti, ri, continente, ape, muni: London, Romania, Europe, the
Danube, The Alps
- diviziuni temporale, srbtori: January, Sunday, Independence Day
- nume de cri, ziare, reviste: Ham' Times, The Sunday Times
- nume de instituii: the Grand Hotel, the British Museum
Not: n limba englez substantivele proprii se scriu
cu liter mare, inclusiv
numele de nationalitti i limbi.
He speulcr En ' h. El vorbete englezete.
We
are Romani' r. Noi suntem romni.
86

Numrul substantivelnr

Din punct de vedere al ideii de numr, subslzritivele n limba engleza_ pot fi:
A. numrabile
B. nenumrabile
_

A. Substantivele numrabile au att plural, ct i singular.

a boy - two boys

museum - museum:
child - children
Exist dou forme de plural:
- forme regulate
- forme neregulate
pluralul regulat: se formeaz prin adugarea lui -s la forma de singular:
book - books (carte)
table - table& (mas)
boy - boys (biat)
class - classex (clas)
noxe - noses (nas)
Exist substantive care au dou forme pluml
banjo - ban jos, banjou (instrument muzical)
motto - matlos, mottae: (moto)
volcano - voleanos, volcanoer (vulcan)
zero zeror, zeroe: (zero)
Not: Literele, numeralele i abrevieri le formeaz pluralul plm adugarea
unui apostrof i -s,
A 'si 1920& MP& em.
There are two A 's and three 21s in the number ofthat English car.
Sunt doi de A i trei de 2 nnuuiml acelei maini englezestiAtentie! Forma fr apostrof este mai frecvent folosit.
p1m1u1
neregulat:
-th devine -ths: both - baths (baie) ; mouth < months (guri)
fe devin -ves: haIf- halves (jumtate); lcnife - knivex (cum)
. f-schimbarea
vocalei: man - men (brbat)
-eet
(picior)
foot
mouse - mice (oarece)
texminatia - eu 0x - oxen (bou); child children (copil)
.
i
- aceeai forui la singular plural:
baraoles (baraci); headquarters (cartier general, sediu), serie: (serie).
Specie& (specie), war/n (uzin) sheep (oaie). deer (cprioar)
PluraJe strine (mai ales n limbajul tiinic):
_

87

us - i stimulus stimuli
um -t a datum - data

bacterium - bacteria
us - ora corpus - corpam
us - era genus - genera
a - ae alga - algae

Iarva - arvae
on - a criterion - criteria
phenomenon ~ phenomena
o - i grajta - graf/iti
Not: Aceste plurale pot avea i fonne cu -s', ntlnite mai ales n vorbirea
curent: antenna - antennas
- antennae
Fonnula -brmulat

-formulae

bureau - bureans
- bureaux
B. Substantive nenumrabile
au form nemodicat, deci au form doar de
singular sau doar de plural
- numai form de singular: sugar, wisdom, breatl, boiler, chalk, food, fruit,
gold, jam, silver, advice, information
- boli: rneastes (pojar), mumps (creion)
- nume de tiine: aestherics, ecanomicsf phanetics. pa/itics
- nume de jocuri billanis, bawls, cards, darts
- nume proprii: Athens, Naples, Wales
Not: Pentru a delimita anumite, cantiti se folosesc cuvinte :
ca

a piece of an item of a bar

piece

slice

of

o/

a bag of

bacon

of bread

cake

a bar of chocolate, map o bucat de ciocolat, spun

a Iump ofsugar
o bucat (cub) de zahr
o foaie, coal de hrtie
a sheet ofpaper
a piece of advice
un simplu sfat

an item af information
o frm de informaie
a bit ofinterest
un pic de interes
- numai form de plural:
- unelte: binaculara, compasses, glasses, scissars
88

piece

!oaf

overalLt, pants, pgamas, sharts, trousers

- imbracaminte: jeans,
Not: Aceste substantive se numr cu ajutorul cuvntului pair: a pair of
:cissors (o foarfeca, o pereche de foarfece)
a pair trausers (o pereche de pantaloni, un pantalon)
a pair ofglasses (o pereche de ochelari)
Atenie/ Exist numeroase substantive folosite doar cu forma de plural, de
regul terminate n s
finds (fonduri bneti)
arms (arme)
colours (steag, drapel)
manners (purtare)
damage; (despgubiri)
regards (salutari)
earnings (ctig)
remain: (rest-uit
firewarks (fac: de artificii)
savings (economii)
archives (arhiv)
outskirts (periferie)
8904-' (DN5)
holiday (vacan)
Atenie! Exist substantive care au dou forme, cu nelesuri diferite:
WEE-Y (DDETL avize)
advice (sfaturi)
colour (culoare)
colours (drapel)
glass (pahar)
glasses (ochelari)
C14S377114' (Vam)
custom (obicei)
(despubi)
(avarie)
dnmage:
damage
(osteneala)
(durere)
pains
pain
_

Genul substantivelor
n limba englez, n afara cazurilor n care genul este marcat
formal:

boy - girl @iat - fat);

lion -lioness (leu - leoaica)
genul substantivelor se identific de obicei cu ajutorul prenume lor care se
refer la ele i care au forme diferite dupa gen:
he - el; she - ea;
it - neutru
l, substantive nume de persoane
sau
2. substantive nume de animale
3. substantive nume de obiecte
l. substantivele ce denumesc persoane de sex barbatesc sunt de gen
masculin: man (barbat)
brother (frate)
cele care denumesc persoane de sex feminin sunt de genul feminin:
woman (femeie)
sister (sor)
~

89

Not:

masculin

jther
king
mank
uncIe

actor

host
negra

feminin: cuvinte direrite

mother (tat - mam)
queen (rege - regin)
(clugr - calugarita)
nun
(unchi - mtu)
aunt
tetminaia
ess

actress (actor - actri)

hostess (gazd)
negress (negru - negres)
terminaille -ine, -er, -graom
heraine (erou eroin)
widawer (vduv - vduv)
(mire
bridegroom

hero
widaw
bride
mireas)
Genul comun are o singur form att pentru feminin, masculin:
(prieten(),
- artist, chairman @reedintehfriend
(elev(
pupi!
professor,
neighbour
(vecin(,
Diferenierea se face n context cu ajutorul pronumelor i a
cuvintelor ca: boy, male, female.
The teacher asked the pupi! a question,
He asked her a question.
Profesorul (el) a ntrebat elevul (ea).
male-student (student)
boy-friend (prieten) (student)
-femaIe-student
(prieten)
girl-friend
2. - numele de animale mari sunt n general de genul masculin (se
ntocuiesc cu prenumele he)
obicei de genul neutru (se ntocuiesc cu
- numele de animale mici sunt de
prenumele it)
~ cuvinte diferite pentru sexe diferite
cock hen (cocos gina)
horse (he) - cal
(she)
dag - bitch (cine - cei:)
iapa
mare
drake - duck (ra)
(it) broasca
fag
(gscan - gse)
gender goose
tam-cat - motan
he-gaat - ap
she-cat - pisica
She-golit - capra
3. numele de obiecte sunt de genul neutru:
Where is your umbreHa? Unde-i umbrela ta?
It (umbrelln) is in my bug. Este n geanta mea.
90

Not: n vorbirea curent se pot schimba genurile suhstantivelor pentru a

marca diferite atitudini:
masculin:
anger, fear, munfer, !error (violene)
ocean, river, sun, wind (fenomene naturale)
the Danube (fluvii)
the AIps (muni)
u/ection, devotion,faith, hope
feminin;
ambitionjealausy, Vanity
(blndee, trsturi de caracter)
furtune, liberty, peace, mercy (abstracte)
Tendine n vorbirea curenta:
masculin sau feminin:
- atribuire de gen
- feminin semnific afeciune pentru:
~ vehicule, maini, ambarcaiuni
- ri, localiti ca uniti politice
de gen neutru; marcheaz djspre.
- atribuire
Exemple:
I am very fond ofmy car and I wash herzi.every day.
irni iubesc mina foarte mult i o spl n fiecare
Where is the car? She is an the bed. Unde este pisica? Ea este pe
pat.
You found the girl at last. Where did you fina' it?
Ai gsit fata pn la urm. Unde ai gsit-o?
Cazul substantivelor
n limba englez existi patru cazuri:
obiectul care
- noi-nimativul este calul de baz al substantivului, artnd
subictului i
cazul
deci
de
verb.
Este
exprimat
desfoar aciunea
cc?
cine?
ntrebrile:
rspunde la
i rspunde
- genitivul arat posesiunea, apartencnp. Este cazul anibutulin
la ntrebrile: al, a, ai, ale cui?
n englez exista dou tipuri de genitiv:
sintetic (s) - de obicei se folosete numai ine (cazuri
excepionale la lucruri); dac substantivele au terminaia -s, se adaug
num-iai aposrroil.
This is the student 's book. Aceasta este cartea studentutui.
These are the students ' books, Acestea sunt crile studenilor.
fiine i lucruri:
analitic (of) - se folosete pentru
This book is of the student. Aceasta este cartea studentului.
the books of the students. Acestea sunt crile studenilor.
Ihese

are

91

771119

is the cover

of the book. Aceasta este coperta crii.

the
are
coverr of the books. Acestea sunt coperti le crilor.
- dativul este cazul complementului indirect i rspunde
la ntrebarea: cui?
- se indic prin prezenta prepoziiei Ia.Speak la me, please! Vorbeste-mi, te rog!
He brought the newspaper to me. Mi-a adus
ziarul,
- acuzativul este cazul complementului direct i rspunde
la ntrebrile: pe
cuie? ce?
7712:2

I met my brother yersleniay.

L-am ntlnit

Read the letter, please! Citete scrisoarea, te rog! pe

fimtele meu ieri.

Orice substantiv precedat de o prepoziie

se afl n cazul acuzativ,
excepie fcnd prepoziia ta, specific
pentru dativ.
Not: Dac n aceeai propoziie
apare un substantiv la dativ i unul la
acuzativ, poziiile lor n propoziie
fi inversate, caz n
pot
care prepozitia ta
(specific) este absenti.
Tell me story! Spune-nu' o poveste!
a
The pomnan hos given
my neighbour
letter. Ihe postmtzn has given
letter to my neighbour. Potaul i-a dat a
a
o scrisoare vecinului meu.

Pronumele
Este partea de vorbire care ine locul unui substantiv. Pronumele
poafe clasicat dup form i coninut.
1, Dup fomi:
.
what, who
simplu: I, you, he, she, which,
._
conpus: mysefymase Somebody, 0190716. each 0 the,r W,www' them?
Z-gmfindic
diferite persoane, are forme n functie de numr i
caz.

Pers.

lllnc

Nr.

sg.

2
3

sg.
sg '

pl.

?mai ai mai)

ham)

3g_

ale cui?)
ine (al meu,

(eu)

youau)

sg.

'
Gemawyia
'
*

she (ea)
it (pt.

lucruri)

we (noi)
.

ale mele)

i013?

(ai
alt

al;,

ale tale)
his (al, a. ai.
ale lui)
her (al, a, 3h
ale ei)
m (pL lucruri)
_

OUIS

nostru,
noastr,
notri,
noastre)
525mm)
urs

(31

31

dv( tn)
mi;

(to)
m2
(mph,
lm)

(f YO ( Pe:
i51
(to)

am)

him

(m) MWH)
(to) Mix)

(m)

_
(nou)

Acuzativ
(pe Cine?,
ce?)

(P3

me

ma)

m)

(p e

ym*

MW)

hm'
Z1' n)
_

Zr

Saw)

lucruri
s

S (pe

ne)

(pe
P*-

noi,

ale
(B1

pL

you(vo1)'

P1-

my w' de) mentala)

.

(to)

ywxvou)
hzzmor)

70'? (p e
V01, v)
th (pe

ai?

Acestea sunt i formele pronumeli P0595-

Notl_
-

n unba eng1625 gmgvu] pronume lor personale coincide cu prenumele

?insesiv!
92

limba englez, 1 (eu) se scrie ntotdeauna cu nlalusmla.

.

93

He speak: English better than I rio. El vorbete englezete mai bine dect
mine.
- disctincie de gen (masculin feminin sau neutru) se face doar
cu
prenumele persoanei a III-a singular.
n limba englez exist prenume de politete ca n limba romn. You poate
nsemna att ru. voi c& i dumneata, dumneavoastr, n funcie de context.
La fel, he, she pot nsemna el, ea sau durrmealm', dumneaei.
- it poate aprea i in construcii impersonale ca:
It mins, Plou.
It is cald_ E frig.
It is late. E trziu.
It is important to... Este ilmportanl si..
It doar nat matter zf Nu conteaz dac...
POSESIV: dup cum am observat din tabelul anterior, prenumele posesive
sunt, de fapt, genitivele pronumelor personale.
DEMONSTRATN: indic distana n spaiu sau tin-ap a unui obiect fa de
un alt obiect sau identitate a acestuia cu sine nsui (pronumele i adjectivul
dei-nonsunvau forme identice).
~ pentru apropiere: this (acesta,
aceasta) I these (acetia, acestea)
- pentru deprtare: that (acela, aceea) 1 those (aeeimacestea)
- such: acesta, aceasta sau asllfel
Such was the situatian. Aceasta era situaia.
the
acelai lucru, aceleai
same:
The sume may sbe said about the others, Acelai lucm se poate
spune i
despre ceilali,
RELATIV: se refer la un substantiv sau nlocuilor al acestuia
care a fost
deja menionat i face astfel legtura intre cele dou propoziii:
who
1 lmow people
don? like this Writer.
that
Cunosc oameni crora nu le place acest scriitor.
Pronumele relative sunt:
who - care (pentru persoane)
which - care, care dintre (att pentru
persoane, ct i pentru lucruri)
that (att pentru fiine, ct i pentru lucruri)
meNot:
That are o funcie restrictiva. Poate nlocuit prin who

sau
which.
~

Cnd e la acuzat-iv, poate omis.

the man (that) whom yau saw - omul pe care l~ai vzut
The question (that) you asked - ntrebarea care ai
pus-o
pe

94

As de] de omisiuni au loc mai cu sean-r n limba vorbiti. Dac se

omite un
.
b:
.
prenume relativ ,insont de o prepzl e35 5 C ug'
_
laokmgfor
he
'he
?girlie
m"
mi-ai vorbit
the boy (...) youtald menbout - baiatu( e
lng mtecedmml
Atenie/ Pronumele relativ trebui& 356132 Pe
1135
'
su. Nerespectarea acestei reguli poate
He met the girl in the street thutyau know.
A ntlnit fata pe strada pe care o cunOW
He met the girl that you how [tin thedeet
E S
.
oisizetfve
mmkohlxlt
!in 1' 5""'1'
pronumelor ateptale ca rspuns la intrebare.
who - am (pentru persoane)
1
nui)
mm
.
. nselecaz
dintr-un gmp de 5m 51'"")
Wha are you? Cine 655 / 5*****??
q
What have you got therehCe ai incolo.
1
.
Which is the best? Care dintre er este
mm bun.a
cntm?)
haw much ~ ct de mult (pentru
how many - ct de mult (pentru nurnvarl
what kind a- ce fel de hmm! calm

Not: Who este singurul care are forme diferite mfuncis de caz.
(cine, care?)
who
Nominativ:
v 3
.
r?
CUI, Camrlu,
3130871:
.
whose
grzv.
cmm?)
W510
37 ne pe are?)
Acuzaxiv:

'
tir d o pre-poziie. acces 5
Attlnle' emdlurllufhnn
.
tiinei/ari&
:gg
se aeaz la sfartilul
K131

k M

elio
v

igri?

'

3
a a
pmoozi-iei:

From what country does she come? Din ce

What country does she came/mm?
_

F m7

hmm

limba vorbiti
,
n
REFLEXIV: Pronunjlje _relexiv dulccucrlebcltenupumnm
P
exercit aciunea ver jll' P3"
_
Chiar, m P3503de
(le
intarire,
de
smul,
are sens
myse- eu insumi
yourself- w insuti
himself- el nsisi
hersel- ca W551
_

95

itself- cI. ea nsuiuii (pentru lucruri)

(me-TEI' 01 nsui (cu sens impersonal)

ourrelves - noi insine

yourselves ~ voi niv
therriselves ei iuii / ele insele
Nota: Precedat de prepoziia by, capt sensul de "singurK
1 sava hzm myself Eu insumi l-am
vzut.
He lwed there by himselj'
Tnia acolo singur.
NEHOTRAT: nu oferii
nici o indicaie precis asupra obiectului.
some - ceva, cateva, nite. De obicei, apare n propoziii asi-mau'
ve, dar poate aparea n ntrebri', atunci cnd se exprim o rugaminte o
'
dorin sau a ofert.
MJ CCVB, nite, civa, cteva, unii, unele,
vreun_ vreo, oarecaxe
Apare in ntrebri sau n propoziii negative.
dvi 111! un. D101 0. m1- APUB n propoziii negative (verbul la
_

'

'

kmmge) - mci unul, nici unu. Apare n propoziii nggativg

(Verbul
Where is the ink? I'll take
rame. Unde e cerneala? Am s iau puin
Any wi/l do. Oricare e bun.
i

I haven't any. Nu arn deloc.

gt; 1551: Cijlcjlneire fie* limba romn, n limba englez nu este posibil
gatir in aceeai propoziie: se poate nega e verbul, e
.
subiectul
sau obiectul.
1 if-d i' 593 'MJ/bat 1 SIIW nobody,
N-am vzut pe nimeni.
*
Some, any i no ajut la fomiarea unntoarelor
prenume compuse:
someone - cineva, careva
.vomebody - cineva
something - ceva
anyone - oricare, careva, nimeni
anyboa: cineva, oricine, nimeni
anything - ceva, orice, nimic
no one - nici unul/una
nobody - nimeni
nothing - nimic
Alte prenume neliotrte
.
every - ecare (cu Compuii:
zffl tVf-'Wbody - toi, toata lumea everything - tot, totul)
_

s_

another - un altul, o alta, nc un, nc o

96

the other - cellalt, cealalt

lmth - amndoi, amndou, ambii, ambele several - civa, cteva.
all - tot, toat, toi', toate

one - un, unul, una, cineva

much mult, muli
many muli, mul&
(o) !iule - puin, puine
either - oricare (dintre dou elemente)
neither - nici unul, nici una (dintre dou elemente) Exemple:
Let me tell you something. Si spun ceva.
He didn't know anything about it. Nu tia nimic despre asta.
Anybody can help you, Oricine te poate ajuta.
Everything is ready. Totul e gata.
Everybody will be present. Toat lumea va ti prezent.
Somebody is Imocking at thc door. Bate cineva la u.
Something is better than nothing. Mai bine ceva dect nimic,
One say: that... Se spune c
Neither is good. Nici una (dintre cele dou soluii) nu este bun;

Numeralul
Reprezint partea de vorbire care exprim o cifr, numrul sau
ordinea obiectelor. Deseori determin un substantiv, naintea cruia apare.
Exist mai multe tipuri de numarul, dintre care cele mai frecvent ulilizate

sunt:
- Numeralul cardinal: exprim o cifr sau numrul obiectelor:
1
3
5 -jVC 6 - six; 7 -severu 8 - eight; 9 - one; 2 - two; ~ three; 4 -foun
nine; 10 - ten;
- eIeven; 12 - twelve .
ntre 13 i 19, numemlele se compun prin adugarea terminaiei -teen:
13 ~ thirteen; 14 fourteeru 16 - xixteen; 17 seventeen; 18 - eighteen; 19~
-

ll

nineteen
Zecile (20-90) se rompun prin adugarea terminaiei -ty:
20 v rwenm 30 - thirry; 40 -fony: 50 -jfw: 60 - sixty; 70 - seventy ; 80
eighty; 90 - ninety;
100 - one hundred; 1000 one thousand.
ntre zeci
apare obligatorie liniua de unire: 21 - twenty-one; 35
thirty-ftve; 79 - seventy-nine...
ntre sute, mii sau milioane i zeci apare obligatoriu and.
one hundred and twenty-ane 121
.reven hundred and thirtyjve - 735

97

one thousand andreventy-nine - 1079

Atunci cnd numerele denumind zecile, sutele, miile, milioanele
sunt
necunoscute, acestea apar la form de plural: tem' (zeci), hundred: (sute),
thousands (mii), millions (milioane).
Dac mmierele sunt cunoscute, apar la fomi de singular:
three hundred - trei sute
ten thousand - zece mii
five million - cinci milioane
Not: n limba englez, cuvntul care denete miliardul este billion.
Spre deosebire de limba romn (unde se folosete punctul), miile
se separ
prin virgule.
- Numeralui ordinul exprim ordinea obiectelor sau locul unui obiect
intr
o sei-is. n general, se fomieaz prin adugarea rerminaiei -th, la numeralul
cardinal, eu exceptia primelor trei:
/irst (primul, prima)
second (al doilea, a doua)
third (al treilea, a treia)
[mrth (al pairulea, a patra)
/ih (al cincilea, a cincea)
Ahrevierea se face prin adugarea ultimelor dou litere la cifra: 1st, 2nd,
3rd, 4th.

Dup cum se poate observa, la unele numerale

se produc modificri de
scrie *fi/ih, eigth, ninth.
La zeci, terminaia -ty devine -tieth:
twentieth, thirtieth, fortieth, .vicitietlr reventieth, eightieth, ninetieth.
Nurneralul ordinal este nsoit de arilcolul the
Alte tipuri de numerale sunt:
- Numeralul fracionar, unde numrtorul este exprimat printr-un numeral
cardinnl, iar numitoml, printr-un numeral ordinal:
1/3 - onethird (o treime)
2/ l 0- two-tenth (dou zecimi)
1/5 - onte-ffth (o cincime)
3/4 threerourth (trei pttmi)
- Numeralul colectiv:
couple (doi, dou)
pair (pereche)
dozen (duzini)
soare (douazeci)
- Numeralul multiplicativ, format prin adugarea terminaiilor fala'
sau times la numeral, excepie fcnd numetalele one i two.
single, once (o dat)
double, twice (de dou ori)
98

rhreefold, three time: (de trei ori)

burold, four times (de patru ori)

- Numeralul distributiv, care arat repartizarea n grupe, se fon-neaz cu

ajulorul lui by sau and.

one by one (unut cte unul)

three by three (trei cte trei)
by !war (cte doi)
by lhfees (cte trei)
two and two (doi i cu doi)
three ana' three (trei i cu trei)
Norii: Aproximarea numeric se exprim prin:
about (circa)
nearly (aproximativ)
almost (aproape)
Depirea unei cie se exprim prin:
aver (peste)
mare than (mai mult de)
above (peste)

Exprimarea datei

Ordinea obinuit este: luna, ziua, anul pentru engleza american

i: ziua, luna, anul pentru engleza britanic, iiind exprimat prin numeralul

ordinal:
June the 5th, 1992
2115717221111', 1978

December 1st 1997

Anii se citesc:
l. cu ajutorul miilor sau sutelor (stil oficial):
1966 - ane thousand nine hundred andjfyesix; nineteen hundred
and sixty-rix
2. cu ajutorul zecilor (n limba vothit):
1966 - nineteen sixty-szc
Anul 2000 sc citete two thamend
Atenie! Cifra zero se poate citi: zero, oh, nil. nothing sau love
zero: n matematic i indicarea temperaturii
ah: la numerele de telefon
nil i nothing pentru exprimarea scorului la fotbal
love: n tenis
Exemple:
[t is four degrees below zero. Sunt minus patru grade.
:

99

Dial 6070... Formeaz...

Leads United won 4-0

ni! sau four to nothing). Leeds a ctigat cu 4:0.
Sprlea Ieads by 300 (thirty-Iove). Sprlea conduce cu 30 10,

am

Exprimarea timpului cronologic

Ora ntreag se exprima cu ajutorul formei #clock iar propoziia

incepe
de obicei cu prenumele

!t is tan

it.

O'Clock.

It is five #clock sharp. Este cinci x.

Jumtatea de or se exprim prin hal/ sfertul de or prin (a)
quarter. Functiile orase se exprim cu ajutorul prepoziiilor past (ntre l i
29 de
minute - trecute de ora fix) i to (ntre 31 i 59 de minute - cele rmase
pna la ora x).
It Ls ten (minutes)past nine, Este nou i zece.
It is a quarterpast nine. Este nou i un sfert.
It is halfpast nine. Este nou i jumtate.
It is lwenty (minules) to ten. Este zece fr douzeci.
It is quarter to ten. Este zece fr un sfert.
Se practic exprimarea orei i n felul urmtor:
2: 15 - two jjeen (doi i un sfert)
5:30 five thirty (cinci i jumtate) (mai ales cnd este vorba de orarul
trenurilor, ora exact... ) i cu:
Abrevier-ile: p.rn (vast meridiem) dup amiaza
am. (ante nleridiem) dimineaa
Adjectivul
Este partea de vorbire care exprim nsuirea unui obiect (fiin
sau
lucru). Apare de obicei naintea substantivului
pe care l determin i
rspunde la ntrebrile: care?, ce fel de? Spre deosebire de limba romn, n

limba englez adjectivul este invariabil (nu se modiiic in funcie de gen i

numr).
Adjectivul prezint dou categorii de clasificare: dup form i dup
coninut.
1, Dup form, adjectivele
pot fi:
~
simple (fun-mate dintr-un singur cuvnt): simple, quick, nice, good, brave,
bright, real, right, beaunfd, interesting
100

compuse (formate din dou cuvinte): good-looking, short-sighted, blueyed, hard working, ready-made
i. Dup coninut, adjectivele se mpart n:
propriu-zise ( calificative), care are& o calitate a obiectului: red, white,
bitter, busy, dul!, easy, fresh, happy, old, perfect, slow, ta!!
- deterrninative, care confer precizie obiectului' Unele dintre acestea
provin din prenume. Deosebirea dintre prenume i adjectivcle provenite din
prenume este funcional: n timp ce pronrunele apar independent,
adj ectivele provenite din prenume insotesc obligatoriu un substantiv.
Adjectivele determinative sunt:
- posesive: indic posesorul unui obiect:
my- al meu, a mea, ai mei, ale mele
your - al tu, a ta, ai ti, ale tale, al, a, ai, ale d-voastr
his - al, a, ai, ale lui (pentru persoane)
her al, a, ai, ale ei (pentru persoane)
its - ai, a, ai, ale lui/ei (pentru lucruri)
our al nostru, a noastr, ai notri, ale noastre
your al vostru, a voastr, ai votri, ale voastre, al, a, ai, ale d-voastr
their - al, a, ai, ale lor
- relative: introduc o propoziie relativ:
whose v al, a, ai, ale crui/crei/cror (pentru persoane)
what ce, care (pentru lucruri i, uneori, pentru fiine)
~

which - care, care dintre (pentru lucruri i fiine, implicnd selecia dintr-o clas)
The young man whose book is here was my classmate.
Tnrul a crui cana este aici a fost colegul meu de clas.
The story is about a girl whose brother is lost.
Povestea este despre o fat al crei frate s-a rtcit.
't remember what/ which address this is.
don
I

Nu-mi amintesc ce/care adres este aceasta.

She knows what/ which book am talking about.
tie despre ce / care carte vorbesc.
- inrerogative: apar in ntrebri, pentru a determina substantivul ateptat ca
rspuns: whose - al, a, ai, ale crui/ crei / cror (pentru fiine)
what - ce, care (pentru lucruri i, uneori, pentru fiine)
which - care, care dintre (pentru lucruri i fiine, implicnd selecia
dintro clas)
Whose car have you driven? A cui main ai condus?
Whnse brother are you? Al cui frate eti?
Whut/ Which student is the best? Ce/Case student este cel mai bun?
Comparati a adjectivelor se refer la adjectivele propriu-zise (calificative).

101

Ca i n limba romn, n limba engle exist urmtoare grade de

comparaie:
a) gradul pozitiv este forma de baz
a adjectivului: wise, long, short,
A

6071771071

b) gradul comparativ indic nsuirea unui obiect prin comparaie

cu un alt
obiect.
- de inferioritate: nat so /
ar (nu aa de... ca)
Ies:... than (mai puin dect)
not so wise as
less important than
not as short a:
not so beatdfitl as
- de superiotitate:
adjectivele formate dintr-o singur silab, precum i cele formate din dou
silabe
(cu terminaia n -y, -bie, -er) adauga
-er la final:
~
er (han (mai decat)
wiser than
easier than
:horter than
abIer than
- majoritatea adjectivelor formate din dou silabe, precum i cele formate
din mai muite silabe sunt precedata de mare:
more ...mah (mai ...dect)
mare correct than
more interesting than
mare prudent than
more beautiful than
c) gradul superlativ
- relativ: indic nivelul cel mai nalt sau cel mai redus al nsuirii
unui obiect n raport cu un alt obiect:
- adjectivele formate dintr-o singura silab, precum i cele formate din dou
silabe
(cu terminaia n -y, -blg-er) adaug ~est Ia final:
the...
dintre)
.m (aj) (cel
the wisest of the easiest of
the shortest of the ablest of
- majoritatea adjectivelor formate din doua silabe, precum i cele formate
din mai multe silabe sunt precedate de ntost:
the most... of
(cel
dintre):
the most :onest of
the most intersting of
the most prudent
the most beautifzl of
af
o absolut: indic cel mai nalt nivel
al nsuirii, &r a se mai face
comparaie: very.. (foarte)...
Exemple: comparaie rcgulat
pozitiv
comparativ
superlativ
102

the smallext (cel mai

Smaller (mai mic)
mic)
the biggest (cel mai.
big (ma)
Re, (ma, male)
mare)
the driest (cel mai. uscat)
by (uscat)
drier (mai uscat)
the noblest (cel mai
nabler (mai nobil)
Mu& (nobjj)
mhmr
nobil
de adjective au o cotripataie 1151351135:
Un
superlativ
comparam;
pozitiv
the best (bun)
bene,
gand
bad_ i
the worst (rau, bolnav)
M52
the ma m
muchmany
m0
the Ieasttpuln)
,mie
le
01,13,
oldest
(vechi, btrantl
the
old
51,12,
the eldest (pt. membru mai

mul] (mc)

zarmmco

thezrthest (dpIB)
theimher (n (une)
11m
the latest (trziu)
[am
the latter (ultimul din doi) the last (ultumul)
nearer the nearest (apmp)
near
the hex: (urmtorul)
.
_
Nat: Cu ajutorul 1m much, by far ifar ntririi !deea expmnata de adiecnvmuch mare interexting than
far mare interesting than by far mare interesting th (mm- m maresal
dect...)
brthgr

further (suplimentar)

Verbul
Este partea de vorbire care exprim aciuni, procese care au loc n

timp i sunt legate dc un agent.

.l
(fi:
'XAZb l

'

'

u simplu (Past simple) i participiu! trecut (Past

Participlejprin adugarea temainaiei -(e)d la fomna de mnlv

ta ask~ asked - asked
to talk - talked < talked
to open - opened openea'
. neregulate, cu forme identice sau total diferite la trecutul simplu i
participiu] trecut:
to be - was - been
_

103

to get - gat - got

to shut - shut - shut
2. Dup coninut, verbele se pot clasifica dup cum urmeaz:
auxiliare (ajuttoare): ta be, to have, to do, shall, will, should, would

Aceste verbe nu au neles independent, neputand ii traduse, i

schimb foma n funcie de modul, timpul, persoana i numrul cerute, in
timp ce verbul de conjuga\ rmne invariabil.
to do - fumeaza negativul i interogativul timpurilor prezent i trecut.
ta see formeaz aspectul continuu, impreun cu participiu! prezent -ing:
(-211, la verbe
- formeaz diatez pasiv mpreun cu participiul trecut
la
regulate; a treia form, verbe neregulate).
to have - formeaz timpurile perfecte, mpreun cu participiu.! trecut (red
sau forma a~I 11-a a verbului).
SHALL, WILL - formeaz timpul viitor.
SHOULD, WOULD - formeaz modul condiional i modul subjonctiv
analitic.
- mndale: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, aught to, will, would,
dare, need.
Aceste verbe insotesc ntotdeauna un alt verb. cruia i modific
sensul: dac verbul comun exprim o aciune propriu-zisa, n prezena
verbului modal capt o nuana deosebit (o aciune imaginar, posibil).
comune (obinuite), care prezint cele trei forme (infinitiv, trecut simplu,
parcipiu trecut).
Verbul prezint cteva caracteristici specifice, care trebuie avute n
vedere n analizarea aciunii: persoana care face aciunea, timpul cnd se
face aciunea, modul n care se desfoar aciunea, aspectul acesteia
(durata n tinar), diateza.
PERSOANA care face actiune a este subiectii] propoziiei. n funcie de
aceasta, verbul dobndete forme diferite pentru a indica ndeplinirea
de ctre vorbitor.
THVIPUL aciunii reprezint momentul sau perioada in care se desfoar
aciunea. In limba englez exist trei timpuri de baz - trecut, prezent i
viitor - i trei timpuri secundare: trecut perfect, prezent perfect i viitor
perfect.
MODUL aciunii indic felul cum este conceput aciunea. Exist moduri
personale (care formeaz singure predicatul unei propozitii) i moduri
impersonale (care nu pot forma singure predicaml).
Moduri personale:
indicativ:
arat o aciune real, sigur
104

descrie o aciune ireal

subjonctiv:
descrie o aciune dorm
conjunctiv:
imperativ:
exprim un ordin, o sugestie direct, o rugaminte, un sfat
Moduri impersonale:
infintiv:
arat numele aciunii, strii
gerundul:
indic aciunea verbal
participiul:
cu forme de prezent (artnd o aciune in desiurare) i
trecut
(indicnd nsuirea rezultat dintr-o aciune)
Not: Gerundul i participiu] prezint particulariti care se disting clar fat
de gerundul i participiui din limba romn.
ASPECTUL aciunii reprezint o categorie verbal specific limbii engleze,
referitoare la durata unei actiuni* Poate fi de dou tipuri:
0 simpl (aciunea propriu-zisa);
~
continuu (desfurarea neintrerupt a aciunii intr-o anumit perioad de
timp, bine definit)
Aspectul continuu se formeaz cu ajutorul verbului auxiliar tn be
i tenninaia -ing, adaugata la verb.
Atenie! Exist o serie de verbe care, de regul, nu pot fi folosite la aspectul
continuu (atunci cnd totui apar la acest aspect, i modific sensul): to
hear i to see, to smell, to taste, to fell, to sound, to look, to appear; to
belive, tn consider; la hope, to know, to think, to forget, to love, to want, to
regret, to wish, to have, to be, to own, to belong.
DIATEZAdifei-deceadinlimbaromn Serefalafomiaverbuluinftmcie
de aciunea ndeplinit de subiect: dac subiectul este cel care face aciunea,
diatem este activ; dac actiunea este ndeplinit de altcineva i este numai
suportati de subiect, diateza este pasiv; dac subiectul este cel_care ndeplinete
i, n acelai timp, supor aciune a, diateza este reflexiv. In limba englez
diateza reflexiva nu exist ca atare, fiind fie inclus n sensul unor verbe, e
unui pmnume reflexiv plasat dup verb.
S-a ngrat.
He grewfat.
I um Washing myself
M spl.

Formele personale ale verbului

MODUL INDICATIV prezint actiunea, starea exprimat de verb ca
real, ndeplinit chiar. Are urmtoarele timpuri., pe axa lor cronologic:
Pe axa viitorului
Pe axa prezentului
Pe axa trecutului
Future
Present
Past
Future Perfect
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
He retur-nadthe book to the library offer he had read it.
105

A inapoiat cartea la bibliotec dup ce a citit-o.

I can return the book ta the library now. I have read it.
Pot s rennnez cartea la bibtiotec (acum). Am citit-o.
He will return the book ta the library next Monday. He will have read it by
then. Va napoia cartea la bibliotec iunea viitoare. O
va fi citit pn atunci.
- Past Tense: desemneaz un eveniment definit care a avut loc pe
axa
trecutului (evenimentul este amintit n prezent).
La verbele regulate se formeaz cn tenninaia -ed.
play - plaed arrive - arrived
cross -crossed stop - stopped
study - studiezi move - moved
La verbele neregulate nu exist o regul; au forme deosebite i trebuie
invitate pe dinafar. (o list cu principalele verbe neregulate
se afl la
finalul capitolului.)
bum - bumt; creep - crept; hit- hit;
met;
sit - sit; grow - grew;
meetgive - gave; begin - began; go - went...
Not: Past Tense exprim o aciune svrit i ncheiat n trecut.
1 went to the opera last night. Am fost la oper asear.
I aten visited him. l vizitam adesea.
He said gaodbye and left. Spuse la revedere i plet
- Past Perfect: se folosete cnd vorbitorul
se plaseaz psihologic pe o ax
a trecutului i desemneaz un eveniment anterior unui eveniment trecut.
I hadjinished the book bejzre you cante. Terminasem cartea nainte s vii
tu. Mother had caoked the dinner by the time rther arrived home. Mama
gitise deja cina cnd a ajuns tata acas.
Not: Este un timp mai utilizat n limba englez dect n limba romn
pentru exprimarea antexioritii.
Se formeaz din had + forma a III-a a verbului (participiul trecut):
had called; had taken; had written
- Future in the Past exprim ideea de viitor intr-o propoziie secundar,
dependent de o propoziie principal cu verbul la un timp trecut
I knew you would come. tiam c vei veni.
I knew I would have finished the novel by ten ob/ock.
tiam c voi reuniuni romanul pn la ora zece.
Not: Este un timp inexistent n limba romn, necesar n limba englez
pentru respectarea anumitor reguli de concordan a timpurilor. Se
formeaz: shouldlwould verb
should read; would go
should/would + have + forma a IIIa a verbului

106

should have read; would have gone

- Present desemneaza un eveniment, o aciune, o smre
care are loc simultan
cu momentul vorbirii sau care include momentul vorbirii.
1
go to school. Merg la coal
1 watch TV in
the evening. M uit seara la televizor.
Not: Ca fauna este identic cu intrnitivul (fonna de baz verbului), la
a
toate
persoanele. Persoana a III-a singular adaug tenninaia -s (sau -es).
1
ga / read
we
ga / read
you
go / read
you
go / read
he, she, it
they
goes / read,
ga/ read
' Present Perfect desemneaz un eveniment, o aciune, o stare anterioar
momentului vorbirii, dar a crui anterioritate
nu este fixata, avnd \m
caracter nedefinit.
I've painted a picture. Am pictat un tablou.
Folosirea acestui timp este asociat cu adverbe
care exprim o perioad de
deschis, neterminat:
- taday, this week, this month
-just, already
Not: Present Perfect e folosit i pentru evenimente
care au avut loc: n
trecut, dar autorii sau efectele evenimentelor, aciunilor mai exist i n
prezent.
Eugen Barbu has written several novels. Eugen Barbu scris
mai multe
a
romane.
(Eugen Barbu triete.)
Have you seen the zchibition? Ai vizut expoziia? (Expoziia
mai e
deschis.) John has injured his arm. John
s-a rnit la mn. (nc l mai
doare, se vede rana.) Se fonneaz cu have la
prezent + forma a III-a a
verbului (participiul trecut):
1
have phoned / seen
have phoned / seen
we
have phoned / seen
yuu
have phoned / seen
you
he, he, it havephaned /
they
seen
have phoned / seen
- Future desemneaz
un eveniment, o actiune care are loc intr-un moment
viitor, apropiat de momentul vorbirii.
Se fonneaz cu shall (pers. l. sgpl.) will (restul
persoanelor) + innitivul
/
verbului,
n limba vorbita se folosete will la
toate persoanele.
I will go to the seaside tomorrow. Mine plec la mare.
Vom ntlni des forma scurt: ['11 go...
107

Not: Future este o form caracteristic limbii scrise (limbaj jurnalistic,

emisiuni de tiri, anunului oficial, limbajul literar). n vorbire, se prefer
viitorul cu going to pentru exprimarea ideii de viitor apropiat.
Se formeaz cu: be going ta la prezent + innivul
verbului
am going to read / write we are going to read/ write
I
you
are going to read/ write you
are going ta read /
write
he, she. it is
they
going to read / write
are going to read /
write
Atenie! Go i come nu pot folosite cu forma be going to.
Formele cu going to exprim a:
- aciune viitoare - intenie przent
We
are going to spend our holiday in the mountains.
Intentionat!) s ne petrecem vacana la munte. (Am rezervat deja o camer.)
- aciune viitoare - cauz prezent:
It is going rain. Cred c o s plou. (Uitre la nori.)
c Future
Perfect exprim o aciune, un eveniment viitor care va avea loc
naintea unui moment viitor sau ajungnd pn la acesta.
He will have jnished the book by the time you come back home.
El va E. terminat cartea pn cnd te ntorci tu acas.
He will have worloed in thisfactaw fororty years when he retires.
Va fi lucrat n aceast fabric timp de 40 de ani cnd se Va pensions.
Not: Se furi-neam? cu: to have la viitor + forma a m-a a verbului
I shall' have written. Eu voi fi scris.
Este o form verbal caracteristic limbii scrise, fiind mai rar
folosit n limba curent.
Toate timpurile enuntate anterior au i un aspect continuu, adic
exprim aciuni, stri n desurare, repetate, netenninate i continuate pe
axa prezentului, a trecutului sau a viitorului.
Ele se formeaza cu' to be (conjugat) -v- forma n -ing a verbului.
a) Prezent Continuous:
1 am reading
b) Past Continzrous:
1 was reading
c) Present Perfect Continuous: have been reading
I
d) Past Perfect Continuous:
I had been reading
e) Future Continuous:
I will be reading
t) Future Perfect Continuous:
I will have been reading
a) Present Continuous exprim o aciune n desurare n momentul
vorbirii, o aciune repetat prezentat n desfurarea ei, o aciune care nu a
fost terminat 1a momentul vorbirii.
108

De obicei, Present Continuaus este nsotit de \adverbe de timp:

now (acum), right now (chiat acum), at this moment (In acest moment),
always (ntmdeauna), ali the time (lot timpul), continualty, today (azi), this
week (sptmna aceasta).
He is singing in the bathroom now. cnt n baie.
I always take my umbrella when it is raining. Totdeauna iau umbrela cnd
plou.
He is doing his homework Ii face temele,
He is hnocking on the door. El hate nu.
He is crying all the time. El plnge intr-una, tot tirupul.
We
are Ieaving tomorrow. Plecm mine.
b) Past Continuam: exprim aciuni n desfurare la un moment trecut.
I was walking ai two o' c/ack yesterday. lerie la ora dou m plimbam.
He was reading a book last night. Citea o carte asear. (Nu a terminat.)
He was always coming late ta the English lesson. ntot/eauna ntrzia la ora
de englz.
c) Present Perfect Continuous exprim o aciune, stare, nceput n trecut,
continuata n prezent, poate i n viitor. Este folosit n expresii adverbiale
ca: for age: (de mult vreme), far three hours (de trei ore), since 19... (din
anul l9..), since last year (de anul trecut).
[have been readingfor three hours. Citesc de trei are.
They have been playing tennis for half an hour. Joac tenis de o jumtate de
A

or.

He has been living in Bucharest for ten years. A trit n Bucureti zece ani.
I've been working at this painting since five o' e/ock. Lucrez la aces! desen
de la ora cinci.
d) Past Perfect Continuam are aceleai valori ca Present Perfect
Continuous, momentul de referin fiind nc axa trecutiuiri.
I had been waitingor my friend since two o 'clock when henally arrived.
l ateptam pe prietenul meu de la ora dou, cnd n sfrit a sosit.
He had been writing poems for two years when 1 met him,
Seria poezii de doi ani cnd l-arn cunoscut.
e) Future Continuous exprim aciuni, stri, evenimente n desfurare ntrun moment viitor, posterior momentului vorbirii.
I shall / will be walking at two O'Clock tomorrow. M voi plimba mine la
ora dou.
When he comes, I will be eating. Cnd va veni, eu voi fi n mijlocul mesei.
She will be walking while I am sleeping, Ea se va plirriba n timp ce eu vor
dormit)
_

109

Future Coniinuous exprim o aciune n desfurare n viitor, nainte

la o alt aciune viitoare (i

poate i dup aceea).
When the bell FIIgS,
we will be writingfori/ minutes.
Cnd va suna clopoelul, noi
vom fi scris de cincizeci de minute.

i pn

MODUL SUBJONCTIV indic aciune ireal,

o
presupus, dar posibil,
realizabil. Dup form poate fi:
l. sintetic
- prezent (identic n forma de
baz a verbului); apare n expresii i
exclamatii:
It ii- important that.. Este important ca...
So be it! Aa s e.
God blesryou/ Dumnezeu s te binecuvntezel
Come what may! Fie
ce-o fi!
Long live... S triscJ
- trecut (identic cu past Tense): apare n expresii ca: n/irhm,
it 's time...
I
- if I were you / Iyou were me/ he were you
would rather, had better
he understuod A dori ca el s neleag.
I wirh
It 's time we left. Este timpul s plecm
IfI were you, !would tell him. Dac a n locul tu, i-a spune.
I would rather you left. A prefera s pleci.
2. analitic, care se formeaz
cu verbele mopdale cerute de expresii ca: it i:
impartunt that; so that; in order that; to
suggest, la insist, ta demand, to
order (that).
It is important that he should come. Este important
ca el s vin.
I shall speak so that he might understand. Voi vorbi astfel nct el s poat
nelege I insist that you should/men to n21 insist
ca tu s m asculti.
MODUL CONDIIONAL exprim
o conditie sau o aciune dorit.
Propoziia secundar, care indic o condi,
e a realizrii aciunii din
propoziia principal, poate fi introdus prin. :not,
unless, if not, in care.
t(
n limba englez exist cr ' 'pun' de
condiional:
- condiie real' realizabil n
prezent sau viitor. Ideea de viitor se exprim
numai n propoziie: principal, niciodat n
cea condiional.
He wil/ / may understand ij"
you talk to him.
Va nelege / poate nelege dac i vorbeti.
- conditie ideal:
nu este realizabil n prezent, dar posibil s se realizeze n
viitor. In popoziia principal
apare would + verb la foi-ma de baz (fr
to). n propoziia secundar verbul
este la Part Tense.
Ifyou talked to him, he would understand. Dac i-ai vorbi ar nelege.
110

condiie ireal: nu s-a realizat i este imposibil s se realizeze. lu

propoziia principal apar would + have + forms a III-a a verbului, ni
propoziia secundar, verbul la Past Perfect:
Ifyou had talked to him, he would have understoad. Dac i-ai fi vorbit, ar
n les.
MDUL
IMPERATIV exprim un ordin, o comiind,Aun ndemn, im sfat. 0
Are
o singnir form: persoana a II-a singular i plural i coincide cu
urare.
forma de baz (fr to) a verbului
Stop! Oprete-te!
Carne here! Vino ncoace!
Shut up! Gura!
Be quiet! Liniste!
Forma negativ cu ajutorul lui dn + negaie w- verb.
Do not push mel Do 'npush me! Nu m mpinge!
Don't be amaid/ Nu-i fie team!
Pentru persoanele I i a III-a singular i plural se folosete constructia cu
verbul let.
let (me, him etc.) + verb
Let him come in! S intre!
Let's go! S mergem!
Don't let him carne in! Nul lsa s intre.
~

Formele impersonale ale verbului

Sunt: iiitiiiitivul, gerundul i participiul.

INFJNITIVUL are dou forme:
. infmitivul llnig: cu particula ta (ta call, ta read)
. intinitivul scurt: ar particula ta (call, read)
~ mai exist intinitivul
cu advetb intercalat:
to cIearIy understand - a nelege clar
!o JiIIy appreciate a aprecia cum trebuie
to /latIy re/use - a refuza categoric
They came ta fully realize the importance
of the event.
Au ajuns s-i dea seama pe deplin de importana evenimentului.t
Not: Aceast form este o construcie destul de frecvent iri engleza
contemporan. In fel de uzuale mai sunt i construciile:
a) acuzativ + intinitiv dup verbe exprimnd:
o activitate uzual: beliwe, consider, think
permisiune: allow, permit
ordin, ruginte: order, command, request, beg, ask
A

lll

ancheta.

We

request them ta complete the survey. Le-am cerut s temiine

Atenie/ Dup ~ verbe de percepie: hear see, watch, notice,

observe i
- have, let i make se folosete intinitivul fr to.
1 heard them come. I-am auzit venind.
I made her work harder. Am tcut-o s munceasc mai mult,
b) intinitiv cu for ...tai
They were anxious for her ta begin her
sang.
Erau nerbdtori ca ea s-i nceap cntecul.
Atenie! Verbul know cu sensul de "a ti cum s" este urmat de: how +
intinitiv
She knows how ta captivate her audience. tie cum sai captiveze
auditoriul.
La fel verbele:forget, learn, teach
She taught me how to Catch butterlies. M-a nvat cum s prind fluturi.
Not: Particula to poate ti folosit pentru a nlocui un verb care a fost deja
menionat.
A. Let's go. Hai s mergem.
B. 1 don 't want to. Nu vreau (s mergem).
GERUNDUL este format din tema verbului cu ajutorul sutixului -ing.
calling, talking; gerond perfect: having called, having taken
Aceast fom1 nepersonal a verbului englez nu are un corespondent n
limba romn. E1 nu trebuie confundat cu gerundul romnesc.
Gerundul este folosit:
- dup verbele: to begin, to start, (a ncepe): to go on, to keep on (a

Continua);

to stop (a nceta)
dup
adjeclivul:
war (vrednic de)
dup
substantivele:
fun (amuzament), good, use (folos) - anticipat de it.
is
dup
there
no...
There is no contenting some people. Pe unii oameni uu-i chip s-i
multumesti.
- dup: to avoid (a evita), to beal' (a suferi), to escape (a scpa de), to fancy
(a-i inchipui), to forget (a uita), to give up (a renunta la), to mind (a avea
ceva mpotriv), to propose (a propune), to try (a ncerca), to remember (ai aminti),
- dup: to agree (an) (a cdea de acord s), to aim (at) (a inta' s), to
apologize Var) (a se scuza pentru), to belive (in) (a crede n), ta bather
(about) (a se preocupa de), to assist samebody (in) (a ajuta pe cineva s), to
112

excuse somebody mar) (a scuza pe cineva c), to prevent Somebody (for) (a

mpiedica pe cineva s), to thank Somebody (for) (a-i mulumi cuiva pentru)
- dup: alert in (iute n), capable of (capabil s), consciaus of (cotient c)
- dup: to force (a fora), taforsake (a se lepda), to talk (a discuta)
in), interest
- dup: chance of (ans de), experience in (experie
in (interes pentru), idea of (idee de), objection to (obiecie mpotriv),
means of (mijloc de), reasonfar (motiv pentu), right of (drept de), use of
(utilitate)
She admitted being wrong. A recunoscut c a greit.
It's not worth crying. Nu merit s plngi.
Shefeels like dancing. Are chef s danseze.
lam used to getting up early. Sunt obinuit s m scol devreme.
This book is worth reading. Aceast carte merit citit.
It 's na sense to try to mend the vacuum-Cleaner. Degeaba ncerci/nu are rost
s tepari aspiratorul.
You must avoid being late inhture. Trebuie s eviti
s ntrz n viitor.
I remember being disappointed. mi amintesc c
am fost dezamgit.
He is bnd ofreading aloua'. i place s citeas cu glas tate.
l remember giving her the parce!
mi amintesc c i-am dat pachetul.
They agreed ta he] ' coming. Ei sunt de acord
ca ea s vin.
She was right in refusing him. Ea a fcut bine c l-a reizat.
PARTICIPIUL. Verbul englez are dou tipuri de participiu: de prezent i de
trecut.
a) participiu] prezent are form identic
cu gerundul (ing,). Impreun eu to

be formeaz aspectul continuu al verbelor.

1 am trying to learn. ncerc s nv.

El poate nlocui o propoziie:

While I was reading the newspaper, rememberea' them (while
reading the
I
newspaper... .)
n timp ce citeam ziarul, rni-am amintit de el.
Not: Participiul este introdus prin while i who. (Gerondul numai prin
propoziii.)
The man crossing the street (who is crossing).
Brbatul care traverseaz strada...
b) participiul trecut
- este forma cu tennimja -ed a verbelor regulate; cele neregulate au forma
lor. listen - Iistened' move - moved
- ajut la formarea timpurilor perfecte ale verbelor cu ajutorul lui to have;
- este folosit n construcii absolute.
113

?he customs cleared, we le the airport.

Formalitile vamale tenninate, amprsit aeroportul.
Weatherpermitting, we shall sleep in tenis.
Dac vremea va permite, vom dormi n corturi.

Diateza pasiv

Atunci cnd subiectul sufer aciune a svrit de obiect (nu o face),

folosim diateza pasiv.
Lucy has written a letter. Lucia a scris o scrisoare.
subiect obiect
Diateza pasiv:
The letter has been written by Lucy. Aceast scrisoare a fost scris de Lucia.
obiect subiect
Diateza pasiv se construiete cu:
to be (la timpul dorit) + forma a III-a a verbului
1 am called/ taken. Am fost chemat/ luat.
Present:
Past:
was called/ taken
1 shall be called / taken
Future:
1 have been called/ taken
Present Perfect.Future Perfect:
I shall been called /taken
1 should be called / taken
Future in the Past:
MPENIHVF
Let me be called/ taken

Conditionat

Present:

Past;

Subjonctiv:
Present:

(that) I (shall, might) be called/ taken

(that) I were called/ taken
lam being called / taken
Present Continuam:
Continuam:
Pest
I was being called/ taken
Not: Diateza pasiv este, dc asemenea, folosit cnd mmm] ac1iunii nu
este cunoscut sau exprimat:
The battle was last. Btlia a fost pierduti.
Atenie! n afar de verbul be se mai poate folosi i verbul get pentru
formarea diatezci pasive v aceasta mai ales n vorbirea curent,
The skirt gat caught in the door. l s-a prins fusta n u.
I should be called/ taken
[should have been called/ taken
Alt our glasses got broken when we moved_ S-au spart toate paharele cnd
ne-am trium.

Past:

114

Un sinonim al verbului get cu sensul de schimbare trcptat aste

verbul become nsotit de: mare and mare, incrcasingltz.
The production of this factory is becoming increasingb/ specialized.
Producia acestei fabrici devine din ce n ce mai specializat.
Prapoziyiaby indic cine a svrit aciunea sufarit de subiect:
The poem was recited by Mary (not by Lucy orAnn).
Poezia a fost recitat de Maria (nu de Lucia sau Ann).
Not: By se omite cnd nu se cunoate cine n svrit actiunea (A dactar has
been senior. S-a trimis dup doctor.), cnd vorbitorul nu dorete s
menioneze, sau el se poate deduce din context (He was elected President.
A fost ales preedinte.)
By nu se folosele n Constitutiile cu get sau became.
Verbale modale
reprezint o categorie special cu urmtoarele caracteristici:
le urmeaz);
- inniv rar to (ca i verbele care
singular
Present Tense;
la
persoana a lil-a
- nu au -s
primesc
-ing:
- nu
i ncgaliv',
- forrncar singure forma interogativ
diferite
echivalente
pentru
- au
l. CAN = a putea, a ti (nlocuit cu: to be able to = a n stare, a ti capabil)
Exprirn:
o capacitate:
vevyfast. Pot s alerg foarte repede.
I can run
conic.
Ea nu tie s gteasc.
(can't)
She cannot
- posibilitate, presupunem:
They can be there now. E posibil ca ei s fie acolo.
She can't do that! Nu se poate s fac asta!
n limba vorbit nlocuiete may pentru a exprima permisiune:
Can 1 go home? Pat pleca acas?
You cannot come in! Nu poi intra.
timpuri folosim to be able m:
alte
Pentru
He was able ta run very fast. Puie: s alerga foarte repede.
He will be able to run vetyfast. Va putea s alerge foarte repede.
2. COULD exprim:
capacitate (ca trecut al lui can):
l could run very fast lastyear. Puteam s alerg foarte repede anul
trecut,
- permisiune mai formal:
Could I go home? A putea pleca acas?
115

3, MAY = a putea, a avea voie (nlocuit cu: to be altawed to, ta be permitted

to) = a se putea, a fi posibil (nlocuit cu: to be possible to)

Exprim:
- permisiune n limbaj formal:
May 1 go home? Pot pleca acas?
You
may not come in. Nu poi/ nu ai voie s intri.
sau: 1 was allowed ta go home. Mi s-a ngduit s plec acas.
He will be permitted to come in. I se va permite s intre.
posibilitate,
presupunere:
They may be there now, Se poate s e /or fi acolo
acum.
It may rain in the ahernaon, Se poate s plou dup-amiaz.
sau: It was possible to rain, Era/ a fost posibil s plou.
It will be possible to rain. Va fi posibil s plou.
ALMIGHT exprim:
- permisiune (formal):
Might 1 go home? A putea plece acas?
You might not
come in. Nu ai putea / nu ai voie s intri
- posibilitate vag:
They might be there now. S-ar putea s e acolo
acum
It might rain in the afternoon. S-ar putea s plou dup-amiaz.
5. MUST =
a trebui (nlocuit cu: to have to = a trebui neaprat, a avea
obligaia)
Exprim
- obligaie, datorie:
You must write to them. Trebuie s le scrii.
I must leave soon. Trebuie s plec curnd.
~ posibilitate,
presupunem:
You must be rired Trebuie s i obosit. Trebuie c eti obosit.
She must be at home nnw. Trebuie s lie acas
acum
Nota? La solicitarea permisiunii, rspunsul se fonneaz
,
cu may, can sau
must 710L
May I smoke m here? Pot s fumez aici?
Yes,
you may Da, avei voie / vi se pemiite.
Na, you musn 't. Nu, este interzis.
Dac se pune la. ndoial obliga ' rspunsul se formeaz cu must
(impunere) sau need nat (lipsa neces
Must 1 really go there? Chiar trebuie s m duc acolo?
Yes,
you must Da, trebuie / este obligatoriu,
No, you neednk. Nu, nu este necesar / nevoie.
-

6. SHALL

116

Ca moda] e folosit la toate persoanele i exprim:

promisiune, ordin:
1 shall write the letter. Promit c voi scrie scrisoarea.
They shall come on time. Trebuie s ajiuig 1a timp.
- o ofert, propunere, n care se ateapt opinia interlocutonilui (apare n
special cu persoana l) n ntrebri:
Shall 1 close the window? S nchid fereastra?
ShalI we listen tn him? Oare s l ascultm?
7. SHOULD = ar trebui, ar cazul
Exprim:
~

- sfat:

You should talk to him. Ar trebui s-i vorbeti.

She shouldn 't go to that party. Nu ar trebui s mearg la petrecerea aceea.
- presupunere:
He should still be ut home. Ar trebui s fie nc acas.
They should be on their way now. Ar trebui s fie pe dmm
acum
8. OUGH T T0 ar trebui,
=
s-ar cuveni (form literar, mai protocolar dect
should)

Eiqprim:
- sfat:

ought to talk to him. S-ar cuveni s i vorbeti.

presupunere:
He aught be still at home. S-ar cuveui s fie nc acas.
You

9. WILL:

Ca moda] apare la toate persoanele i exprim:

~
cerere, invitatie deosebit de politicoas (apare n special cu persoana a lI-a
n ntrebri):
Would you clase the window? Ai vrea s inchideti fereastra?
Would you answer my question, please? Ati dori s-mi rspunderi la
ntrebare, v rog?
- aciune repetat:
He would always ask this kind ofquestion. Obinuiete s pun tot tiznpul
astfel de ntrebri.
Not: Aciunea repetat n mod frecvent, dar n trecut (acum ncheiat),
poate fi exprimat prin construcia used ta = obinuiam s.
I used to ask this land ofquestions. Obinuiam s pun astfel de ntrebri.
10, DARE = a cuteza, a avea curajl- Ca moda] apare n propoziii negative i
interogative cu sensul: a ndrzni, a se incumeta, a se aventura, a avea
ndrzneaJa/neobrzarea.
How dare you? Cum ndrzneti?
117

NEEhe darea 'z say a varz Nu a ndrznit s spun u vorb_

= a avea nevoie. a mod al apare n propoziii negative !
u
l
'
mlemgafw cu sensul de a fi nevoie, a trebui:
Need you go now? E nevoie si pleci acum?
-

Verhele auxllizre

Sunt verbe cu sens lexiwl redus i marcheaz modul timpu]

?SFWWL Pefsana i numrul la verbele pe care le nsoesc ~ la felli forma
tntcrogativ a verbelor pe carele nsoesc.

T0 D0 (a face)

did. done

?gigi- liaxrzc alctuirea formei rnzerogave i negative a verbelor la

Do you live in this town? Locuii in acest ora?
Did he aneml this school? A uni-iat aceast coal?
dan 't like it. Nu-mi place.
IThey
didrwgo. Nu
Nu dus.
Not:
' b? Pdmt do la imperativ negativ:
Don't be silly! Nu prost!
#5529 ovltrognztzavl cu do n limlaa vorbit:
is.
-am destul timp ca s fa;
am_
- do mtrebumat pentru subliniere (pronunat accentuat):
She doe: make all her dresses hmelf
g-alt; face toate rochiile singuri.
'
'
i: erler
te rog, scrisoarea.
o re
be '"9 Clwitarm,
TO BE (a m was l Were
Hseeiea mmm mlPm-C" Dlurii continue i a diaoezei pasive:
_

[am being examinea',

He has been iri/bmw'.
Not:

' mmmadlvl Egalivillla Present i Past Tense se formeaz fag

da: Am I==Areyou? Is he?
I am nat. You are not.
imperativul se formeaz cu do:
Don't be afraid! s nu-i fie :carui:
Do be czrtentive, please! Fii atent, te rog!
T0 HA VE (a avea) had, had
~

118

- fomiem structura formelor perfect:: (Present

Perfect, Past Perfect...)

Hz has read.
He had read.
Not:
formeaz fr do:
i
- interogativul i negativulla Presznt Past Tense se
Have I? Have you? I have mt.
Had 1? Had he? I had nat.
da
Excepie: ca echivalent modal, !a have este ns frecvent folosit cu
lua").
prinsi",
"a
"a
permanent:
ncazional,
(exprim o posesiune
nu
Dia' you have any Iuhch today? Ai' luat masa de prnz astzi?
We did:: 't have any letters from him. N-am primit o scrisoare de ln el.
Why do you have to be there? De ce trebuie s fii acolo?

Adverbul
Reprezint partea de vorbire care exprim caracterisca sau
mprejurdtea unei aciuni. Determin un verb, un adjectiv sau un alt adverb.
i dup
Adverbul prezint dou categorii de clasificare: dup fomi
coninut:
l. Dup form, advefuele pot fi:
~ formate prin adugarea tenninaiei -ly la adjectivul corespunztor:
jAIIy,
happilly. exrrzmely, jnaIIy. immediately, slawly truly, nicely, equaly,
sincere& simply
cu fon-n identic cu adjectivul corespunztor:
EII,
just, late, le, little,
back. deep, direct, earbz, enough, far, fast, hard,
well. wrong
straight,
long. low, much, mare, near, pretty, right, short, still,
prin
adugarea
cealalt format
~
cu dou i'm-me (una identic cu adjectivul,
terminajci -ly la adjectiv) i sensuri deosebite:
deep (adnc) - deeply (profund)
direct (direct) - direclly (exact, imediat)
hard (din greu) - hardly (cu greutale, abia)
high (sus) - highly (foarte)
jur! (chiar, tocmai) -jurtly (drept)
late (tniu) -Iately (recent, de curnd)
c)
near (lng) - nearly (aproape
scurt)
short (bruma) - :hortly (pe
2. Dup coninut, exist adverbe:
arat modul n care se desfoar o aciune (rspund la
- de mod,
me
ntrebarea cum?)
fast, ham', badly, easily, rhortly
119

- de timp, care arat timpul cnd se desfoar aciunea (rspund la

ntrebarea cnd?)
lately, ever, never, oen, rarely, seldom, sometimes, usually,
generally, consttzntly, today, yesterday, tomorrow, ago, last, next, yet, still,
since, before, after...
- de loc, care arat locul unde se petrece o actiune (rspunde la ntrebarea
unde?)
here, there, above, below, up, down, abroad, in, out, everywhere...
- inrerogative:
how?, why?, when?, where?
i negaie:
de
armaie
yes, of course, certainly, naturally, sure, no, not, at ali, by no
Unele
adverbe prezinta restricii cu privire la poziia n propozitie.
means
- adverbele de timp definit (yesterday, today, tomorrow, next week) po!
aprea att la nceputul, ct i la sfarsitul propoziiei:
I shall be able to meet you next week. V voi putea ntlni sptmna
viitoare.
She is always asking a lot of questions. ntotdeauna pune o multime de
ntrebri.
atunci cnd n propoziie apar mai multe adverbe, ordinea lor este x:
mod + loc + timp
She sang beautiful at the concert last evening. A cntat fruntas la concert
aseara.
My brother warked hara' at the ajice last week. Fratele meu a muncit mult
la birou sptmna trecut.
~

Comparatia adverbelur

Ca i adjectivele, adverbele prezint grade de comparaie, urmnd aceleai

reguli:
a) gradul pozitiv reprezint forma de baz a adverbului:
soon, hard, early, quickly, beautiully, importantly
b) gradul comparativ indic rrxprejurarea prin comparaie
~ de inferioritate:
not so / as. as nu aa de., ca
less. than
mai puin... dect
- de egalitate:
(tot
as
aa de... a)
quickly
harti
asa
asus
ar
m earbz osos important& as
- de superioritate
- adverbele formate dintr-o singur silala i adverbul
early adaug -er la final:
er than (mai... dect)
120

harder than earlier than

- advberbele formate din dou sau mai multe silabe sunt precedate de mare:

mare... than (mai... dect):

more quickly thanmore importantly than
c) gradul superiativ
- relativ v indic nivelul cel mai nalt sau cel mai redus al unei mprejur& n
care se desfoar aciunea:
i adverbul early adaug -est la
- adverbele formate dintr-o singur silah
final
the... -est (of) (cel mai... dintre):
the hardest othe earliest of
precedente de most:
- adverbele formate din dou sau mai multe silabe sunt
the most... of(cel
dintre)
the most quickly ofthe most importantly of
- absolut - indic cel mai nalt nivel al ruprejurrii unei aciuni, fr a se
mai face comparaie. Se formeaz cu very (foarte)
very quickly
very hard
early
very important
very
Not: Exist i cteva exceptii la gradul comparativ de supezioritate i la
superlativ relativ.
POZKV

Comparativ

well

hardly
much
little

far

worse

(maim)
better
mare
less

superlativ
(cel mai...)

the best
the worst

further
_frlher

the most
the least
the farthest (n spaiu)
thzjtrthest (n timp)

Propoziia
Reprezint partea de vorbire care face legtura ntre dou cuvinte
diferite din punct de vedere sintactic: substantivul i articolul su, verb i
complementul sau. n limba englez, prepozitiile uzuale sunt:

about- despre
above ~ deasupra
across - peste
a/ler - dup

between - ntre
beyond - n afar
by - lng, de ctre
concerning - privind

of-de

o/f- de pe, din

on - pe, deasupra

out- din

121

against- mpotriva
along - de-a lungul
among - printre
around - n jurul

ar -Ia

before - nainte(a)
behind - n spatele
below - sub
beride - alturi

despite - n ciuda
down -jos
except - n afar de
for - pentru, de
from - de la
in - n
into - n
inside - n interiorul
near lng

outside - n exteriorul
over - peste, deasupra
per - prin, din
till - pn
to - ctre, spre
under - sub, dedesubt
with - cu
without - fr

Deseori, prepoziiile i pot schimba sensul n functie de context:

through the window (pe fereastr)
in time (la timp)
for work (la lucru)
by bus (cu autobuzul)
onfoot (pe jos)
Alteori, prepoziiile pot aprea dup verbe, crora le confer un sens diferit
fa de nelesul de baz (le transform n verbe trazale).
ra look (a privi)
grij de);
- ta look aler (a avea
(a cuta);
!older
to
ta ga (a merge) - to go an (a continua);
by (a trece);
- to go
to make (a face) - to make into (a transforma)
alcatui, a se farda) n alte
- ta make up (a ntregi, a fixa, a
substantive
dup
prepozitiile
aprea
sau adj ective i trebuie
cazuri,
pot
mpreun.
retinute
safefmm (ferit de)
at night (noaptea)
(uneori)
of old (pe vremuri)
times
ar
proud of (mndru de)
atpeace (n pace)
by sea (cu vaporul)
on duty (de serviciu)
ora)
the
(cu
hour
by
on :ale (de vnzare)
by the way (apropo)
paie withfright (palid de spnim)
Dup cum se poate observa, problematica prepozitiei n limba englez
cuprinde o mare diversitate de sensuri i tiinctii; expresiile ca atare trebuiesc
reinute pe de rost.

Ordinea cuvintelor n propozitie

n limba romn, pozitia prilor de propoziie difer de cea a
cuvintelor englezeti in dou privine:
dect limba englez i deci
a) limba romn are mai multe forme ilexionare
de
important.
att
locul cuvintelor n propozitie nu este
Rom&
Englez
Niciodat nu-l vd acolo.
I never see him there.
(Eu) Nu-l vd niciodat acolo.

(Eu) Nu-l vd acolo niciodat.

(n limba romn, subiectul nu este de obicei exprimat, verbul romnesc
fiind marcat formal pentru persoan i numr.)
Romn
Euglgzj
'
El vorbete bine
englezete.
well.
He spenks English
'l' predicat + compLdirect
(Subiect
wmpLdCC
(subiect + predicat +
+ cucmod.)
+ circmod.)
night.
L-ain vzu! asear la cinema.
last
the
I saw him ut cinema
(subiect + predicat + circde timp +
+
loc
circ.de
+
predicat
(subiect +
circ.de 105L
timp)
circ.de
Ordinea cuvintelor n limba englez prezint urmtoarele caractzeristici
generale: - n propoziii enuntiative i exclamauve: subiect + predicat +
complement
Peter Iikes Algebra.
How beautiful she is!
interogatice: predicat + subiect + complement
propozitii
- n
Complememele \ii-ureaz astfel:
de loc,
complement direct + indirect + complement clrcumstanial de md,
de tin-ip
quickly in the din ing mom ajler the dinner.
I read the new:
circ.de mod, oircloc, circ tii-op
compLdir.,
sub., pred.,
iniial_
de
Not: Pentru suhliniere, putem aeza alt parte vorbire n pozitie
the
in
quickly
1
din ing ro am. - dou
Aler dinner read the news
fel
urmeaz
regula:
de 1a specific la
acelai
de
complemente
multe
sau mai
general.
He lives a! 55, Franklin street, Bucharest
propozitie dou adverbe (de loc i de djreie), ordinea este;
_ dac avem n
adverb de directie + adverb de loc
_

The horse jumped aver the fence_ in the garden.

122

123

direcp'e
loc
Calul a srit peste gard n grdin.
- mai multe complemente circumstaniale de timp: se aeaz de la momentul
precis la cel general; de regul n ordinea: durat, frecven, moment.
I went to the :easidetzr two weeks evety summer during my childhzwd.
durat
&ecven
moment
timp precizat
perioada general
- atributul precede partea de vorbire pe care o nsoete:
.
a gand :deea - o idee buna.
brick walls - perei de crmid
a never-tn-befargarten remark o remarc de neuitat
Atunci cnd un substantiv este nsoit de mai multe atribute, ordinea
acestoea este mai mult sau mai putin indiferent,
New, grey, silk :tackingn Ciorapi noi, de mtase, gri.
Pentru realizarea ritmului propiziiei, unele pot preceda substantivul, iar
altele l umieaz.
Rehn: him was the vasfarest, dark, dense and misterioux.
n faa lui se afl pdurea vast, intunecat& deas i nxisterioas.
n concluzie:
' Ordinea obinuit a cuvintelor n propozitia armativ este:
subiect + predicat + complement direct + complement indirect +
prepoziional + circumstniale de mod + loc + timp
She + :nid + gand night + m them + quickly + in the hali + aler dinner.
Ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie\negativ este:
subiect + predicat + NOT + complemente
She was nat afraid ofhim.
- Ordinea cuvintelor n propozitie interogativ este:
predicat + subiect + complemente
Wax she afraid of him?

aan
'

124

' '

l . '7

EERCSES AND TESTS

mu***
.

J,

s; bey; Io.

mmm

c" m cogupondemete minim_ de \miliardar mar(N'

.

'

'"5- 3 'WW

tinem u
y

.am

matricea.

um*: 5 (Imn: 6, bruma:

6a

won-m dentist' putmiv; btloocnrd

'i

7. :rank:

MIG:

mim au. Implantul::

!amor-in

tavi,

ramanand.

seta-inm puneam'.

bodrooln;

/`

msormsnmrzcesnnwnngwmemde

\
y

wlumn ?WD
An Emchmarv e:

"E531

a nave oi E1391!

'

'

Frenchmcr\

Sumare

Eqvvtmh
R4519

Romanian

mean

s Make un

sennences' omagiu
l'

bo

m; moda, dxuoanb me nwrrqanmn

"
bunpeopaeaFnmnaFmnarm
hvelmsulilewkev

nouninwlumnvw:

55mm.

uary

Ramin

'

'

Ewan:

mm
Gamma(
Sam

Amma
`

ema
c.

nsurat: un \ext

mu::

tra;

mim;

126

mn

4.

mummutwhupd

\oulaxrisg ugaabtesanmeswwp

snooqvwqwrJrxdhad-mwpdabwm.

i m nam :ne
chimin/e
www 'sirian
mm
a 1mmnenavwsngmnreoaawng 4. Grnrqrunrsuwvarybmyoarly
i" 'Pe
mins 5 *Pms are wy 909510! mmm, un ph- :by coaxial nou.
7.
s. When Vhnrr, s some blmzlmgo in :he-Xtrem al M:
mn :la: mm m;
'zuwuyumnsmm vouanrmunumuvnwnmno'hnlygmlvci
m: :nm sharing m bacauan
am nosy cum munca un am ?un '
The

mana

wax zanying n
swrained har arme 2 Cars mos! avi& su&
1

guuqxmnosuocmaaace"

hungry,

@Mu:

Ijlemwtiw

Moaqnsuuznlkustuuzwuyszam
.

Mamma:

yjilvrlgldyewfie-tvzahwziuiyuiitpe-tauxuethyulntriew.

raaohwavpfyfmbwduzxlwmyomanmapsmy
yuaohwuumuomenmvc
`v
,

panda
'

127

u. Fm m m; :denunte naum VW-

2
.ainxuuu-\uvanntgyuw
3.Hn:vmhot'lre|i$,5|"',fd

:omu-pn

pm
5. Mary

:me me

&Law cum'

ales

antena1 shpmoedme
1.

_awmmniwouzazew Sinsdspsinnhetdusmkwcm:

xenacmmmmxwmswcaobrega4mtm ,u-'oemonmmrp
'
'
rumjJ-vegotmsgmvaapurkw

mah

am

aecpingnmuva

x3

..

vs Iiyouuuomua,

m.

-maxwmuonosxu-

(he) no!

mu!

o; min:) nou.

v'
krvwvtdnhet

p.

'

'

`,m.MIr!v.n.4.Mi*'e199!B!3FhImw-'$

wunuamy

"

_
~

wzwkmmsuym

Mcywumaacuimn(

mvMyams-revuaa

Mgggbnmpoinlummg

nunumuporvw :Mvvv-WWWPV

Uslzr. to (she) We rarvty'

baby

2.

MVI(I)M;171"`?7
u" mn-u-inmwlm
mwmungsntwas. .
sim
Magmaniq._z.puiunnm.vs.fmze,pnn,fouv,
"

'

naoss

qm
7x345;
"mauhymywwyaeisgjmyzMlydd flhavenuwm
M
momuamymmnnym 5 H" WWW "5 "' 7"'
my;

Chunem Mlowirvg Mura usm the va preposiorml dama

a ca

'

Alroaoldonvmhms'

,W

Pemjok .nu (n) m

m,

vudu\ Send !or

Aamauohmmsold
'rrunandmwsttv

@www
mgywvarmnmuahv-\wwv-MPM
`

Annmmdlikzam\
.

Ihe mfse,

128

xnycamuhananmnnzhemnrwg
m&
(u: an a meu ai;
r: pIsuunUu !ay by
ro gave such m ami/ev.
c! you

cuantum-quam

Anqmophevelkllfdmmnw

Nauwcmnjnswun

summmlnmuen.

129

A.

crunge

TEST NR. 1,
(nucmimummuss uchninr monument unive-

Mami:
!han broughl you
1

3 Cm
5

Buy

l pruvu.

ym am a momen' 2

nava brought o paun: !ar you.

She i: chovsmg har

lhalhunymarxasmolbrnd 4 Nafnmdhisnwlhrr

H: 901 his @limba I 118W magnum

Trunchi: un
l.
ing

llallfhe 7frant.

:ial We
wav- mad: out

H9 books:) H: gnHriend
I
nd

pupic u nice, bvg cake and sami nume:

am u wnrm con

ien the am:

me

dis sn Inuvesliny Ion

wine,

lcllowing :ac-Mucos pas/Ing Anunturi to the iminvas und Io

- lumi\

1,

Paul's

curind::

wave

vnynvywllfnrima awnrxgbxnhuolvhm
`

uemmumswssgsummwgvmvuqsn
2.Mimunin&lllnlnt|hlddnwllwfhmgflmidvely\wdh
.

doil\

:Funamthuttsexhzvcsnursnorajuunsmommbegmlquwnkd

Iwlydreachingn.
4

Mn-vymevewrersneededlonakzgoodbooksvormildrm

@Trimit:
1. TMIenvuvMny-iwnmshuxdlshnnkbrm
_

3
4
`

'vwuereismyblgYlllsmlhllairwlfsewrdvw'

vlwumylahmwnnummmsynuvday.
Iswlmimeiarlhebyet?

Iwbevurypleasanlwspend mare limeinmelrushcavksewm

hmiauy: mms.

130

Chooso A. B ar C.

!31

:urmam
1,

tnnanlrnumumsbiwwffmww***

!marar

Wleuslmlwlbeibd

'

'

-Pleasegwemrm

wlwnhavwwieorvam

s.

awwmsbrmmmmmbynunmmwm

ia.

Make me toamna

running&

snake: rlermmve

nou

Iwmteulasriunvyundsharu.
vwvoodyouwrlualnlukv?
,

!u

atlmrotucedyozxutnrtolnmzlluyulqear

ywasnsavwmg-ghxnnusmmusre

yowmvvmmianmmxmse

cmrmxeuumomngnmnm
t

2.

cum-m inlurrmlion 731m

,yuutnunaumasmmumn
wnoyx,emua1mmum,muundJgx.nu-Mwi
`

'

5mmsn,a~ua-pav.o1muse;m

Thnoicvnvnzmtmebymywiwr,
mmconmaanycawuormuwxdmgg
_

Takeclndchbseoneexmnbnmtdy _arata
He une:: 00W!! lorbmfmm

5 wggumzmnusm

132

133

s; We ne buzunar n 7

6 'lhBVe
7

:Madame '

,ne shaw beginsradabci

'my mu: mothqpuak

smsmcs a
wm... mmm
Kenny !cei nm

8 Wwadunlii Mo dopo(
wllvbook
mai& bad
Tiny
w
on

sm

H He boogm a wwhii_

12 You ves-ie a :adam

131m: nimanui nou me bafnv

14

!should come cununa&

15 They should

'

mnuedeqfy well

\s He nas gat a nice :mer

7

134

m; mayeocne 'm

Iamandhaveoskfim
135

Luana-team

Hscmnbyplun
hlprawarudlantu
Icrbonlmlbirurannlvv.

SNIDOHOBGXMW.

Illwdnk.

Lmuypmmuupaumnm

Hcavmlomomow.
'mama paru/us him?

5. Did Mr.

HIlOMMMeBIh.
l
ham! ih& illt bil&

E.
,

c'mym'"h'm*9'7

Doashgmnttaga?

-.=

Thwlluilwinhnmrsg.
WtuwMrs Bram

Smumm

a heboysmlpodmovmuemw.

Hnnnuedwlllhlhdp.

H.

Flliulmblvhvmhuuuxmwmvxujnnsolvemodwm

bnhlvmunlcouhunylmyhtlll.Ihllirhvqvlmlwbtxid,

Med. Unghi n. und n. din.

Lom|OuuN-4

vw.. Mnfricbookyusmubt
'. youjvamahoroi-gfant
hu nhy nu piano Munhewls mu?

younujmum

...wwfvmnnotf
He...amvennhcmnlrln

They..

uummenm

hacuwmiun...vouwplaulumurvw.
ymwwsvhimanmatug?
,.

w Lu! summu the

13g

old man

wwiifnutyww.
139

11

Naminhxaoovmna..

!hand him :pankmg Io his wife. mdely_ In how ago]

we ma& (nemotivat, In the Ivbmy)
1h: mns qm mm. (un :nem !ast imn !he kilman)

inauntru

(un

'

lihdooorfhulvlbmmlhlywhem
`

11,.:

Wu m

Theooilloekslsmlwlfebqfoffn (too. Simus!)

Iohey used !o Ilve (h ma\ !mie mlm: al mim, mppny. every wnkand)
H The lunar m: hard him speak. (fast, sa now)
1211101101!, (a1 six 0114913,

muy., numuuymuvmuw
21.

Nu: beam/i

12.

Traume

nu

apucam-n,

mina !lumin n'am intuitiv: \am m

14. Put the

smnuuunnlnymyvgsvubwuhxoolfllmuhwm

You

\`

1.

140

muoypemogwyoynmrmwg.

Hnhuthwitxmvnw)

2.

Thnbdsyvnhttbwyxmrduhblu)

a.

Amyoupaunuamngnuokw,mu

ne

ywriricndahlslime v (cum)

uqbylhshrmmuovirwtcnnyrmeolnmlcokhg

lovgotten

ax:

Thubayqontnuaoqnlunuvgnnq

Hava you um !he sau? (en-r)

Sissy :mu: 'm au Iilurmon, (abauys)
mwung. (never)
Mt. Saunderson:: si home in
They :r: bad( MM\ Ilnty (just)

'ouclsplaynroodbenenhwsmoyndibh

lhlllnvwbstlavawwuuqkmm

!he numim:)

:avem in bradul: ?Mo the right plic"

wm yuu

mpxnu? huoacuuamnuowusy
muwnounvmmiwrhps

ln

13

oangun

ynlotdly.

hay lay. (une: lunch, quiey, un the unu)

in
wwe were truvalmg. (hnppw (his lime Iul year, th( Lake Dtnnn)
15W: have a drink naum. mmmecowmr. mmm lililepub)
`15.Have you neam :uda: Iily question? (beton, ever)

1 JMNm-.pvannn-'mncuma

4
s.

was culdcnhe rummy (too)

oil. (for Sinaia. onwudnssduy, by car)

Yhe room

I've nude

nu, (cum)

nu vfsl :Guma:

bn any

back

mad

mman. (mver, ya)

She samd !o hram: !er Icar o! Ianmng

ii hghev (hardly)

Theyhndpeovhconnglodimu. .Etiduewmm vmohadputalisheda

me book poems (just)
in
lerlhl had !alien n !ave with har. ss :he did MI Inve with beauiiu!
women mo had :Mummy strange about them mmm

11

12

'Ha-mm you seen a monkey balan' (over)

Miss Punch did nalba& mher, hm mn shn didlookalpeqb rmzlly
(SGVGWV)

141

431m how leader he was :nu mu

lhougmful, (amays)

14 It's preuy

asum nubudy

will

15 'I m ncmwg a pan. I'm my mai

mu: Ina-e. how

con vu\ !rom lo-_m

mmm., m.

b ug us (nu)

un !ar a vmmod. (uwnys. hwer)

15.5cry1 coma vemcmlm nvury :me 011mm (almost)
I
17 'Ana was !here n time
(avut)
Mun did nm have n !che
15. PU! !he udvarbnl

pmdcs in bnckets Mo !he careul pna'

WhyhlshzvevxmalgovdjnbinnHBMCOHQ? (m)
2 A mon mm
m; ne; M men Mixing a 010051101!)
3 dam need this bank, 'fake n, M!! yotuvay)
1

Amr \emang a \in (he mu: boy gave hmm:: (up)

M!)
5 Swdl k, will you? (am

4_

5. Swndh me Iighr, win you?

wasn't 6nd mai his las! wmds mean!, (oul)

ov'
e The vali: u house hold ihe rod. (up)
I

al

Whemvar you ne in !ne nenghbommd,

Ind nu rm. (n)
10," s vnvywwhme; don't (alte you mul, lung i. (al, un)

ss. nu in the
1

2
3
4

un; wilh m; rummy unanim; m, .

Hwmudxdu you pay

The young coupn is bmiy in

Braov

nud... a M. ww

we vrmslsiapuvzl- sus wlsle

lime!

u hohduy

Do yau kmw u

it?

n: mms am sa much aike ma( you un hmm le! one

5 They went

mi,

the other.

may have mau

1
5

"'.`n*.

.Hr

-Sldilyiimlhlhllevnil-wlndl-

oummuznemvmwumuimwwl

55009'

Ihe susanu.

mmm?
143

T551 NR, 2.
I.
Rennange lhe !allowing words In une: ID form correct :antena5

did? 2 Books read U005 Engash he? 3

Exercises musl III the do student the? 4 Doc! a\ somebody the was mare. 5
7
EWM( lor bell is !here ringing the G, Dak !rea the was nld [mare an house near
l
B Very she :peak wan loc
sa l \IH very :nu my Is am brother (Twu sentcnces)
Uikn I no!
Gumus he 6D (TWD semana:) 1D
Ind Enghsh does so 5 Dans nu!
11 speak Greek
l
House my Me do dn pareau nu! cms nor (rm senxunces)
1, Yuu

pupi: un

nu gaeev
II,

my
14

\men

him

m! no! car\

ne

am semencesy

12 Coat here youv is' 13 Here bus

me is Enmish here dlnonary'

Transltle inm Rumanian

nm soon we saw/th!
du! o! !he mhev D115 ahead down the mad The road curved :nd we sawthe true
1mm me means end gomg un (hmuqh me
cars looking quite sman, me aus: rising
dvmbed up
of(
ms We cnughl lhem andpassed mlm nu !umed un a road m::
We druve !n21 when wa were over !be bridge

mana! semen
beddnlfuasuludwllchedmenoumry.Wswertmlhelool-Hllsmmesded
North
the river and Is the road named (hero mare the hngh mountain: d! lo IM
into

!he hills Driving n :www 'n not unpleasanl

wnh snuw :ml

cn

!he lups.

il

you are !ne first

luand hack und sIw the \han cars

al!

dtmbinq,

spend by \ha interval al Ibm dusi We pnssed a \ung column o! loaded norms.
Ihe unu:: amina adaug basme them
m. Raanange une ndiedivos in Ihe ngm order
l A I an (Rumanian. try. irmpensive, red) wine. 2 The (Sunlxsh, green
belulm,
banunas.

me)

4 A I

vaueys 3 The (yellavsh, big aeuuous, tasly. Air-iun, cheap)

taur) man 5. A I In
an (young lhm_ Swiss, good heaned_ ml.

5 A I an (lvmn. beautimlly
clolh 7 A I an (poceiain, muen.

Vas!)
Gr
(hmm. (S798. nxpensiva blue, baamil_ now.

decmaled cheap Romaman, vdde) lam:

vtludala. tame, Chinese_ cel!) name a. A I an (old
dichonary

'fake nr,

144

II

Lenin. very

expenswo,

mg.)

:nu choose une bOlWEen I and m

145

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