SB9 Ans

Chapter 1: Materials
Unit 1.1
1 a Protons have a positive charge, neutrons are charge neutral and electrons have a negative charge.
b Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, while electrons are approximately 1800
times lighter.
c Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, while electrons are found in a cloud surrounding
the nucleus.
2 a
b
c
d
e
Celement
H2Ocompound
SiO2compound
S8element
NaClcompound
3 a
b
c
d
O2molecules
Cucrystal lattice
Ccrystal lattice
P4molecules
4 Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus. Mass number is the total number of protons
and neutrons.
5 Atoms are electrically neutral because there is an equal number of positive protons and negative
electrons.
6 a Rutherford fired a beam of positively charged alpha particles at a piece of thin gold foil and detected
the alpha particles after they hit the foil.
b He found that most of the alpha particles went straight through, while a few were deflected. He
concluded that atoms were made up of mostly empty space with most of the alpha particles passing
through the space. The few that were deflected came near a small positively charged nucleus at the
centre.
7 a The magnesium atom loses two electrons.
b The chlorine atom gains one electron.
8 a
b
c
d
e
9 a
b
c
d
C6H12O6compound
C60element
Feelement
MgCl2compound
H2SO4compound
16
O
20 Ca
193
Au
79
238
U
92
8
40
10 a D
b B
c C
11 i
ii
iii
iv
Lithium ion, +1, Li+

Aluminium ion, +3, Al3+
Fluoride ion, 1, FSulfide ion, 2, S2
Copyright Pearson Australia 2014 (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) ISBN 978 1 4425 6566 1
Page 1
12 a Protons and neutrons are almost exactly the same mass and both are found in the nucleus.
However, protons are positively charged, while neutrons are charge neutral.
b Electrons are approximately 1800 times lighter than protons. Electrons and protons are oppositely
charged with electrons having a negative charge and protons having a positive charge. This is why
they attract each other.
13
14 Elements are pure substances that are made up of just one type of atom. Compounds are also pure
substance (i.e. not mixtures) but compounds are made up of more than one type of atom.
15 a
b
c
d
e
2 protons, 2 neutrons, 2 electrons

16 A sodium atom is charge neutral. It has 11 protons and 11 electrons. The sodium ion has lost one
electron and so has 11 protons and 10 electrons. This means it has a positive charge of +1.
17 The balloon develops a static electric charge because electrons have been rubbed off it. This build-up
of charge attracts it to the wall.
18 Atomic symbols help communicate the exact structure of an atom easily and accurately.
Unit 1.2
1 There are 118 different elements.
2 Various answers are possible, for example:
metals: sodium (Na), iron (Fe), copper (Cu)
non-metals: oxygen (O), neon (Ne)
metalloids: boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge)
3 Mercury (Hg)
4 Wrought iron (almost no carbon), mild steel (0.5%), hard steel or tool steel (1%), cast iron (2.4 to 4.5%).
5 a Iron (Fe)
b Chromium (Cr) and nickel (Ni)
6 Most metals are denser than water, and so they sink. The exceptions are lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and
potassium (K).
7 a Lustrousshines when polished
b Malleableable to be hammered and bent into new shapes without breaking
c Brittleshatters easily
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8 Gold is extremely soft and weak in its pure form and scratches and breaks easily.
9 The slipperiness of graphite allows it to slide easily over paper without scratching. Layers of graphite
slide over each other allowing them to be rubbed off by the paper leaving a trace of graphite behind.
10 Metals are electrical conductors and can be stretched into wires without breaking.
11 Copper (Cu) common to both the alloys brass and bronze.
12 a
b
c
100 = 50% gold

100 = 37.5% gold
100 = 91.7% gold.
13 Charcoal and ash are forms of amorphous carbon. Hence wood, paper and food scraps all contain
carbon.
14 a There is a lack of water in the desert so very little rusting can be expected.
b There is a lack of oxygen deep in mud so very little rusting can be expected.
15 a 4 elements
b A and D = boron (atomic number 5), B = magnesium (atomic number 12), C = nitrogen (atomic
number 7),
E = phosphorus (atomic number 15).
16 90 metals, 20 non-metals, 8 metalloids
17 a
c
e
g
i
metals
metals
non-metals
non-metals
non-metals
b
d
f
h
j
non-metals
metals
metals
metals
metals
18 Steel cans were often coated with tin inside to prevent the food from rusting the steel.
19 Metals conduct electricity, while non-metals do not. Metalloids act like non-metals in general, but like
metals under certain conditions. Because carbon conducts electricity only when it is in the form of
graphite, it could be considered to be a metalloid.
20 The element symbol for iron is Fe, from the Latin word ferrum. This is where the term ferrous alloy
comes from. A ferrous alloy has iron as its base metal.
Unit 1.3
1 a vinegarethanoic or acetic acid
b milklactic acid
c lemonscitric acid
2 a CH3COOHethanoic or acetic acid (vinegar)
b NaOHsodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
c NH3ammonia
3 a Any of hydrochloric acid HCl, nitric acid HNO3, sulfuric acid H2SO4
b Sodium hydroxide NaOH, calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
4 a the base in paint strippersodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
b the base in cementcalcium hydroxide
c the base in baking sodasodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium bicarbonate or bicarbonate of soda).
5 a hydrogen ion (H+) is formed by acids
b hydroxide ion (OH) is formed by bases
6 Vomit includes stomach contents, and this contains gastric juices, which contain hydrochloric acid. Like
all acids, hydrochloric acid has a sour taste.
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7 a
b
c
d
Litmus paper turns blue (basic/alkaline) in washing powder.

Litmus paper turns red (acidic) in orange juice.
Litmus paper turns red (acidic) in lemonade.
Litmus paper turns blue (basic/alkaline) in cleaner.
8 Litmus only indicates whether a solution is acidic or alkaline, whereas universal indicator gives a range
of pH values.
9 a H+ (although this is the most relevant example, there are many others such as Na+, Cl, Fe2+, N3)
b OH (although this is the most relevant example, there are many others such as SO42, NO3)
10 a Blue litmus would be red at pH 4.
b Phenolphthalein would be colourless at pH 4.
c Universal indicator would be orange at pH 4.
11 Nitric acid is a much stronger acid than ethanoic acid (vinegar) and so will release many more H+ ions.
12 A hydrogen ion is a single proton.
13 The hydrochloric acid in the gastric juices burns the unprotected tissues of the oesophagus, causing
the sensation of heartburn.
14 The pH of most public pools is measured regularly. The probe of a pH meter can be inserted into the
pool to measure pH. In contrast, indicators would require a sample to be taken and have the indicator
added to it or indicator paper dipped in it every time.
15 Ants have formic (methanoic) acid in them, which gives off a distinctive smell when the ants are
squashed.
16 Bricklayers work with mortar, which contains the base calcium hydroxide. Like all bases, this is caustic
and likely to irritate or harm the skin.
17 Nitric acid is a strong acid and so almost every nitric acid molecule will release its hydrogen ion into
solution. Vinegar is a weak acid, with few of its molecules releasing their hydrogen ions into solution.
However, if the vinegar solution is concentrated and the nitric acid solution is dilute, then they may
have the same number of hydrogen ions. Because pH measures the number of hydrogen ions, the pH
may be the same.
18 Students will give different answers.
Unit 1.4
1 a Four examples of natural polymers: protein, cellulose, starch, rubber
b Four examples of synthetic polymers: PVC, nylon, polythene, polystyrene
2 Student answers should be any three of the properties and uses listed in Table 1.4.1.
3 Nano-tex, Gore-tex
4 One millionth of a metre
5 Carbon nanotubes are much lighter and stronger than steel.
6 Polymers are molecules made of repeating units (monomers) that form long chains.
7 a Polymers are long-chain compounds, some of which are synthetic.
b The contact angles on super-hydrophobic surfaces are nearly 180.
8 A fibre is a long, thin solid material composed of long chain molecules twisted together.
9 The curled burs of one side of Velcro catch on the loops on the other side of the Velcro.
10 Very hydrophobic surfaces allow water droplets to pick up dirt particles and carry them from the surface
because the water will not stick to the surface and the dirt sticks better to the water.
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11 This can be done by rolling the flat sheet of carbon atoms (graphene) in several different directions.
12 a Link many paper clips together end to end and form a chain that represents the long chain polymer.
b Each clip is a monomer.
13 PVC is hard and rigid, whereas polythene is soft and flexible. This makes PVC useful for making things
such as pipes and containers, whereas polythene is used to make things such as plastic bags.
14 Hydrophilic means water loving and describes surfaces that attract water; hydrophobic means water
hating and describes surfaces that repel water.
15 There are social, ethical and environmental reasons such as:
illnesses and deaths caused by smoking
cost to the community of illnesses and deaths
risk to non-smokers who breathe in cigarette smoke (lung disease, asthma etc.)
unpleasantness of smoke for many people
fires caused by people discarding lit cigarettes or falling asleep while smoking.
16 a The train is a repeated series of identical units (carriages).

b Each carriage is a monomer.
17 Student answers will vary. An example is to place a drop of water on five different hairy leaves and five
different smooth leaves, and observe the shape of the drop. The more hydrophobic the surface, the
more spherical the drop will be.
18 Depends on student answer but should include examples of the social, ethical and environmental
benefits from many discoveries such as polymers, shape memory alloys, catalytic converters, carbon
fibre and composite materials.
Chapter review
1 a proton or neutron is 1800 times heavier than an electron
protons +, neutrons neutral, electrons
protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus, electrons in electron clouds surrounding the nucleus
2 atomic number = number of protons
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
3 a CH3COOH: ethanoic acid or acetic acid (vinegar)
b H2SO4: sulfuric acid
c NaOH: sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
4 Litmus, phenolphthalein, universal indicator, bromothymol blue
5 The pH of pure water is 7.
6 Carbon nanotubes can be formed into fibres and are hundreds of times stronger than steel and much
lighter. For this reason, nanotubes are being researched for use in the structures of cars, aircraft and
buildings. Carbon nanotubes are also being researched for possible use in electronic devices as
semiconductors and microprocessors.
7 a
b
c
d
e
f
atom: fundamental building block of all materials

molecule: cluster of atoms that makes up an element or compound
crystal lattice: grid-like structure of atoms or ions
ion: charged atom or group of atoms
cation: positive ion
fibre: any substance that can be twisted into a rope, woven or knitted into a fabric or mixed with
other substances to form a mesh
Page 5
9 Rutherford shot positively charged alpha particles at gold foil. Most went straight through undeflected.
This meant that most of the atom must be empty space.
10 a An atom must lose electrons.
b An atom must gain electrons.
11 Alloys have properties that are usually an improvement over their base or parent metals.
12 A stent is a tube made of shape memory alloy wires and fabric that is placed into tubes (such as
arteries and bile ducts) in the body. The wire forms an open tube when it heats up in the body. This
keeps the vessel or duct open.
13 Some examples are: metal catalysts in catalytic converters that remove poisons from car exhausts,
metals that can be used as artificial joints, polymers that keep clean and stay dry, polymers that can
replace carcinogenic asbestos.
14 a HCl
b HNO3
c Ca(OH)2
15 An example is: Replacing asbestos in brakes is a social issue because sick workers cannot support
their families. Sick workers also cost employers money and productivity drops. It is an ethical issue
because it is wrong to allow use of materials that cause death and illness. It is an environmental issue
because releasing asbestos into the environment makes it a dangerous place for everyone.
16 a
b
c
d
Feelement
NaOHcompound
H3PO4compound
O2element
17 a The likely pH of the solution is between 5 and 5.5.

b The pH is less than 7, so it is acidic.
c Universal indicator turns light orange at pH 5 and pale yellow at pH 6. Therefore, it would turn light
orange to pale yellow in this solution.
18 Similaritiesboth:
can burn
conduct electricity
can neutralise each other
cause a change in colour of litmus paper.
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Differences:
acids are corrosive, bases are caustic
acids turn litmus red, bases turn litmus blue.
19 Carbon is left after any fire as amorphous carbon (soot, charcoal). Hence it would have been easily
found in and around fires. Most other non-metals are gases and so cannot be seen, making them much
harder to find.
20 a, b Students will give different answers.
Thinking scientifically
Q1 C
Q2 B
Q3 C
Q4 C
Q5 A
Page 7
Chapter 2: Reaction types

Unit 2.1
1 Oxygen gas (O2)
2 a octane +oxygen gas carbon dioxide + water vapour
2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 + 18H2O
b copper + water + carbon dioxide + oxygen gas copper(II) hydroxide + copper(II) carbonate
2Cu + H2O + CO2 + O2 Cu(OH)2 + CuCO3
3 Anodising is often used to protect aluminium from further corrosion.
4 The burner shows complete combustion when it has lots of air (and therefore oxygen) entering it (open
airhole) and produces a blue flame. Incomplete combustion is shown when the air flow is restricted
(closed airhole) and it produces a yellow flame.
5 Rust is very fragile and flaky. It allows water and air to enter under the rust flakes, allowing the rusting
to continue into the metal. This thins the iron, eventually breaking it down completely.
6 a Chemical formula for butene: C4H8
b Reactants: butene and oxygen gas
c Products: carbon dioxide and water
7 a Carbon dioxide, water vapour
b Carbon monoxide, carbon, water vapour
8 In the word equation for the rusting of iron, water is one of the reactants.
In the desert there is little water so less iron will react.
9 a Exothermic
b Exothermic
c Endothermic
10 Rust is very brittle and flaky. Once formed, it flakes off easily, allowing water and oxygen into the
deeper layers of the iron. This allows rusting to continue.
In contrast, aluminium oxide forms a tightly bonded layer on the surface of the aluminium. This stops
oxygen from getting to deeper layers of the aluminium, so corrosion cannot continue.
11 Similarities:
Combustion requires oxygen gas. Many corrosion reactions require oxygen gas.
Differences:
Combustion forms carbon dioxide and water vapour (complete combustion) whereas corrosion forms a
metal salt.
Combustion is clearly exothermic whereas corrosion does not clearly indicate whether it is exothermic
or endothermic.
One of the reactants for corrosion is always a metal while reactants for combustion can be non-metals
or compounds such as octane.
Combustion produces gaseous products whereas corrosion forms a mixture of solids and gases.
12 It is both a corrosion and a combustion reaction since it meets both criteria.
13 In a fire the water forms as a vapour, which could not put out the fire.
14 All the paper in a flat sheet is exposed to oxygen, so complete combustion occurs all over the sheet. In
a tightly crumpled sheet the inner folds are not well exposed to the air, so they burn at a lower
temperature with incomplete combustion, or not at all.
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15 a benzene + oxygen gas carbon dioxide + water vapour

b hexane + oxygen gas carbon dioxide + water vapour
16 a The chemical formula is ZnO.
b zinc + oxygen gas zinc oxide
17 a pentane + oxygen gas carbon dioxide + water vapour
b octane + oxygen gas carbon monoxide + water vapour
octane + oxygen gas carbon + water vapour
Unit 2.2
1 a
b
c
d
e
f
acid + metal a salt + hydrogen gas

acid + carbonate a salt + water + carbon dioxide
nitric acid + potassium oxide potassium nitrate + water
acetic acid + sodium hydrogen carbonate sodium acetate + water + carbon dioxide
H2SO4 + Fe FeSO4 + H2
2HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
2 a pH = 03
b pH = 5.
3 a Heartburn is caused by hydrochloric acid from your stomach rising into your oesophagus (foodpipe)
and reacting with the sensitive lining, causing a burning sensation.
b The bases in antacids neutralise the acid and so bring quick relief.
4 ethanoic acid + sodium hydrogen carbonate sodium acetate + water + carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a gas that keeps generating until it expands the bag so much that the bag splits and
explodes.
5 a
b
c
d
e
Reactants: phosphoric acid and aluminium

Products: aluminium phosphate and hydrogen gas
Phosphoric acid: H3PO4
Salt: aluminium phosphate AlPO4
The reaction is an acidmetal reaction.
6 The pH of the stomach varies as you drink and eat things that have acids in them (such as tomatoes,
oranges) or bases in them (such as cucumber, broccoli).
7 Carbon dioxide is absorbed by the bloodstream, taken to the lungs and then exhaled.
8 a magnesium + sulfuric acid magnesium sulfate + hydrogen gas
b aluminium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid aluminium chloride + water
c hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate sodium chloride + water + carbon dioxide
9 citric acid + calcium carbonate calcium citrate + water + carbon dioxide
ethanoic acid + calcium carbonate calcium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide
water + calcium carbonate no reaction
10 a iron + hydrochloric acid iron(II) sulfate + hydrogen gas

b copper + nitric acid copper(II) nitrate + nitrogen dioxide + water
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Unit 2.3
1 a carbon dioxide
c glucose
b oxygen gas
2 chlorophyll
3 stoma (plural stomata)
4 An enzyme is a chemical found in living things that controls reaction rate.
5 Sunlight and chlorophyll are not raw materials (or reactants) in photosynthesis, but they are essential
for the process to take place.
6 The respiration reaction between glucose and oxygen is an exothermic reaction, releasing energy.
7 Sugar cane is a green plant and so it can photosynthesise to make glucose. Although some glucose is
used for respiration, some is converted to sucrose and stored. This is the sugar obtained from sugar
cane.
8 A carbon sink removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and stores the carbon for a long time. A
forest is an example of a carbon sink.
9 a Oxygen
b The amount the water displaced in the test-tube is the same as the volume of oxygen gas produced
by photosynthesis up to that time. The rate of photosynthesis can be determined by measuring the
amount of oxygen produced in predetermined times (e.g. every hour or 6 hours). The measurement
could be done marking the position of the displaced water.
10 Plants make their own glucose via photosynthesis. Animals get glucose through digesting the food they
eat.
11 a Photosynthesis:
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
Aerobic respiration:
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
b Photosynthesis:
sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
chlorophyll
Aerobic respiration:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
c Both processes have the same chemicals in their equations.
Both processes use ATP.

The overall equation for each process is the opposite of the other.
Each proceeds by different steps.
Enzymes speed up photosynthesis but slow down and respiration.
Photosynthesis only occurs in chloroplasts in the cells of green plants. Respiration occurs in
mitochondria of the cells of all living things.
Photosynthesis shuts down at night; respiration continues day and night, to keep cells alive.
12 Warmer oceans may affect the amount of photosynthesis carried out by organisms at the bottom of the
marine food chain. This could affect all life in the oceans.
13 Green plants use carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Hence they can be used to clean the air of a
spacecraft and replenish its oxygen supplies.
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Unit 2.4
1 Least to most penetrating: alpha radiation, beta radiation, gamma radiation
2 a The atomic number decreased by 2 and the mass number decreases by 4.
b The atomic number increases by 1 and the mass number stays the same.
3 Four uses of radiation: radiotherapy, radio-imaging, sterilising medical equipment, measuring the
thickness of metals
4 Some types of electromagnetic waves: X-rays, UV-rays, visible light, infrared, microwaves, radio waves
5 A radioisotope is an isotope of an atom that may undergo a nuclear reaction spontaneously.
6 They can all ionise atoms or molecules by knocking out electrons.
7 Alpha particles travel only a few centimetres in air and cannot penetrate skin.
8 Half-life is the time it takes for half the nuclei of a radioactive isotope to undergo a nuclear reaction.
9 Radiation burns and sickness are caused when large doses of ionising radiation ionise molecules in
cells causing them to die or perform inefficiently.
10
16
8
17
18
O, 8 O, 8 O
11 Stable nuclei never undergo nuclear reactions, while unstable nuclei may undergo a nuclear reaction at
any time.
12 Alpha particles are large, heavy and slow. They have low penetration but are good at ionising atoms
and molecules. Beta particles are small, light and fast so can penetrate flesh and bones but not a sheet
of aluminium. They can also ionise atoms and molecules but not as well as alpha particles. Gamma
rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation so have no mass or size and travel at the speed of light.
They are weaker ionisers but are only stopped by thick pieces of lead or concrete.
13 a atomic no. = 93, mass no. = 237
b atomic no. = 92, mass no. = 236
c atomic no. = 82, mass no. = 206
14 a atomic no. = 12, mass no. = 22
b atomic no. = 7, mass no. = 14
c atomic no. = 56, mass no. = 137
15 a
b
c
d
5730 years
11 460 years
17 190 years
22 920 years
16
17 Alpha particles cannot penetrate skin, so they cannot produce any sort of image of tissues or organs.
18 Design task. Students will give different answers.
19 Creative writing task. Students will give different answers.
Page 11
Chapter review
1 a Fe2O3H2O: hydrated iron(III) oxide or rust
b HCl: hydrochloric acid
c C6H12O6: glucose
2 a carbon monoxide (CO)
b hydrogen (H2)
c carbon dioxide (CO2)
3 a silver + hydrogen sulfide silver sulfide + hydrogen gas
2Ag + H2S Ag2S + H2
b octane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water vapour
2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 + 18H2O
c nitric acid + potassium oxide potassium nitrate + water
2HNO3 + K2O 2KNO3 + H2O
d carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen gas
sunlight
6CO2 + 6H2O
C6H12O6 + 6O2
chlorophyll
4 a acid + base a salt + water

b methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Alternatively, students might give incomplete combustion:
methane + oxygen carbon monoxide + water
methane + oxygen carbon + water

c CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
d C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O
5 Iron, water and oxygen gas are required for iron to rust.
6 Three types of ionising radiation: alpha, beta, gamma radiation.
7 Choose four of: radiotherapy, radio-imaging, sterilising medical equipment, treating food to make it last
longer, mineral exploration, metal thickness testing, smoke detectors.
8 Burning fossil fuels adds the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This gas is known to
trap heat in the atmosphere. Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may
increase the greenhouse effect and lead to climate change. Carbon dioxide can combine with moisture
in the air to form carbonic acid, leading to acid rain.
Incomplete combustion occurs when car engines are poorly tuned or when fuels burn with insufficient
oxygen. This adds carbon (soot) and poisonous carbon monoxide to the atmosphere.
9 You need more energy when you are exercising. This means that you need to release more energy
from glucose via the process of respiration. To increase your respiration rate you need more oxygen
gas. Therefore you breathe more frequently and more deeply. A faster breathing rate also rids the body
of the carbon dioxide being produced in increased amounts.
10 Gamma radiation carries more energy and penetrates deeper into the body. Alpha radiation is more
dangerous because it is more ionising but it can be easily blocked even by things like paper.
11 a Radiation burns and sickness are caused when large doses of ionising radiation ionise molecules in
cells causing them to die or perform inefficiently.
b Mutations are caused when ionising radiation changes the DNA inside cells. This causes the cells to
function differently. If the DNA in egg or sperm cells is affected by radiation, mutations in offspring
can occur.
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12 Combustion needs oxygen gas. Covering it will rob it of new oxygen gas. Once the oxygen trapped
under the covering is used up, the reaction will stop and the fire will go out. The relevant word equation
is:
fuel + oxygen carbon dioxide + water vapour
13 a 128 b 64 c 32 d 16
14 a Combustion reactions need oxygen gas, are exothermic and produce heat (and usually light).
Products are carbon dioxide and water vapour (if complete). Corrosion reactions need a metal. The
metal reacts with something (it could be oxygen).
b Acid on most metals produce a salt and hydrogen gas. Acid on most carbonates produce a salt,
carbon dioxide and water.
c Photosynthesis and aerobic respiration involve the same chemicals and can be thought to be the
opposite of each other, Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction which requires carbon dioxide,
water and sunlight. It produces glucose and oxygen gas. It only happens in green plants because of
chlorophyll. Aerobic respiration is an exothermic reaction. It uses glucose and oxygen gas,
producing carbon dioxide and water vapour.
15 Chemical reactions rearrange atoms but never destroy, create or change the atoms themselves, i.e.
they remain the same elements. Chemical reactions involve electrons. Nuclear reactions involve the
nucleus. They can change the atoms themselves, changing them into different elements.
16 Many smoke detectors have a small alpha emitter in them.
18 a nitric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium nitrate + water
b ethane + oxygen gas carbon + carbon monoxide + water vapour
c calcium + water calcium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
19 Various answers possible.
Q1 D
Q2 C
Q3 C
Q4 C
Page 13
Chapter 3: Heat, light and sound

Unit 3.1
1 Water freezes at: 32 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale, 0 degrees on the Celsius scale and at 273
Kelvin.
2 a
b
c
d
Heat always flows from an object of higher temperature to one of lower temperature.
Insulators are poor conductors of heat.
Gases are poor conductors of heat.
On a warm day, a house is warmer upstairs because convection currents carry the heat upwards.
3 Any three insulators of: plastic, air, cloth, rubber, wool, polystyrene (or other alternatives)
4 As a solid is heated, its particles gain kinetic energy. This means that they vibrate more rapidly.
5 Particles in the metal rod near the source of the heat vibrate faster. These vibrations are passed on to
nearby particles, which also vibrate with increased kinetic energy. The transfer of heat occurs as
particles in contact transfer this kinetic energy along the metal rod.
6 The water in saucepans A and B absorb equal amounts of heat energy. As there are fewer water
particles in saucepan A, each particle absorbs more energy. This means these particles will vibrate
faster and their average kinetic energy, or temperature, is greater than that of saucepan B.
7 a Water is a poor conductor of heat.
b Being a poor conductor, this layer of water does not effectively transfer the body heat from the
wearer of the suit to the fabric of the wetsuit. This allows the wearer to stay warmer.
8 Warmer air released from the heating vents will rise, to a point where it cools and then falls as more hot
air rises to take its place. This process of convection heats up a room. If the vents were placed near the
roof, the room would still be warmed but the process would not be as effective.
9 Hair traps pockets of air close to your head. Air is a poor conductor of heat, and so minimises the heat
you lose from your head. In this way, hair is an effective insulator.
10 a, b
Particles gain kinetic energy when they are heated. This means that the individual particles of a solid,
liquid or gas vibrate faster when heated. This causes the particles to spread farther apart, so the
material expands.
11 a
b
c
d
e
Your feet get hot when you are walking on sand at the beach: conduction.
Your back feels warm when you are sitting in the sun: radiation.
You boil water in an electric kettle: convection.
You feel cold when you dive into a swimming pool: conduction.
You feel warm air as you walk into a school disco held in a hall: radiation and convection.
12 Heat is the total energy contained within a substance, whereas temperature is the average kinetic
energy of its particles.
13 a The water in bathtub A is at a higher temperature.
b The water in bathtub A has greater heat energy.
c Heat will be transferred to the bath itself, any objects floating in the bath and to the air surrounding
the bath.
14 Because water requires a large amount of heat energy to raise its temperature, the water inside the
balloon absorbed a large amount of the heat energy supplied by the flame in the experiment. This
energy absorption only increased the water temperature a little. In absorbing the heat energy supplied,
the latex of the balloon did not absorb sufficient energy to raise its temperature for combustion.
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15 Although the carpet and ceramic tiles are at the same temperature, the ceramic tiles are a better
conductor of heat than the carpet. Heat is conducted away from your feet, which are warmer than the
tiles. As a result, your feet feel this loss of heat as cold. Your feet are insulated from heat loss by the
carpet and feel warmer.
16 a The white car is the best choice.
b Lighter colours reflect more infrared radiation than darker colours, which absorb more radiation. The
white car should therefore have absorbed the least amount of infrared radiation and be slightly
cooler than the other two cars.
17 When a substance is heated its particles vibrate more rapidly and spread out. This causes the material
to expand. If normal glass is used to cook with, it will most likely expand to the point that will crack,
making it unsuitable for use in an oven.
18 a The student is comparing the amount of infrared radiation absorbed by a black surface and a white
surface.
b Variables to control include:
the size of cardboard used
the thickness of cardboard used
the distance between the cardboard and the light source.

c The thermometer behind the black cardboard will show the highest reading.
d Dark-coloured objects are better absorbers of radiation than light-coloured objects. Therefore the
thermometer behind the black cardboard is expected to show the highest temperature reading after
5 minutes.
19
20 a, b
Students will give different answers. The suit should be made from an insulating material of a
reasonable thickness and without gaps that would allow cool air through.
Unit 3.2
1 a
b
c
d
Sound is produced by vibrations: True

Regions of high air pressure are called rarefactions: False
A sound wave can travel in a vacuum: False
Waves at the beach are called transverse waves: True
Page 15
2 Hertz (Hz) is the unit used to measure the frequency of a sound wave.
3 Include any four of the following sources of hearing loss:
The ear canal is blocked with wax.
The middle ear is filled with fluid.
The eardrum has been ruptured.
Tiny hairs of the cochlea have been damaged.
The auditory nerve is defective.
4 Sound travels as a series of vibrating particles, and will travel faster in materials in which the particles
are closer together.
Particles in a solid are closer together than in a liquid, and so a sound wave will travel faster through a
solid than through a liquid.
5 a The eardrum vibrates in response to sound waves.
b Vibrations of the eardrum pass onto the ossicles. These tiny bones amplify or magnify the vibrations.
c Electrical impulses travel along the auditory nerve to the brain.
6 a The shortest straw produces the highest pitched sound.
b The longest straw produces sound with the longest wavelength.
c The shortest straw produces sound with the highest frequency.
7 If you were to hold a balloon to one ear and tap on the other side, you would hear the tapping sound
louder than if the balloon was not held on your ear. This happens because the tapping causes the
particles inside the surface of the balloon to vibrate. The vibrations pass through the air within the
balloon and make your eardrum vibrate at the same speed.
8 a The sound with the highest frequency is trace C.
b The sound with the lowest frequency is trace B.
c The loudest sound is trace A.
9 a The oboe is being played the loudest as it has the greatest amplitude.
b The oboe has sound of the lowest pitch as it has a slightly longer wavelength than the sounds
produced by the other instruments.
c The sound waves produced by the instruments have a regular repeating pattern as compared to
that of noise, which is a random variation.
10 a The pinna is shaped like a funnel to channel sound into the ear.
b Vibrations are converted into electrical signals inside the cochlea.
11 a From this graph, wool is the best absorber of high-frequency sound.
b i Concrete reflects the greatest proportion of sound of high or low frequencies.
ii Concrete is a hard substance and will reflect sound rather than absorb it.
c Sound energy absorbed by materials is converted into heat.
12 A speech recognition system would need to convert a persons voice to a trace on a device such as a
CRO. The particular quality of the sound produced due to specific shape and structure of the
individuals vocal tract, tongue and mouth mould need to be compared and then matched to a
prerecorded sample. If a match was found, then the person speaking would gain access to whatever is
being protected, such as the lock on a door.
13 a The bat and the beluga whale can hear the highest frequency sounds.
b The elephant can hear the lowest frequency sound.
c The bat and the beluga whale rely on hearing the reflection of ultrasound to determine the location
of objects. They need to have a hearing range higher than that of humans to detect this ultrahigh
frequency sound.
d A range of sound from 20 000 to 45 000 Hz would be audible to dogs but not to humans.
e The frequency range of a bat and a chicken do not overlap. They will not hear any sounds in
common.
Page 16
14
Unit 3.3
1 a i a ii e iii c iv b v d
b The law of reflection
2 An image formed by a plane mirror:
is upright (normal way up)
is the same size as the object
is laterally inverted
is virtual
appears to be located as far inside the mirror as the object is in front of it.
3 a Light is refracted away from the normal when it passes from glass into air.
b Light travels at a higher speed through air.
c Total internal reflection can only occur when light passes into a substance of lower refractive index.
4 a
b
c
d
The point at which distant rays meet, or appear to meet, is called the focus of a lens.
A virtual image cannot be produced on a screen or a sheet of paper.
A concave lens always produces diminished, upright, virtual images.
A convex lens produces a real image from a distant object.
5 a
b
c
d
Light entering the eye is refracted by the lens and the cornea.
To produce a clear image, light must be focused on the retina.
The image travels as a series of electrical signals along the optic nerve to the brain.
The aqueous humour is a clear fluid that lies between the cornea and the lens.
Page 17
6 If you doubled the distance between the candle and the glass in the science4fun, then the image would
now appear to be twice as far away than it was before.
7 As the rays of light leave the surface of the water, they bend away from the normal. A person looking
into the water will trace the path of these light rays back in a straight line. From this straight-line path,
the fish appears to be closer to the surface of the water than it actually is.
8 a Everything looks blurry if you open your eyes under water, because light enters your eyes from
water rather than from air.
b To see clearly, wear a pair of goggles or a mask so that water enters your eyes from a layer of air.
9 These pencils appear to be broken due to the refraction of light. For you to be able to see these pencils,
light travels from each pencil, upwards through the water then out of the water to the eyes of the
observer. (When viewed from the side, the light also passes through the glass on its way to the
observer.) Light travels in straight lines but when it leaves the water medium and enters the air, it
speeds up. When this occurs the light bends further away from the normal, or bends towards the
horizontal surface of the water. The observer traces the path of the incoming light back in straight lines
as though this refraction never occurred. As a result, the image of the object in the water (the pencils)
appears disjointed.
10 Refraction is the property of light that makes the coin reappear.
11 a
b
c
d
e
f
water to glass: towards

diamond to air: away
water to Perspex: towards
water to ice: away
glass to diamond: towards
air to Perspex: towards
12
a The normal is shown for rays A and C. Ray B hits the mirror at right angles, so the normal for ray B
lies in the same position as this ray.
b Rays A and C extend from the reflected rays as shown. Ray B is reflected back along the incident
path.
c The angle of reflection of ray B is zero. Ray C has the largest angle of reflection (as this angle is
measured to the normal, not to the surface of the mirror).
13 The convex lens used in the science4fun forms an image by focusing light to a point. When a screen,
such as a piece of paper, is placed at this point, the image is seen. The cornea of the eye, in a similar
way to the convex lens, forms an image by focusing light rays to a point. For a person with good vision,
these light rays form a point on the retina. Light-sensitive cells detect this information, which is
transmitted along the optic nerve to the brain and is interpreted as a image. The convex lens in the
science4fun is focused by moving closer to or further away from the object until a sharp image is found.
The lens in the eye focuses an object by getting fatter or thinner in shape to adjust the focus for objects
found at different distances.
Page 18
14 a
b
c
d
e
a basketballopaque
airtransparent
a pair of sheer pantihosetranslucent
shallow watertransparent
piece of lightweight cotton fabrictranslucent
15 When light enters a substance with lower refractive index, light bends away from the normal. As the
angle of incidence increases, so too does the angle of refraction, until it is 90, which is the critical
angle for light leaving this boundary. For any greater angles of incidence, light is totally internally
reflected. This situation cannot occur if light travels into a substance of greater refractive index,
because light is bent towards, not away from, the normal.
16 Light is refracted through a substance by a characteristic amount, depending on its refractive index.
The precise angle of refraction of light into this substance from air could be used to compare it to, and
possibly identify it as, a specific material in an investigation.
17 a
Page 19
18 a 60: Light is incident at an angle greater than the critical angle, so it is totally internally reflected.
b 48.6: Light is incident at the critical angle, so light is refracted along the surface of the water, at 90.
c 25: Light is incident at an angle less than the critical angle, so is refracted away from the normal.
19 a
20 cornea pupil aqueous humour lens vitreous humour retina. (From here it is converted into
electrical impulses and travels along the optic nerve to the brain.)
Page 20
Chapter review
1 The three processes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
2 Radiation
3 Sound travels fastest in a solid.
4 The middle ear consists of the ossicles (hammer, anvil and stirrup) and the eardrum.
5 The beam of light will be reflected at the same angle, 45.
6 In the daytime, land heats up more quickly than the sea. Hot air rises above the land and cooler air
takes its place. This produces a sea breeze.
7 We would expect that most infrared radiation that hits:
a a black plastic pot plant will be absorbed
b a white shade sail over a sandpit will be reflected
c a glass window on a boat will be transmitted.
8 All objects emit infrared radiation. The hotter an object is, the more infrared radiation it emits. Although
Kim cant see any flames, the coals of the open fire are extremely hot. These coals radiate intense
infrared radiation, which Kim feels as she sits nearby.
9 The pitch of a violin string is changed by the musician pressing on the string, making its effective length
shorter for different notes.
10 Angle x + 60 = 90 (as this is a right angle), so x = 30.
Angle y = 60 (by the law of reflection).
Angle z + 60 = 90 (as this is a right angle), so z = 30.
11 An image projected onto a screen is a real image.
12 a Strings vibrate.
b A column of air vibrates.
c The skin of the drum vibrates.
13 a Light travels faster in substances of lower refractive index, and so will travel faster through ice than
through Perspex.
b If light travels from ice into Perspex, it is travelling into a substance of greater refractive index and
will bend towards the normal.
14 Light is reflected by a periscope to allow sailors to see what is above the surface of the water.
Page 21
15 Light bends towards the normal when it leaves material X and enters material Y. This means material Y
has greater refractive index than material X.
16 a, b
Students attempt to answer the questions at the start of the chapter. Sample responses are listed
below:
A doona traps air pockets between its fibres. Air is an excellent insulator. This prevents heat from
escaping from your body and keeps you warm.
Sounds are produced by a mechanism that makes air vibrate. This could originate from a vibrating
string in a piano or guitar; a vibrating air column in a saxophone or flute, or a vibrating skin as in the
case of a drum.
Light entering your eye from air bends a different amount from light entering your eye from water. As
a result, you see a blurry image under water.
Diamonds are cut to maximise the total internal reflection of light incident upon them. This means
that light is reflected within the diamond and emerges back out, giving the diamond its sparkle.
Tiles are better conductors of heat than carpet. As a result, heat from your feet is transferred to the
tiles and you feel the loss of heat as a cold sensation.
Page 22
17 Light from the fish is refracted away from the normal as it emerges into the air from the water. As a
result, when a seagull traces the path of the light reaching it back into the water, the fish appears to be
closer to the surface than it actually is.
Q1 B
Q2 B
Q3 C
Q4 C
Page 23
Chapter 4: Electromagnetic radiation

Unit 4.1
1 a Wave motion is a transfer of energy without matter.
b Particles of a transverse wave vibrate at right angles to the direction of motion of the wave.
c The frequency of a wave is the number of waves produced every second.
2 a False
b True
3 This is a longitudinal wave.
4 a Amplitude is E
b Wavelength is B
5 If Julia and Skye halve the frequency of the sound waves produced, the wavelength will double in
wavelength.
6 Electric and magnetic fields interact to produce an electromagnetic wave.
7 Include any five from: gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation,
microwaves, radio waves
8 a 2.1 104
b 8.5 10-3
9 a To create a transverse wave, fans would need to move their arms up and down with each other in a
synchronised rhythmic fashion.
b To create a longitudinal wave, fans would need to sway from left to right in a synchronised rhythmic
fashion.
10 The frequency of Atahans tuning fork is higher than that of Hemas. This means that the sound from
Atahans tuning fork has a shorter wavelength than that of Hema.
11 Air around Nishas lips vibrates at the frequency of the sound that she has produced. As air particles
closest to her lips vibrate horizontally back and forth, air particles push against surrounding air particles
to make them also vibrate back and forth. The energy of the sound wave travels in this manner
outwards from Nishas lips. When vibrating air particles reach Sallys ear, she interprets this as sound.
12 Regions of compression are: A and D
Regions of rarefaction are: B, C and E
13 Pairs of letters that are spaced one wavelength apart: A and E; B and F; C and G
14 The wavelength is 30 cm.
15 Frequency is the number of paces per second. This is = 0.17 Hz.
16 a i Wave A: wavelength is 4 m, amplitude is 1 m.
ii Wave B: wavelength is 8 m, amplitude is 1 m.
b Wave A has higher frequency.
17 A sound wave requires a medium for transmission whereas an electromagnetic wave can travel
through a vacuum. The speed that a sound wave travels is dependent upon the medium through which
it is travelling and the temperature of the medium. This speed is far less than the speed of an
electromagnetic wave, which is a constant 300 000 000 km/s.
18 a i 1.0 1010 Hz: visible light
ii 1.0 1022 Hz: gamma rays
iii 1.0 1010 Hz: microwaves
Page 24
vi 1.0 106 Hz: radio waves

v 1.0 1016 Hz: ultraviolet light
b Gamma rays (ii above) have the greatest energy.
c Gamma rays (ii above) also have the shortest wavelength.
19 The energy of the wave is transferred across the ocean rather than the actual particles of water. Waves
that crash upon the shore will flow back into the ocean so there is no transfer of water away.
20 a, b
Wave A: amplitude 3 cm, wavelength 2 cm

Wave B: amplitude 2 cm, wavelength 6 cm.
Unit 4.2
1 a The colours of the visible spectrum are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
b When all the colours of the visible spectrum are shone together, white light is produced.
2 a Violet light has the shortest wavelength.
b Red light has the lowest frequency.
3 The three primary colours of the visible spectrum are red, green and blue light.
4 The three secondary colours are: magenta, cyan and yellow light.
5 A frog looks green because green light is reflected from its body into your eyes. White light contains all
colours of the rainbow. All colours except green are absorbed into the frog.
6 A black bowling ball absorbs all colours of the spectrum and reflects none. As a result, there is no light
being transmitted through the red filter, so Quentin sees the ball as black.
7 White materials reflect light that hits them. As a result, wearing white clothing will keep you cooler than
dark-coloured clothing, which absorbs light that hits it.
8 Light travels as a three-dimensional electromagnetic wave. A polarising filter only allows waves
vibrating in a particular direction through the filter and absorbs those vibrating in other directions. As a
result, less light hits your eyes when you are wearing polarised sunglasses and the amount of light
reflecting from objects into your eyes is reduced.
9 The three coloured inks used in a printer cartridge are magenta, cyan and yellow. A magenta print
reflects red and blue light, a yellow print reflects red and green light, and a cyan print reflects green and
Page 25
blue light. Combinations of these three printed inks produce the full visible spectrum as the various
combinations of the red, green and blue light are reflected from the paper. The black ink provides
contrast for the print.
10 a Red light is transmitted.
b Red light is transmitted.
c No light is transmitted.
11
12 a Yellow light is made up of red and green light. As a result, a green tree frog would look green under
a yellow light.
b When viewed under red or blue light, the frog will appear black.
13 When viewed in blue light:
i Su-Lin appears to be wearing a black top, blue pants and black shoes.
ii Sofia appears to be wearing a blue top, a black skirt and blue shoes.
14 Several answers are possible. For example:
Light undergoes interference when overlapping waves combine.
Light can be polarised. This happens because it travels as a three-dimensional wave.
Unit 4.3
1 a True
b False
c False
2 Three types of low energy electromagnetic waves are radio waves, microwaves and infrared radiation.
3 A natural source of radio waves is the Sun.
4 The typical wavelength of an AM radio signal is around 100 m.
5 The binary number system is used in digital communications.
6 Analogue signals suffer signal loss and interference compared with digital signals.
7 Bandwidth describes the amount of data a communication channel can carry.
8 Repeater towers are positioned 50 km apart.
Page 26
9 Many answers are possible. Devices listed in the student book are laptops, printers, mobile phones and
Nintendo Wii.
10 About 30 m indoors and 100 m outdoors.
11 AM radio waves are able to bend, or diffract, around large obstacles. As a result, they travel further
than FM waves.
12 Amplitude modulated means that the amplitude of a carrier wave is modulated, or altered, to send a
signal.
13 The signal is transmitted as pulses of light that are totally internally reflected.
14 A modem connects a computer to a telephone line and is able to convert a digital computer signal into
an analogue signal that the phone line transmits.
15 The reflection of light makes this possible.
16 Normal light consists of light of a range of frequencies and wavelengths. Laser light consists of light of
a single frequency and wavelength.
17 a In a number of carrier waves of different frequencies send different signals along the channel at the
same time. In TDM, data is broken up into smaller chunks and interwoven together. This is then
transmitted at a single frequency as a data stream.
b These techniques increase the bandwidth, or carrying capacity, of the communication channel.
18 A 600-pair copper cable: 600 conversations. Two 50-tube coaxial cables: 2700 conversations. A single
optical fibre: over 30 000 conversations.
19 Diagrammatic answer required. The diagram should be similar to Figure 4.3.3 on page 150 of the
Student Book.
20 Microwaves are absorbed by water, fats and sugars in food, causing the food molecules to vibrate and
heat up. The food may heat unevenly because some parts absorb microwaves better than others.
21 Coaxial cable and optic fibres are wrapped in a plastic jacket to limit signal loss through transmission
and to lessen the chance of interference.
Unit 4.4
1 X-rays are used to:
investigate the structure of objects
find flaws in metals
examine baggage using luggage scanning devices
produce diagnostic images.
2 Gamma rays are the dangerous rays that are produced in a nuclear explosion.
3 Your body produces vitamin D after some exposure to UV light.
4 To protect yourself from harmful UV radiation you can:
use a 30+ sunscreen
put on clothing that covers your skin
wear a hat
wear sunglasses
seek shaded areas when outside.
5 A Geiger counter detects gamma rays.

6 A thick sheet of lead or a concrete wall is required to stop the penetration of gamma radiation.
Page 27
7 To fluoresce means that an object absorbs UV light and emits visible light.
8 Some laundry products contain fluorescent particles that will absorb UV radiation and emit visible light.
In doing so, products washed in these powders appear brighter.
9 A patient is injected with small amounts of a short-lived radioactive material before having a PET scan
because the material emits gamma rays, which are detected by a PET scanner. The results can then
be converted into a three-dimensional image used for diagnosis.
10 Low to medium energy X-rays generated within the baggage scanning machine are directed onto a
persons luggage. These X-rays pass more easily through lower density materials than through higher
density materials. The variation in penetration of X-rays is used to construct a false colour image of the
contents of the luggage so that it can be checked for security compliance.
11 Infrared radiation has greater wavelength than ultraviolet radiation
12 a UVA has the longest wavelength.
b UVC has the highest frequency.
c UVC has the highest energy.
13 a As the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation decreases, its energy increases.
b Gamma radiation has very short wavelength. This is a high frequency radiation and has high energy
which can be very damaging to human cells. Radio waves have a long wavelength and are
harmless to human cells due to their low energy.
14 Individual student response required weighing up the relatively low radiation risks associated with the
use of full body scanners compared with the risk of a passenger concealing a weapon on an aircraft
flight.
15 a The purpose of radiotherapy is to target and kill cancer cells.
b Gamma rays kill cancer cells that they target but also kill healthy cells located nearby, resulting in
unwanted side effects.
16 Banks may use fluorescent ink for customers signatures. These can be checked using UV lamps as a
security measure.
Chapter review
1 Gamma radiation is emitted by radioactive materials.
2 An FM radio wave has wavelength of approximately 3 m.
3 AM radio waves are more likely to experience static than FM radio waves.
4 Red and blue light produce magenta light.
5 The frequency is 120 Hz.
6 Microwave radiation can be used to cook food or to transfer a communications signal.
7 a White paper, teeth whiteners and some laundry powders may have fluorescent particles added to
them.
b They are added to make the product appear brighter.
8 a Wi-Fi is a fast, wireless internet connection.
b Wi-Fi enables devices such as mobile phones, laptops and video games to be connected to the
internet. This could be handy when emailing or communicating from a remote location such as a
hotel or a caf, in looking for directions, when booking travel accommodation, playing a video game
against a person over the internet, or in a large number of other situations.
9 Initially, the waves were arriving every 5 seconds. This means that their initial frequency was 0.2 Hz.
After the waves sped up to arrive each second, their new frequency is 1 Hz. In other words, the
frequency of the waves is five times larger than it was originally.
Page 28
10 Huong sees Emily as wearing a red T-shirt, black shorts and a red cap. Callum sees her in a yellow
T-shirt, green shorts and a red cap.
11 Particles in a longitudinal wave vibrate in the same direction of motion as the wave itself. Particles in a
transverse wave vibrate at right angles to the direction of motion of the wave.
12 Infra means below. It follows then that infrared radiation is positioned below red in the electromagnetic
spectrum. Ultra means beyond. Ultraviolet light is positioned above violet in the electromagnetic
spectrum.
13 a
b
c
d
2 cm: microwaves
3 km: radio waves
0.0008 m: infrared radiation
0.000 000 3 m: ultraviolet radiation
14 The UV readings are rated:

a 2low
b 7high
c 12extreme.
15 The only colour that will still be reflected after pigment X and Y are mixed together is yellow, so you
would predict that your socks would end up being a shade of yellow.
16 Students will give different answers. For example: Without the invention of optical fibres, it would be
likely that modern communication channels would be slower and would have a much narrower
bandwidth.
17 The hexagonal region in which antennas receive and transmit a mobile phone signal is called a cell.
18 a, b
Students are asked to answer the questions posed at the beginning of the chapter. Sample answers
are:
X-rays can travel through human flesh but not bone. The variation in penetration through the body
enables an image to be created of part of the body that is radiated by X-rays.
Some objects contain phosphors. These phosphors absorb visible light which is later emitted, causing
the object to glow.
Night vision sensors detect infrared radiation (or heat). This enables the viewer to see humans and
other living creatures that emit heat even through darkness.
When you wear 3D glasses with a red and blue filter (or with two polarising filters), each eye receives a
slightly different image. Your brain combines these two images into a single three-dimensional image.
19
Page 29
Q1 C
Q2 C
Q3 B
Q4 D
Q5 D
Page 30
Chapter 5: Electrical energy

Unit 5.1
1 aii
Current measures the flow of charge passing through the circuit.
b-iii
Voltage measures the energy provided to or used by charges.
c-i
Resistance measures how difficult it is for charges to pass through a material.
3 The resistance of a material depends on:
the type of material the wire is made from
the length of the wire
the thickness of the wire.
4 Examples of:
a an electrical conductorany metal could be mentioned, such as copper, gold, iron
b an insulatorrubber, plastics, wood, glass and ceramics.
5 Metals that have:
a low resistancecopper, aluminium
b high resistancetungsten, nichrome alloy.
6 A transformer is a device that increases or decreases voltage.
7 Copper is cheaper but heavier than aluminium. Hence, copper is ideal for short lengths within a circuit.
High-voltage transmission lines stretch long distances and so need to be as light as possible. Hence,
aluminium is the better metal.
8 6 1.5 = 9 V
9 D (4 A)
10 B (1 A) Note that A (0 A) would be only possible if the resistance of the globe was so high that it
effectively made it an insulator.
11 A conductor has a low or relatively low resistance and so it lets an electric current pass through. An
insulator has such a high resistance that it blocks electric current.
12 An ammeter needs to be connected in series with the components of a circuit. A voltmeter is connected
parallel with the component it is measuring the voltage drop over.
13 a i
In this analogy, each individual car is an electron. Hence, the flow of cars down the road
represents electric current.
ii Resistance would be any blockage or change in road conditions that would restrict the number of
cars flowing down the road (such as roadworks, a broken-down car or an accident).
Page 31
b, c
i Traffic flow increases when the road widens with extra lanes. Similarly, replacing a globe with a
better conductor like copper will increase the flow of electrons down it. Therefore, current
increases.
ii Traffic flow stops (or is highly restricted) if an accident or a car breaks down on the road.
Similarly, replacing a globe with an insulator will block the path of electrons. Therefore, current
will stop.
14 a Amalgam filling has different metals in it. When touched by aluminium, a current can flow. This
causes the pain in your tooth.
b Builders need to use tools (e.g. screwdrivers) with insulated handles and wear boots/shoes with
insulating rubber soles. This should be enough to stop any small current that comes from the tools if
they contact different metals together, such as brass screws and steel roofing.
15 Some reasons:
Different batteries come in different shapes and sizes to allow them to fit various appliances.
Different batteries might have the ability to provide different currents/power.
Different batteries might have different functional livesthey might run out of charge at different
times.
16
17 ae
Page 32
Unit 5.2
1 Advantages of a series circuit:
easy to construct.
Disadvantages:
Every new globe that is added makes them all glow duller.
If one globe blows, all the others go out too. Hence, it is difficult to find the blown globe.
Each globe cannot be controlled independently by a switch.
2 In household wiring:
a active = brown
b neutral = blue
c earth = green and yellow.
3 A safety switch activates in 0.03 seconds.
4 If a home was wired in series, all appliances would need to be on at the same time. They would also
share the 240 V. None could be controlled independently. In a parallel circuit, each appliance can be
controlled independently by its own switch. Each also has 240 V to power it.
5
6 Electrocution is death by electricity.

7 Electrical faults can cause wires to carry too much current. This can make them overheat. This may
cause dust and fluff in the walls and roof around them to catch fire.
8 Safety switches detect whether the current in and out is the same or different. If different, this indicates
that current is leaking from somewhere in the circuit. The switch then turns off the current.
9 a
b
c
d
10 a
b
c
d
D: If another globe is added to a series circuit, then the globes shine less brightly.
A: If another globe is added to a parallel circuit, then the globes dont change.
B: If one globe in a series circuit blows, then the others dont light up.
A: If one globe in a parallel circuit blows, then the others dont change.
B: The current through globe A is twice the current through globe B.
A: The current through globe B is the same as the current through globe C.
B: The voltage across globe A is twice the voltage across globe B.
A: The voltage across globe B is the same as the voltage across globe C.
11 Similarities:
Both a fuse and a circuit breaker break the circuit if too much current is flowing through it.
Fuses and circuit breakers are both found in homes.
Differences:
A fuse melts to break the circuit; a circuit breaker switches off the circuit.
Nowadays, fuses are used only in cars and electronic equipment like music systems. Circuit
breakers are now used in new homes.
Page 33
12 Both a safety switch and a surge protector break a circuit when too much current flows through them. A
safety switch acts when a fault in the circuit causes this to happen. A surge protector does not detect a
fault but protects the circuit when it is hit by a surge in current from a lightning strike or something
similar.
13
14 Brightest: P; next brightest: N and O; dullest: K, L and M

15 a
b The current through ammeter Q is the total of all the branches:

2 + 3 + 6 = 11 A.
16 If a car had all its electrical components wired up in series, then all would need to operate at the same
time. None would be able to be controlled independently. If something blew, all would go out.
17 A current is passing through the saliva on your tongue. This causes your tongue to tingle.
18 a, b
Unit 5.3
1 a N/N: repel
b S/S: repel
c N/S: attract
Page 34
An electromagnet can be on or off (permanent magnets are always on).
The strength of the electromagnet can be altered (the strength of permanent magnets cannot be
adjusted).
The direction of the magnetic field of an electromagnet can be changed (the field of a permanent
magnet cannot be changed.
3 Electromagnets are used in automatic latches, larger electric motors, magnets to separate steel and
iron from rubbish, in electric bells, car starter motors and in circuit breakers.
4 Field lines around a magnet are made visible by sprinkling iron filings around it.
5 Toys do not need much power and so small permanent magnets provide sufficient magnetic field.
Power drills and hairdryers use electromagnets because they need more power. The magnets can also
be turned off when not in use.
6 For a current to be generated, the coil and magnet must move relative to one another. If there is no
movement, then there is no induced current. Hence, when the magnet is:
a pushed into the coil, current will be induced
b left stationary within the coil, current will not be induced
c pulled out of the coil, current will be induced (but flowing in an opposite direction to that in part a).
7 Electromagnetism
8 an electromagnet
9 a Similarities:
Both a solenoid and an electromagnet have a coil of wire.
Both require a current to pass down them.
Both create a strong magnetic field in their core.
Differences:
An electromagnet has an iron bar in its core, while a solenoid has none.
An electromagnet produces a stronger magnetic field than a solenoid.

b Similarities:
Both an electric motor and a generator have a coil of wire.
Both have a magnet (permanent or electromagnet).
Differences:
An electric motor uses current to produce spinning motion, while a generator uses spinning motion
to produce current.
10 A bike dynamo and a simple generator both use spinning motion to produce an electric current. In a
bike dynamo, the magnet is spun within a fixed coil. In a simple generator, the coil is spun within a fixed
magnet (or electromagnet).
11 Terms describing a motor only: needs electric current/produces movement
Terms describing a generator only: needs movement/produces electric current.
Terms describing both: uses a coil/uses a magnet.
Unit 5.4
1 a Advantages:
AC is suitable for industry and household appliances.
AC voltages can be boosted or dropped using transformers.
AC to DC conversion is easy using an electronic rectifier.
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AC motors are relatively simple.
AC power output is higher than from DC motors.
Energy lost in transmission is low because AC voltages can be boosted for transmission.
Disadvantages:
AC needs to be converted to DC before it can charge/recharge batteries.
b Advantages:
DC can be used to charge/recharge batteries.
Disadvantages:
DC is suitable for smaller appliances only.
DC voltages cannot be changed or transformed.
DC voltages must match the voltage required by the appliance.
DC to AC conversion is more difficult.
DC motors are more complex than AC motors.
DC motor power output is usually low.
Energy lost in transmission is high because DC voltages cannot be changed for transmission.
2 Flowing/falling water, tides, waves.

3 Burning fossil fuels, burning biomass, geothermal energy, nuclear energy and solar energy.
4 a 20 000 V
b 220 000 to 500 000 V
c 240 V
5 a Converting 240 V mains power to lower voltages for devices such as computers, TVs, battery
chargers, low-voltage lights.
b Boosting the voltage at the power plant before it is transmitted, and reducing the voltage to 240 V
before it reaches your home.
6 They are only 10% efficient; 90% of the electrical energy is wasted.
7 The water pouring from each hole will exert an equal and opposite force on the carton. This will cause it
to spin in a direction opposite to that of the water flows.
8 Energy loss is high if current is high. Transformers reduce the current (and energy loss) by increasing
voltage.
9 Use of renewable energy, more efficient and cleaner use of fossil fuels, transmission at higher voltages
and lower currents, more efficient electrical devices
10 Points that need to be considered about non-renewable energy resources:
heat released by the resource
efficiency of processes releasing energy from the resource
cost, location and availability of resource
amount of greenhouse gases released
other environmental impact.
11 a tablet computerDC
b washing machineAC
12 Most efficient = hydro (9095%), tidal (90%), fossil fuels (3540%), biomass (35%), nuclear (40%),
solar (20%), geothermal (15%), wave (8%) = least efficient
13 Most efficient = fluorescent, LED, compact fluorescent, low voltage halogen, mains voltage halogen,
incandescent = least efficient
14 A step-up transformer boosts voltages and reduces current. A step-down transformer reduces voltage
and boosts current.
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15 a A 100 W incandescent globe produces about the same amount of light as a 20 W compact
fluorescent. Hence, the fluorescent is = 5 times more efficient.
b A 40 W low-voltage halogen globe produces about the same amount of light as a 20 W compact
fluorescent. Hence the fluorescent is = 2 times more efficient.
16 a Australia
b i
= 2.8 times bigger
ii = 1.06 times bigger
17 Solar, wind and geothermal energy are renewable resources, so they will not run out even if they are
used inefficiently. Fossils fuels are not renewable and will eventually run out. The less efficiently they
are used, the faster they will run out.
18 Student answers will probably vary, depending on what they think is the most important aspect of
electricity generation.
19 a People are becoming aware of the probable link between greenhouse gases and climate change.
Government subsidies have encouraged the installation of wind farms and solar panels. After
installation costs are paid, solar panels provide effectively free power.
b The values and needs of society have always determined how much emphasis will be placed on the
different ways of generating electricity. For example, Australia and USA have always had plenty of
easily mined coal. Hence, power from coal was cheap and plentiful. In contrast, Japan has limited
fossil fuels and so uses nuclear power plants instead. New Zealand is on a fault line so parts of it
use readily available geothermal power. Changing values can also change power sources. For
example, after the Fukushima nuclear power plant was damaged by a tidal wave in 2011, Germany
decided to close their nuclear plants.
c New technologies must be developed as needs and values change. For example, coal power and
nuclear plants are being phased out in many parts of the world. Replacement technologies need to
be developed in their place. Also cleaner ways of burning coal and capturing released carbon
dioxide are being developed to allow coal to be continued to be used into the future.
20 Students should draw a diagram similar to Fig 5.4.10.
Chapter review
1 a
b
c
d
True
True
False
False
2 a Light globe
b Battery
c Switch
3 When an abnormally high current passes through:
a a fuse, it melts
b a circuit breaker, it opens a switch.
4 Resistance is measured in ohms ().
5 Advantages:
Coal is plentiful.
Coal is cheap.
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Disadvantages:
A power plant needs to be near mines, which may be a long way from where the power is needed.
The combustion of coal emits huge amounts of carbon dioxide, a known greenhouse gas.
Open-cut mines devastate the environment.
6 a Electrolyte: solution that conducts electricity

b Resistance: measures how difficult it is for a current to pass
c Solenoid: coil of wire through which a current flows to produce a magnetic field down its core
7
8 A wet cell is fine for a car because it can be locked into place under the bonnet. It is highly unlikely to
be tipped over (except in a major accident) and so is unlikely to leak. An iPod is tipped over repeatedly.
A wet cell would most likely leak its acidic electrolyte. Hence, a dry cell is more appropriate.
9 By connecting appliances in parallel, each gets the full 240 V supply and each can be controlled
independently. In series, the appliances would all need to be on or off and would need to share the
240 V supply voltage.
10 Voltage is boosted to reduce the current and therefore the energy lost in transmission over long
distances.
11 Laptops need 19 V, but the power point supplies 240 V. A transformer is needed to reduce the 240 V to
19 V.
12 Various answers are possible, such as a hairdryer, vitamiser, exhaust fan, air conditioner fan, vacuum
cleaner motor, washing machine motor and pump, etc.
13 a Renewable: solar, hydro, tides, wave, wind, geothermal, biomass
b Non-renewable: fossil fuels, nuclear
14 In AC electricity, the electrons continually change direction. In contrast, the electrons in DC electricity
always move in the same direction. The voltage varies continually in AC electricity. In contrast, the
voltage is constant in DC electricity.
15 Similarities:
Both turbines and dynamos generate electric current.
Both move a magnet and coils relative to one another.
Both generate using electromagnetism.
Differences:
Turbines are much larger than dynamos.
Turbines move a magnet within fixed coils while a dynamo moves coils within a fixed magnet.
16 a Various answers are possible. For example, students on the coast might mention waves or tides
while students inland might be more likely to mention solar or wind power.
b Justification will depend on their area.
17 a, b
Students will give different answers.
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18
Q1 D
Q2 B
Q3 D
Q4 D
Q5 A
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Chapter 6: Body coordination

Unit 6.1
1 a Diffusionoxygen moves from the lungs into the bloodstream
b Digestionfood is broken down into molecules small enough for the body to use
c Cellular respirationenergy is released from glucose
2 a Metabolism: the chemical processes that maintain life
b Enzymes: chemicals that speed up the rate of reaction
c Diffusion: the movement of particles of a substance from an area of high concentration of that
substance to an area of low concentration of that substance
d Reactant molecule: a molecule that is going to be changed by a chemical reaction
3
4 Epinephrine (adrenalin) causes the changes in your body when you are frightened.
5 The complex molecules such as proteins cannot be used by the body because they are too large to
pass by diffusion from the digestive system into the cells. Amino acids are simpler chemical substances,
small enough to pass through the thin walls of the villi lining the small intestine, through the thin walls of
capillaries and into the bloodstream.
6 a The cycle of the heartbeat is initiated by the sino-atrial node (SA node) or pacemaker. It sets the
rhythm for all the other cardiac muscle. The AV node picks up the stimulus from the SA node, then
sends signals through the conducting fibres stimulating both ventricles to contract.
b When the heart is fibrillating, the muscles of the ventricle are twitching spasmodically rather than
contracting in a coordinated way.
c Fibrillation usually causes death. Defibrillators are used in an attempt to restore the hearts natural
rhythm and save the persons life.
7 The model represents each enzyme as having a particular shape that allows it to attach only to a
specific molecule. Therefore the enzyme can only be part of
a reaction that involves that molecule.
8 a The villi greatly increase the surface area of the small intestine. This means that essential nutrients
can be absorbed more quickly and efficiently.
b The nutrients enter the bloodstream and are carried away. The concentration gradient between the
nutrients in the intestine and the bloodstream is maintained therefore the nutrients will continue to
move from the intestine into the bloodstream.
9 Students own diagrams
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10 a
11 In one group, complex molecules are broken down into smaller parts. The other group of chemical
reactions includes those that build simple chemical substances into complex molecules.
12 a, b
The digestive system changes the food into simple chemical substances. The circulatory system
carries the nutrients from the digestive system to the cells where they are used.
13 a The reactions will occur only when the enzyme is present. There the body can control when the
reaction occurs by only producing the enzyme at particular times.
b If enzymes could catalyse any reaction there would be chaos, with reactions occurring
uncontrollably.
14 If diffusion was the only process moving substances around the body, all body functions would occur a
lot more slowly. Large organisms such as humans would not be able to function as they do now
because they would not be able to get the oxygen and nutrients into their cells quickly enough to
release energy for the level of activity they currently maintain.
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Wastes would leave the cells more slowly and therefore there would have to be a greater tolerance of
toxic wastes in cells. Organisms that survive without a circulatory system are usually very small and
live in a watery (or very moist) environment where materials can diffuse directly from the environment
into most cells of their body. Similarly, wastes can diffuse in the opposite direction.
15 SA node stimulates muscle fibres of atrium walls atria contract simultaneously tissue between the
atria and the ventricles is stimulated stimulus is detected by the AV node signal is sent through
conducting fibres to the ventricles ventricles contract simultaneously
16
17 a, b, c
The diagram should show food moving through the digestive system, with starches being converted to
glucose. In the small intestine, glucose moves into the circulatory system. The circulatory system
carries the glucose to the cells. Within the cells the glucose moves by diffusion to the mitochondria.
The respiratory system takes oxygen into the body. The oxygen is carried by the circulatory system to
the cells. Within the cells the oxygen moves by diffusion to the mitochondria. Within the mitochondria,
chemical reactions of cellular respiration take place that release energy, making it available to the body.
Unit 6.2
1 The three main parts of a neuron are dendrites, cell body and axon.
2 The central nervous system is comprised of the brain and spinal cord.
3 The myelin sheath is the layer of insulation found on nerves.
4 Target cells respond to hormones.
5 Any three from: pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovary,
testis, thymus
6 Homeostasis: the process of maintaining a relatively constant internal environment in the human body
7 a The dendrites receive messages from other nerve cells then send them on to the cell body.
b Dendrites are finely branched therefore can be in contact with many nerve cells.
8 A neurotransmitter is a chemical that carries the message (nerve impulse) from the axon of one neuron
to the dendrite of the next neuron.
9 The endocrine system is a communication system in the body. Chemicals are used to send messages
from one part of the body to another. Hormones are the chemical messengers. They are produced in
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the endocrine glands that make up the endocrine system.

10 a The hypothalamus is the link between the nervous system and the endocrine system.
b It is a portion of the brain and is made up of nerve tissues. It secretes hormones that act on the
pituitary gland. Therefore it has characteristics of both the nervous system and the endocrine
system.
11
12 A, pituitary gland; B, adrenal glands; C, pancreas

13 Both types of neuron carry nerve impulses within the body. Sensory neurons carry impulses to the CNS
from receptors. Motor neurons carry messages from the CNS to effectors.
14 A stimulus is information received by the body detected by receptors. A response is what the body
does as a result of the information. It is carried out by effectors.
15 Receptors receive information from the environmentthe stimulus. Effectors put into action the
response of the body to the stimulus.
16 a Both systems are involved.
b There is a time delay between moving into a dark room and being able to see in the dim light. This
suggests that there is a chemical component to the reaction. When moving from dim light to bright
light the eyes close immediately. This would be a nervous system response.
17 The answers depend on the model constructed and materials used.
Unit 6.3
1 Pain receptors, temperature receptors, pressure receptors
2 Parasympathetic nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system
3 Creative activities such as musical and artistic ability. Also, emotions are controlled by the right side.
4 The cerebrum controls conscious thought and the intentional (voluntary) movement of every body part.
It also receives sensory messages from all body parts.
5 Sympathetic nervous system
6 Receptors have nerve endings that detect changes in the environment. The stimulus is the actual
change that is detected by the receptors.
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7 The left hemisphere of the brain controls the right side of the body.
8 Most of the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems could be used as
examples.
9 The somatic nervous system collects information about the surroundings through sensory organs.
10 The body functioning is changed so that it is better able to deal with a stressful situation or flee from the
situation.
Diverting blood away from the digestive tract and the skin, and stopping peristalsis means that more
blood is available to carry oxygen to the muscles.
The bronchioles are opened allowing more oxygen to enter the lungs, blood flow to the lungs is
increased and the heart rate is also increased. This will take the extra oxygen into the body. Blood
flow to the muscles is increased making more oxygen available for respiration to release energy for
use by the muscles.
The pupils of the eye dilate improving distance vision.
There is increased blood flow to the heart to supply the heart muscle with the oxygen and therefore
energy it needs to beat faster.
11 A, lens; B, optic nerve; C, cornea

12 a A
b The effector would be muscles of the arm and hand.
13 The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for action. The parasympathetic nervous system
prepares the body for rest.
14 Both rods and cones are receptors found in the retina of the eye. Rods detect dim light and are
responsible for night vision. Cones work in bright light and detect colour. They are responsible for
colour vision.
15 People who are colour blind have fewer cones than people with normal vision.
16 With only a sympathetic nervous system the body would be able to respond to a stressful situation and
be prepared for action. Without a parasympathetic system the body would never come back to a
normal or resting situation. It would always be in the alert mode.
17 The brain stem or medulla is in the lower part of the brain at the top of the neck. The medulla is
responsible for the vital functions of the body such as breathing and heart rate. Damage to the neck
could damage the medulla and stop these vital functions.
18 If damage to the neck has not damaged the medulla, vital functions can continue. If the spinal cord is
damaged above the region where the nerves leading to the arms and legs branch out, then no signals
from the brain will reach the limbs and they will be unable to move.
19 The pattern of activity of a normal brain can be compared to the patients brain activity. If the pattern is
different, there is a possibility that the patients brain is not functioning normally.
20 The answers depend on the model constructed and materials used.
Unit 6.4
1 Insulin and glucagon control glucose levels in the blood.
2 Endothermic: having a relatively constant body temperature
3 a Antidiuretic hormone controls the amount of water in urine.
b Insulin controls the level of glucose in the blood.
c Epinephrine (adrenalin) controls your response to fear.
4 a The hypothalamus controls the action of the pituitary gland.
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b Antidiuretic hormone controls the amount of water in urine. This in turn influences the colour. Large
amounts of water produce light-coloured urine. Little water produces dark urine.
5 Sweating is an efficient way for the body to lose heat because it takes a lot of heat to evaporate a small
amount of water. One litre of evaporated sweat removes about 209 kJ of heat from the body.
6 a Chemical reactions within the body will only occur within a narrow range of temperatures.
b Sweating is where a liquid that is mostly water moves out to the skin. As it evaporates, heat is
removed from the body. Dilation of blood vessels in the skin allows heat carried in the blood to be
lost through the skin.
c Constriction of blood vessels in the skin reduces the amount of heat lost from the blood through the
skin. Shivering increases the level of activity and therefore the level of heat production in the body.
Increased metabolic rate increases the level of heat production in the body.
7 Your blood would be filtered 33.6 times each day.
8 Similarities in the ways that glucose levels and temperature are controlled:
Both are controlled by the endocrine system.
Both involve feedback systems.
Differences:
Temperature is controlled by both the nervous and endocrine system; glucose is controlled by the
endocrine system alone.
The hypothalamus detects changes in body temperature; the pancreas detects changes in glucose
levels.
9 Hormones are specific to a task. One hormone is required to stimulate the conversion of glucose into
glycogen. A different hormone is required to stimulate the conversion of glycogen back into glucose.
10 a There would be higher concentrations of salt in the urine.
b The urine would have a lower percentage of water.
c There should be no difference.
11 Glucose is the bodys source of energy. The energy source is conserved within the body.
12 When the hypothalamus detects that the body temperature is decreased, it produces hormones that
cause an increase in the level of production of other hormones. When the hypothalamus detects that
the body temperature is normal, the level of the hormone production can be cut back. If the body
temperature is rising above the desired level, hormone production could be cut further. Therefore there
is no need for additional hormones.
13 a The graph should show a sharp increase in the glucose level, then a slower decrease back to
normal level.
b The levels rise as digested glucose passes from the digestive system into the bloodstream. The
levels are gradually brought down again as the pancreas produces insulin and glucose is converted
to glycogen.
14 Fear response triggered by sympathetic nervous system production of epinephrine by adrenal
glands
(1) blood vessels constrict, increasing blood pressure; (2) heart rate increases;
(3) air passages open.
Chapter review
1 The pituitary gland is the 'master gland'.
2 Central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
3 a Circulatory system
Page 45
b Respiratory system
c Excretory system
4 Proteins are complex chemical substances that are broken down in the digestive system into amino
acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.
5 a Within the body there are thousands of chemical reactions taking place, related to all body activities.
All these reactions combined together are known as metabolism.
b Homeostasis is the process of maintaining a constant internal environment.
6 a Digestive systembreaks the complex chemical substances in food into simple substances that can
be used by the body.
b Respiratory systembrings oxygen into the body for cellular respiration and removes waste carbon
dioxide from the body.
c Excretory systemremoves wastes from the body.
d Nervous systemgathers information about the external and internal environments and controls the
functioning of the body by sending messages to effectors to respond appropriately to the stimuli.
e Endocrine systemproduces and releases hormones that are chemical controls within the body.
f Circulatory systemcarries materials around the body to where they can be used or disposed of.
7 a The pacemaker initiates the heartbeat.
b If the pacemaker stopped working, the heart would not beat.
8 Examples of diffusion include:
Oxygen moves into the blood from the alveoli.
Carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the alveoli.
Water and glucose along with useful salts are returned to the blood from the kidney tubules.
Nutrients move from the small intestine into the blood. Water moves from the large intestine into the
blood.
9 a Enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions in living things.

b Enzymes are specific to a reaction and there are many different chemical reactions needed to keep
us alive.
10 Diffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration. When you inhale, the concentration of oxygen in the alveoli of the lungs becomes higher
than in the blood, so oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood. It also makes the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the alveoli lower than it is in the blood, so carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into
the alveoli.
11 If the air temperature in a room rises above a pre-set value, a reverse cycle air conditioner blows out
cold air. If it falls below the set value, warm air is blown out. This is an example of negative feedback,
where the output (e.g. cold air blown out) acts in the opposite direction to the input (air warming up).
12 a The heartbeat and breathing rate both increase.
b The autonomic nervous system and circulatory systems cause the changes.
c Receptors in the carotid artery and aorta detect an increase in blood CO2 concentration caused by
an increase in cellular respiration. They send a message to the medulla, which controls breathing
and heart rates. The autonomic nervous system then stimulates the heart to beat faster, increases
the blood flow to the heart, and directs blood to the muscles and other tissues where it is needed
most. It also triggers sweating to regulate the body temperature.
d The changes enable the extra energy demands during exercise to be met while maintaining a safe
body temperature.
13 The digestive system depends on the circulatory system to carry nutrients away from the exchange
surfaces in the villi so that diffusion can continue to move nutrients into the body. It also depends on
the respiratory system for the oxygen needed to produce the energy used during digestion. The liver
treats wastes before they reach the kidneys in preparation for excretion. The lungs get rid of waste
carbon dioxide through the lungs.
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14 a The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for action. The parasympathetic nervous
system prepares the body for rest.
b Once effectors have been stimulated, the parasympathetic nervous system sends messages to
switch off the response by the sympathetic nervous system.
15 a i
True ii False iii True iv False
b ii The peripheral nervous system is made up of the nerves that carry messages to and from the
CNS and other parts of your body.
iv The liver treats wastes before they reach the kidneys in preparation for excretion. The lungs get
rid of waste CO2 through the lungs.
16 a Students will give different answers.
b Students will give different answers.
17
Q1 C
Q2 A
Q3 C
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Chapter 7: Disease
Unit 7.1
1 The general name for bacteria that cause disease is pathogens.
2 The bodys immune system fights disease.
3 Any two of: whooping cough, tetanus, diphtheria, impetigo (school sores), pneumococcal disease,
meningococcal disease, typhoid fever
4 Antibiotics kill bacteria.
5 Whooping cough, tetanus and diphtheria
6 A disease is anything that prevents the body from functioning normally.
7 Water is lost from the body when you vomit or have diarrhoea.
8 Vaccines are made by inactivating the poison produced by bacteria or using weak or dead bacterial
cells.
9 Vaccination causes your body to react in the same way as it would to the pathogen. If you are exposed
to the pathogen later, your body can quickly make antibodies to destroy the pathogen.
10 Being immune to a disease means that you will not become ill from that pathogen.
11 Washing your hands gets rid of bacteria such as Salmonella enteridis that may have got onto your
hands.
12 a Infectious diseases can be spread from one person to another. A contagious disease is an
infectious disease that is spread very easily.
b Antibiotics kill the bacteria that are making you sick. Vaccination prevents you from getting sick.
13 If you are exposed to a pathogen, your body produces antibodies that destroy the pathogen, and you
then have immunity to that pathogen. A vaccine causes your body to respond in the same way without
you having to get sick.
14 a This is not reasonable. The diseases are rare only because they are controlled by immunisation.
b You should recommend that they be immunised to protect themselves and the rest of the
community.
15 The cook did not wash his or her hands before handling food. Fruit or vegetables were not washed
adequately. Dishes or cutlery were handled by someone whose hands were not clean.
16 Bacteria on the benches could get into food that is prepared there and cause illness.
17 Diagrams should show vaccination, response of lymphocytes, exposure to Clostridium tetani, rapid
production of antibodies, and destruction of the pathogen.
18 Student response. The poster should show how the pathogen can enter the body, the symptoms of
tetanus and how they are caused, and how vaccination prevents the disease.
Unit 7.2
1 Any two of: colds, flu, measles, mumps, rubella, warts, polio, cold sores (herpes), chicken pox
2 Plasmodium, a protist, causes malaria.
3 Fungi disperse using spores.
4 A virus can only reproduce inside the cell of a living thing, the host.
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5 The Plasmodium that causes the disease is spread by mosquitos. When a person is bitten,
Plasmodium from the mosquito can enter their blood and multiply there. This can be passed on to
another mosquito that bites them and sucks out blood, and that mosquito can then bite another person
and infect them.
6 The cold virus is spread by droplets in the air from coughs and sneezes.
7 Vaccines only work against known strains of the flu virus. Viruses change rapidly. A person will get sick
if they are infected with a new strain of the flu virus.
8 a Viruses are not affected by antibiotics.
b Antibiotics are prescribed to treat a secondary infection caused by bacteria.
9 The Aboriginal population had no immunity to the disease.
10 Diagrams should show that the spores from the infection fall onto the floor and are picked up on the
feet of another person walking in the same area.
11 Bacteria are living single-celled organisms. Viruses are many times smaller than a bacterium and can
only multiply within a host organism. They cannot live independently.
12 Flu develops more quickly than a cold.
Flu causes a higher temperature.
Flu causes body aches and cold does not.
A cold causes the nose to run more than the flu.
13 Over 2.5 million people die from malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases. Very few people are killed
by sharks, crocodiles and lions.
14 a Kai was more accurate.
b Plasmodium causes malaria. The mosquitos only spread the Plasmodium.
15 By covering skin, using insect repellent, putting screens on windows and doors, using a mosquito net
when sleeping, clearing away standing water where mosquitoes could breed.
16 New strains of the cold virus appear every year. Vaccines can only be made against known strains of
virus.
17 Fungal spores are very small and lie dormant until conditions are favourable for their germination.
18 Student response. A scenario for viruses might include: covering your mouth and nose when you
cough or sneeze, not sharing personal items, avoiding contact with infected people, staying at home if
you are sick, vaccination. A scenario for fungal infections might include: not walking barefoot, avoiding
contact with people with infections, maintaining good hygiene, not sharing towels, washing towels
separately, cleaning showers regularly.
Viruses:
Cover your mouth when you cough or sneeze.
Dont share personal items.
Avoid close contact with others.
If you are sick, stay at home so that you do not infect other people.
Fungal infections:
Dont walk barefoot.
Avoid physical contact with others.
Wash hands frequently and always after touching the affected area.
Dont share towels.
Launder your towels and bed sheets separately.
Clean the shower after use.
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Unit 7.3
1 Protein, carbohydrate, lipid (fats and oils), minerals and vitamins are required in any diet.
2 a
b
c
d
Vitamins control the chemical reactions in the body.

Calcium is required for strong bones and teeth.
Iron is needed as part of haemoglobin in the red blood cells.
Protein is required for growth and repair.
3 a Scurvy and rickets are diseases caused by lack of vitamins.

b Scurvy is caused by a lack of vitamin C; rickets is caused by a lack of vitamin D.
4 a Diet is what you eat and drink.
b Malnutrition occurs when the nutrition provided by diet does not meet the needs of the body.
c A chronic disease lasts for a long time.
5 Water is required because all the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in the watery
environment of the cells. Water is also an essential component of blood.
6 The Australian Guide to Healthy Eating provides guidance on what to eat and how much to eat in a
healthy diet.
7 Having a diet low in vitamin D, not going outside very often, or overusing sunscreen or using sunscreen
with a very high SPF
8 a The change in overweight boys between 1985 and 200708 was about 8%.
b From 1995 to 200708, the rate of overweight girls increased more rapidly than the rate of
overweight boys.
From 1995 to 200708, the rate of obesity in girls increased from about 15.5% to about 17.5%. In
the same time, the rate of obesity in boys increased from about 15% to 16%.
9 Too much salt causes high blood pressure, which could cause a stroke or heart attack.
10 It can take more than 50 years for the symptoms of mesothelioma to develop.
11 In over-nutrition the body is supplied with too much of one or more nutrients. In under-nutrition the body
does not get enough of one or more nutrients.
12 Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens, whereas non-infectious diseases are not. Non-infectious
disease may be caused by diet, inheritance or environment, including lifestyle.
13 a The number of people suffering from this disease does not change with age.
b The flat line means that type 1 diabetes is probably an inherited disease, therefore people are born
with it. It may take a few years for the disease to develop fully and to be diagnosed hence the
increase in numbers from 019 years. There are fewer people in the older age groups with the
disease as people usually die over the age of about 75.
c The 40- to 75-year-old age groups are the most significantly affected by type 2 diabetes.
d The peak of the graph will include younger age groups.
e A much smaller percentage of the population have the disease because it is an inherited disease
and not related to lifestyle.
14 Large amounts of food eaten energy released energy stored as fat weight gained
Chapter review
1 Two of: bacteria, viruses, fungi, Plasmodium.
2 Two diseases caused by single-celled organisms other than bacteria are amoebic dysentery and
malaria.
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3 Tinea and thrush are caused by fungal infections.

4 a Scurvy is caused by a lack of vitamin C.
b Kwashiorkor is caused by a lack of protein.
5 Washing your hands removes harmful bacteria and fungal spores that you may have picked up.
6 Viruses can be spread by coughing or sneezing, sharing personal items and close contact with others.
7 Contagious diseases are caused by bacteria or viruses that can be spread from one person to another.
An example is measles. An example of a non-contagious disease is scurvy, which is caused by a lack
of vitamin C.
8 Vaccination gives people immunity to the disease. Fewer people contract the disease and therefore
there are fewer people to transmit it to others.
9 They are the first parts of the body exposed to pathogens. They help prevent the pathogens from
entering the body.
10 Neutrophils are white blood cells in the bloodstream that attack and destroy pathogens. Macrophages
are white blood cells in the lymph glands that attack and destroy pathogens. Lymphocytes are white
blood cells in the lymph glands that make antibodies against the pathogens.
11 The virus that causes chickenpox can remain dormant in the body. If it becomes active again it causes
shingles instead of chickenpox.
12 Malnutrition can be caused by eating too much or not enough, even if the diet is good.
13 Blood pressure is the pressure that the blood exerts on the walls of the arteries.
14 With the amount of sunlight in Australia, most children should be able to manufacture the amount of
vitamin D required to prevent rickets.
15 Water is an important part of any diet because your body is more than 60% water. All the chemical
reactions of metabolism take place in the watery environment of your cells, and the water in the blood
carries nutrients around the body to where they are used.
16 Exposure to asbestos fibres can cause a form of cancer called mesothelioma.
17 a The organism that causes amoebic dysentery may be on the surface of the fruit but would not be
inside the outer skin. Removing the skin would remove any pathogens.
b The spores of tinea could be wiped onto a towel used by an infected person. Sharing that towel
could result in you picking up the spores and getting the infection.
c You can only get malaria if you are bitten by an infected mosquito. Preventing mosquito bites
prevents malaria.
18 Amoebic dysentery could occur in Australia in areas where there is poor sanitation or after disasters
such as floods that cause a disruption to sewage treatment or to sewerage systems.
19 Both are white blood cells that attack and destroy pathogens. Neutrophils are in the bloodstream.
Macrophages are in the lymph glands.
20 Things that cause disease: pathogens; viruses; Plasmodium
Things that are part of the immune system: macrophages; neutrophils; skin; nose hairs; gastric juices
21 As you grow you increase your height. The amount of bone and muscle in your body increases as well
as the size and weight of your internal organs. The amount of fat in the body will also increase but as a
percentage of body mass it will remain within a healthy range. A person who gains weight and
becomes overweight does not increase in height. Their skeleton remains the same. The extra weight is
in the form of fat both under the skin and around internal organs.
22 The viruses that cause flu change very quickly and the antibodies that the body can make are not
effective against them and cannot prevent disease. The polio virus does not change and the antibodies
made as a result of the vaccination are still effective against the virus years later.
23 a A chronic disease is a disease that lasts for a long time.
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b An infectious disease could be described as a chronic disease when an infection cannot be treated
or does not respond to treatment and remains within the body for a long time.
25
Q1 B
Q2 C
Q3 D
Q4 C
Q5 C
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Chapter 8: Ecosystems
Unit 8.1
1 The living organisms, the physical surroundings and all the living and non-living factors that make up
the environment are main components of any ecosystem.
2 Any five of: water, air quality, the amount of light, temperature, wind, soil type, humidity of the air, tides,
waves, lightning and fires
3 a
b
c
d
Environment: all the factors in an organisms surroundings that affect its survival
Ecology: the study of how organisms interact with each other and with their non-living surroundings
Parasitism: relationship where one organism lives on or in another organism and feeds off it
Commensalism: relationship where one organism benefits and another organism is unharmed
4 Mineral content, water-holding ability and acidity

5 The clay particles in loam soils hold on to minerals, but sand particles do not. Fertiliser can drain
through the sandy soil and be lost to the plants.
6 Fish that are thin and have a small surface pushing on the water as they fall (streamlined) will drop
faster.
7 Abiotic factors such as temperature and rainfall change with seasons, and this affects biotic factors
such as plant growth and therefore animal food sources. Changes In these biotic and abiotic factors
affect the rates of birth, death, immigration and emigration.
8 Birds and mammals can generate heat within their bodies and control the loss of heat. So, in cold
climates, they can still be active. Reptiles rely on gaining heat from their surroundings, so if the
surroundings are cold, the reptile stays cold and inactive.
9 Some species, such as grass trees, flower more readily after a fire. Some plants release their seeds or
germinate only after a fire.
10 Anemones are related to jellyfish, and have stinging tentacles. They kill small animals and eat them.
The clownfish are immune to the stings and feed on the anemones leftover food, and receive
protection from predators.
Some species of clownfish scare away butterfly fish, which can eat anemones, therefore the
relationship is mutualism.
One type of clownfish catches small fish and drags them over to the anemone. The anemone stings
the small fish and kills them. Both the clownfish and the anemone then feed on the dead fish. Both
benefit, so once again the relationship is mutualism.
Some species of anemones may neither benefit nor be harmed by the clownfish. Only the clownfish
is benefiting, and so the relationship is one of commensalism.
11 A eucalypt depends on abiotic factors, such as sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, to make food by
photosynthesis. A eucalypt depends on biotic factors such as birds eating insects which were feeding
on leaves, and on birds and insects to pollinate flowers.
12 a A community is part of an ecosystemthe living organisms. The rest of the ecosystem includes the
non-living surroundings as well as all the biotic and abiotic factors that affect organisms.
b Abiotic factors are those factors affecting organisms that are due to the non-living environment, i.e.
the physical factors such as sunlight.
Biotic factors are those due to the living organismsthe habits and lifestyles of the organisms such
as how they obtain food (e.g. predation) and where they live.
c A predator (such as a fox) kills and eats organisms (such as rabbits) that are known as its prey.
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d A parasite is an organism that lives on or in another organism (known as the host) and obtains food
from the body of that organism.
13 a Student responses will vary.
b A kangaroo may have some similar biotic factors such as parents, plants for oxygen, but it would not
have other kangaroos that raise food and cure illness. However, it will have strong males to defend
the family, experienced animals which can locate foods, etc. The abiotic factors would be similar to
humans-sunlight, rainfall and temperature would affect food plants, temperature affects amount of
disease causing bacteria and fungi, fires could affect kangaroo survival, wind affects amount of
pollen and dust in the air (affects breathing of asthmatics). Hunters trying to kill kangaroos for sale
or food would be different from human factors. Answers will depend on the factors discussed in
part a.
14 Birds and mammals are endothermic; reptiles and frogs are ectothermic. The Arctic and Antarctica are
extremely cold and would be a difficult place for an animal to live if it could not produce its own heat.
Reptiles and frogs would find it extremely difficult to find a place where they could absorb heat from the
surroundings. Their body temperatures could fall to freezing and they could freeze to death.
15 Effects of five abiotic factors on plants in beach sand dunes and plants in a rainforest:
Temperatureless variable and probably lower during day in the rainforest
Humidityfairly stable and high in rainforest, variable and often low in sand dunes
Soil moisturemore stable in rainforest, variable in sand dunes
Sunlightrainforest floor has little light whereas sand dunes have long hours of direct sunlight
Windlittle in rainforest, especially at ground level; very windy at sand dunes
16 a Humans are endothermic.
b Humans have a constant body temperature of about 37C.
17 a, b
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18 Mosses are more common in moist, shady habitats. In Australia the southern side of a tree is usually
the shadier side.
19 Crayfish avoid the light (including moonlight) because it is easier for predators to see them.
20 Many experimental designs are possible.
Unit 8.2
1
sunlight
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen

chlorophyll
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

2 Producers make the food for an ecosystem.
3 The ants will eventually find the sugar water and drink it and their abdomens will swell up.
4 Photosynthesis is the process that produces most of the food in nearly all ecosystems (apart from a
few ecosystems that are based on chemosynthesis, such as around black smokers at the bottom of
the ocean).
5 Decomposers break down dead bodies and wastes and recycle material for the producers to re-use.
They are vital to keep the ecosystem functioning or it will run out of resources.
6 Energy enters an ecosystem as sunlight. This is then converted by plants into chemical energy
contained in food materials. Plants then use this food to make new cells, or they use it in respiration.
Most of it is used in respiration. There are further energy losses along food chains.
7 a Biodiversity means the range of different species in a community.
b High biodiversity means a large number of different species in an ecosystem. Having many different
species makes an ecosystem more stable and less likely to be affected by environmental changes.
8 Biodiversity means the range of different species in a community.
9 Fencing off unused vegetation may stop stock animals eating and trampling vegetation that provides
habitat, including food sources for native animals.
Planting trees native to the area will provide familiar habitat for the local native animals.
Leaving old trees will provide shelter and nesting sites for animals.
Corridors of vegetation allow animals to move around from one area to another by providing cover and
resources for them. This helps them find resources such as food, to find mates.
10 a Honeyeater, Jacky winter, rainbow bee-eater
b Praying mantis, wasps
11 a If you eat beef, you are a second order consumer.
b If you eat an apple, you are a first order consumer.
12 The food chain:
eucalypts bee rainbow bird peregrine falcon will look something like the pyramid of biomass
shown.
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13 1 energy unit
14 a The bee population will decrease with the reduction of their food sourcenectar from the flowers.
b The honeyeater population will decrease because their food sourcesbees and nectar from the
flowerswill decrease.
c Peregrine falcon population will reduce due to a reduction in numbers of their food source
honeyeaters and rainbow birds. This occurs because bees will decrease with the reduction of their
food sourcenectar from the flowers. Bees and nectar from the flowers are the food of honeyeaters,
and rainbow birds also eat bees.
d Carnivorous wasp population will decrease as honeyeaters try to eat more of them to make up for
the reduction in bees and nectar.
15 a Leaf hoppers may increase in numbers as there is now more food available, so more can survive.
b The population of wasps may increase as the leaf hoppers increase, providing more food for the
wasps so more of them can survive. (This would depend on how successful they are at catching the
extra hoppers, as honeyeaters also have more food available now.)
c The population of honeyeaters may increase as their food, the leaf hoppers, have increased. (This
depends on how successful the wasps are at catching the extra leaf hoppers, and how much of the
honeyeaters diet is the leaf hoppers.)
d The population of beetles could be relatively unaffected, depending on how quickly the wasp
population rises. If there is a large increase in wasp numbers, more beetles may be eaten by the
extra wasps.
16 Matter recycles. The same atoms (matter) flow again and again through the ecosystem. Energy does
not recycle. It is progressively lost at each step along a food chain. So after energy enters an
ecosystem, it is steadily lost from it.
17 If they are photosynthetic producers, there is not enough light for photosynthesis, so they could not
make food materials for themselves and they would die.
18 a The productivity of the area will decrease.
b Loss of legumes (wattles and native peas) means less nitrogen is being added to the soil. This will
reduce plant growth due to lack of nitrogen containing nutrients. Herbivorous animal populations will
decline due to food shortages, and therefore so will carnivorous animal populations.
19 If the coral die, then the nitrogen-fixing bacteria living with them will probably also die. This will reduce
the input of nitrogen to marine food webs and probably reduce the total productivity of the ecosystem.
20 Consider a particular mass of wheat. If the wheat was fed to cows, about 90% of the energy in the
wheat would be used up in the cows in maintaining themselves. Only about one-tenth of the energy
would end up in meat. So if humans ate the wheat, instead of the cow, about ten times as much energy
would be available to humans. Therefore it is more efficient to feed people on plants than on cows.
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Unit 8.3
1 Strategies include: setting up protected areas such as national parks, recovery plans for endangered
species, environmental impact statements for developments, fishing and hunting controls, laws
controlling land clearing are and biological control.
2 Examples include: land clearing for agriculture or housing, logging and mining.
3 a DDT killing predatory birds; insecticides killing native pollinators
b Minamata disease caused by mercury wastes
4 a Threatened species: species likely to become extinct in the near future
b Overcropping: removing more individuals from a population than can be replaced by breeding
5 Recovery plan: a detailed statement of how the population of a threatened species will be returned to a
safe level to ensure its survival
6 Killing more animals than the population can replace will result in a decrease in the population. If it is a
large enough drop, the population could become extinct.
7 Native plants are removed, so most native herbivores and the native carnivores that prey on them will
not be able to survive there.
8 They compete with native animals, prey on them, or destroy their habitat.
9 Sea levels will rise, causing floods in low-lying areas; changes in climate will affect ecosystems and
agriculture; weather patterns will change.
10 More seeds will germinate in the pot containing smoke water.
11 a National parks and reserveshabitat destruction, endangered species
b Fishing licencesovercropping
c Environmental impact statements habitat destruction, pollution
12 Various responses possible. The following is one example.
National parks and reserves provide protection for many rare or endangered species, such as the
Wollemi pine in Wollemi National Park. Mining and other developments that could destroy the habitat of
these species are not permitted in these areas.
Fishing licences help to prevent overfishing of species such as mulloway and abalone, so that
populations can recover and the resource will be sustainable. Environmental impact statements identify
potential damage to ecosystems that could be caused by large developments, so that controls can be
put in place to reduce or avoid the damage.
13 a Salvinia would block out sunlight, killing other plants.
b It would reduce the amount of oxygen available for consumers, so their populations would decline.
14 A minimum size allows young fish to grow to adulthood and breed. Limiting the catch size ensures that
natural breeding can replace the fish that are taken.
15 Cutting down large tracts of rainforest would reduce the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere because
forest trees release oxygen from photosynthesis.
16 One reason is that these areas provide habitat for fish, especially breeding areas for many species.
Commercial fishing supplies food for people.
17 In its natural environment, Salvinia is eaten by the weevil. This prevents the population of Salvinia from
becoming very large.
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18
Chapter review
1 Components of an ecosystem are living organisms also known as the community or biotic factors, and
the non-living surroundings known as abiotic factors.
2 Ways humans damage the environment include: habitat destruction, introduced species, chemical
pesticides, chemical pollution and overcropping.
3 a Any five such as cats, foxes, rabbits, pigs, goats and camels
b Damage from feral animals includes preying on, and competing with, native animals, habitat
disturbance and soil erosion. Habitat disturbance and soil erosion are other types of damage.
4 Ecosystems with high biodiversity are more stable and able to resist environmental changes.
5 The idea of interdependence is that all organisms affect each other in some way. For example, all
organisms depend on others for food, both directly and indirectly. All organisms require food, and all
consumers in the ecosystem need producers to make this for them. Without the producers, all
consumers would die. Consumers depend on each other as wellcarnivores need herbivores or other
carnivores to prey on. The producers and consumers need decomposers to return nutrients to the soil
for reuse by producers.
6 Protecting and managing ecosystems can involve methods like setting up protected areas such as
national parks, recovery plans for endangered species, environmental impact statements for
developments, fishing and hunting controls, laws controlling land clearing, biological control.
7 Human impacts are so great that they can destroy whole ecosystems. This affects our own survival as
well as that of all other species on the only planet we know of that has life: Earth.
8 Termites recycle materials in dead plants, so they can be re-used to produce food for the ecosystem.
Termites live in a mutualistic relationship with flagellates, which do the decomposing.
9 Changes in temperature, water availability and sunlight affect the rate of photosynthesis, which in turn
affects the amount of food available in the food web.
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10 a, b
11 Food chains are short because there are great losses of energy at each level of the chainabout 90%
is lost at each stage. A pyramid of biomass shows how much living matter can be supported by the
available energy and this rapidly tapers off to the peak of the pyramid.
12 Dingo and rabbit: predation. Wedge-tailed eagle and rabbit: predation. Dingo and wedge-tailed eagle:
competition. Dingo and fleas: parasitism.
13 Student responses will depend on factors chosen.
14 ac Students will give different answers.
15 a Sustainability concerns whether ecosystems can maintain the living conditions and continue to
function. Natural ecosystems are usually sustainable without human help. Conservation means
humans managing and protecting ecosystems so they continue to exist.
b Natural ecosystems are usually sustainable without human help to maintain them. Artificial
ecosystems always need help to maintain them. Some natural ecosystems do require human help
to protect them, especially from damage being caused by human activities.
16 Our lifestyle is unlikely to be sustainable in the long termwe need to reduce our resource use and
waste production.
17 The level drops between midnight and 6 a.m. as respiration of all living things is consuming oxygen.
The level rises after 6 a.m. as the sun rises and photosynthesis begins to produce oxygen faster than it
is consumed by respiration. The level stops rising and drops after 6 p.m. as the sun sets and
photosynthesis ceases.
18 To manage an ecosystem, to keep it sustainable, humans have to know that organisms all affect each
other and changes in one part of the ecosystem usually affect the whole system. If the interactions
between organisms and their abiotic environment are understood, then any changes in matter and
energy flow can be assessed and predicted. Strategies used to manage an ecosystem can only be
successful if scientists understand how the particular ecosystem works and the impact humans will
have on the ecosystem.
19 Energy enters almost all ecosystems through photosynthesis. Producers make food materials using
some of this energy. The food contains the matter and energy needed by consumers. Consumers
cannot produce their own food materials, so without photosynthesis there would be no consumers. (A
few ecosystems are based on chemosynthesis. Examples are black smoker communities at the
bottom of the oceans where magma erupts under the sea and hot springs around volcanic areas on
land.)
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21
Q1 A
Q2 D
Q3 C
Q4 B
Page 60
Chapter 9: Plate tectonics

Unit 9.1
1 a Alfred Wegener
b Harry Hess
2 The observation that there was a Global Rift system and undersea mountains.
3 It consists of very hot, semi-solid (plastic) rock that flows very slowly.
4 a Subduction: the process of the crust sinking down
b Seafloor spreading: new crust is being formed at the ocean ridges and spreading outwards to form
the new sea floor
5 Observations: continents seemed to fit together a bit like a jigsaw, fossils of the same species were
found in continents that were far apart.
6 Wegener rearranged the continents so that the pieces of the jigsaw fitted and so the fossil distribution
was continuous across the land masses.
7 Hess proposed that new crust was being formed at the ocean ridges and spreading outwards, and that
the crust was sinking down into Earth in other places called ocean trenches.
8
Magnetic stripingrocks at a particular distance from the mid-ocean ridge on one side always had
the same magnetic direction as rocks the same distance away on the other side.
The further the rocks on the sea floor are away from the ridges, the older they are.
Sedimentary rock layers on the ocean floor become thicker as you move away from the ridges.
9 Suspend the pin from a piece of cotton and let it spin freely. The pin is in Earths magnetic field so the
pin will come to rest pointing towards the north.
10 New sea floor is constantly being added while continents remain at the surface, moving around on the
plates.
11 The coloured areas (green, orange and red) represent rock that was formed when Earths magnetic
field was the same as it is today. Magnetic minerals in these rocks will be lined up like a compass and
point to the north. The grey areas show rock that formed when Earths magnetic field was reversed,
with the north magnetic pole in Antarctica. The magnetic direction of these rocks will point to the south.
The layers are symmetrical either side of the axis because the magma separates away on both sides of
the axis as it is cooling.
12 One theory is the heat creates convection cells in the mantle, with warm rock being displaced upwards
and cooler rock sinking down. As the rock moves upwards and then flows sideways beneath the crust,
the plates may be dragged along by friction. Slab pull may occur where the heavy subducting plates
sink and this force is transmitted across the plate pulling it away from the ridge. Ridge push may occur
where the plate at the ridge pushes at an angle, down but also away from the ridge.
13 Both theories propose that the continents move about on Earths surface. Continental drift had no clear
mechanism or evidence explaining its movement. Plate tectonics proposed that the crust was cracked
into large pieces called plateswith its mechanism of seafloor spreading and subduction, this
explained the movement of continents.
14 The pattern of stripes of rock with alternating magnetic field direction that are symmetrical on either
side of the ocean ridges is called magnetic striping. Magnetic field reversal is where the magnetic field
of Earth reverses and north becomes south. This is preserved in the rocks.
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15 The Red Sea was formed by rifting when two tectonic plates separated by moving in opposite
directions. The sea then entered from the north (Mediterranean Sea) and south (Indian Ocean) and
flooded the rift valley.
16 a, b
The Great Global Rift system is lighter blue colours, which indicates the land around the rifts is as far
as 3000 m below sea level. The rest of the oceans appear to be deeper than thismostly about 5000
metres or deeper. So the rift system is not as deep as the rest of the oceanslike a series of undersea mountains.
17 Trenches are where one plate subducts under another and ridges are where new sea floor (crust)
forms. So new crust south of Australia forms and pushes the plate northwards where it subducts under
Indonesia.
18
The sketches will depend on students answers but will be similar to figures from the text in simple
outline form.
Unit 9.2
1 Converging (collision), diverging and transform
2 Oceanic and continental
3 a Diverging boundariese.g. Antarctic ridge between Australia and Antarctica
b Converging boundariese.g. Sunda trench between Australia and Indonesia
c Transform boundariese.g. Alpine fault of South Island New Zealand
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4 Subduction occurs either where a denser plate (oceanic crust) sinks under a lighter plate (continental
plate), or a faster moving plate sinks below a slower moving plate.
5 As the plate moves, computers attached to GPS ground stations on the plates use GPS satellites to
determine how much it moved.
6 The sheet with the bent edge will sink down into the sand below the other.
7 a Denser plate (oceanic crust) meets a lighter plate (continental crust).
b Ocean crust subducts under continental crust.
c Fold mountains occur where two continental crustal plates collide, the continental plate becomes
distorted, forming fold mountains and volcanoes.
d Rifting under the sea occurs where oceanic plates are separating (diverging), the land subsides in
the centre and ridges form either side of the crack.
8 The Indian Plate and the Australian Plate
9 Diagram should look similar to Figure 9.2.2.
10 When two oceanic plates collide, the faster-moving plate subducts under the other forming a deep
trench. The descending plate melts, and lines of volcanic islands form. When a continental plate and an
oceanic plate converge, the denser oceanic plate subducts under the continental plate.
11 The Indian Plate is colliding with the Eurasian Plate. Because India and Asia are both are light crust,
they have been pushed upwards, forming the Himalayas.
12 Look for fold mountainsthe crust would have been pushed upwards to form a new continent. There
may be volcanic activity as well.
13 Crust is being destroyed elsewhere by subduction as fast as it is being created by seafloor spreading.
14 Some seafloor sedimentary rocks from the Indian Plate were uplifted as it crashed into the Eurasian
Plate to form Mt Everest and the Himalayas.
15 The ocean floor is continually being recycled. No ocean is more than about 200 million years old.
16 It took time to collect enough evidence to test the theory of plate tectonics. New instruments and
techniques were being developed which provided new evidence.
17
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Unit 9.3
1 Gas, ash, solid rock particles, lava
2 Subduction
3 A seismometer
4 A tsunami may result.
5 a Rapid movement of the ground, usually in a wave motion.
b Waves in Earth caused by earthquakes.
6 a Marking the position of volcanic eruptions recorded over many years on a map of the tectonic plate
boundaries shows that the vast majority of the eruptions lie over or very near plate boundaries.
b Marking epicentres of all the earthquakes recorded over many years on a map of the tectonic plate
boundaries shows that the vast majority of the earthquakes lie over the plate boundaries.
7 The movement of the plates creates weaknesses in the crust and generates intense heat that can melt
rock.
8 Each island forms as it sits over the hot spot. As the plate moves, the island goes with it. A new part of
the plate is now above the hot spot and this gradually forms a new volcano. Gradually, a chain of
islands forms.
9 Earthquakes are caused by the rapid release of energy as the tectonic plates move. This sudden
movement sends out waves of energy through the rock and water.
10 Dampersstructures that move in opposition to the seismic waves and oppose their effect
Base isolationpads, springs and bearings that allow the building to suppress the waves by moving
rather than vibrating with Earth.
11 The Australian Plate is subducting under the Eurasian Plate along the Sunda trench. This creates a
great deal of magma that rises to the surface along lines of weakness and reaches the surface in the
islands of Indonesia, especially Java.
12 Earthquakes are caused by the rapid release of energy. Therefore they occur where the plates move
the most and generate the most energy. Volcanoes occur at plate boundaries because magma can
reach the surface through areas of the crust weakened by the plate movements.
13 Island chains form over a hot spot as the plate keeps moving and new volcanoes form one after the
other. There is only one volcano active at a time in the chain. An island arc is a string of volcanoes, all
of which are usually active at once, formed where one plate subducts under another.
14 P-waves are longitudinal waves that travel fast; S-waves are transverse waves that are slightly slower.
15 The place where the quake starts is called the focus. The point on Earths surface directly above the
focus is called the epicentre.
16 Check how many of the volcanoes in the chain are active. If it is only one, there is a good chance it is a
hot spot volcano.
17 Japan is on a collision boundary between an oceanic plate and a continental plate; collision boundaries
usually have lots of volcanoes.
18 There are very few earthquakes in Australia compared with other locations. Earthquakes fall near plate
boundaries, well away from Australia.
19 Add the following:
Most volcanoes and earthquakes occur along the boundaries of tectonic plates.
Hot spot volcanoes leave an island chain behind as the plate moves.
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Chapter review
1 Alfred Wegener
2 Any ten such as: Australian, Pacific, Eurasian, African, South American, Antarctic, North American,
Nazca, Philippine, Arabian, Indian
3 Rocks at a particular distance from the ocean ridge on one side always have the same magnetic
direction as rocks the same distance away on the other side.
4 a Lithosphere: the rocky material of the crust and upper mantle.
b Asthenosphere: the lower mantle, which is semi-solid and on which the plates.move.
5 New crust (sea floor) is being formed at the ocean ridges and spreading outwards. The spreading
eventually results in the ocean floor colliding with nearby plates and subducting. These processes are
being driven by convection currents in the mantle and by gravitational force pushing (slab push) and
pulling (slab pull) the plates down.
6
Diverging boundariesthe plates are moving apart from each other, allowing new crust to form.
Converging boundariesthe plates are colliding with each other. These can result in plate
destruction and volcanic activity if one subducts, or in mountain building when both plates are
pushed upwards.
Transform boundariesthe plates are sliding past each other. These generally do not create or
destroy crust but often build mountains.
7 Tectonic plate boundaries are where the greatest movement and energy will be generated, and
therefore earthquakes are strongest there. Most volcanoes occur at convergent and divergent
boundaries. Extra heat is generated in subduction and this creates extra magma. Diverging boundaries
thin the crust and crack it allowing magma to rise up to the surface.
8 The land mass of Australia has been moving north since it split from Antarctica. It has not collided with
any land mass in that time. Australia is well away from its plate boundaries and therefore has few
earthquakes and no active volcanoes.
9 Magnetometers showed that the magnetic field of Earth has been changing direction and how magnetic
striping occurred along the ridges. This was direct evidence for seafloor spreading. Echo sounders
resulted in discovery of the undersea ridges that started Hess thinking about seafloor spreading. GPS
enables movements of plates to be measured directly.
10 Fold mountains form where continental plates collide. Volcanic islands form as one oceanic plate
subducts under another. Ocean trenches form at the boundary where plates collide and one subducts.
11 A rift valley is forming in East Africa as evidenced by increased volcanic activity along it, and the
ground is sinking. This suggests that there is a splitting (rifting) occurring along the valley. If it keeps
sinking, the Red Sea will be able to enter.
12 Oceanic crust is dark coloured, dense and low in silica and lighter elements such as aluminium,
whereas continental crust is a lighter colour and less dense due to high silica content.
13 In both cases one plate subducts under another forming an ocean trench and volcanic activity occurs.
An island arc often occurs in the ocean when two oceanic plates converge, while on land volcanoes
form in the fold mountains created by the collision between an oceanic and a continental plate. The
oceanic plate always subducts under the continental plate.
14 Wegeners basic idea that continents move has been shown to be correct, though they did not move in
the way he suggested. They do not drift across the ocean floorthey move with the plates on which
they sit.
15 Converging plates create fold mountains, either where oceanic and continental crust collide, or where
continental plates meet each other. Mountains also form along some transform boundaries and by
volcanic activity along diverging boundaries. Island arcs are mountains in the sea formed by volcanic
Page 65
activity. Hotspots can result in mountains as well.

16 Rifting on land lowers the land. As seen in the Dead Sea, this can fall well below sea level. If the rift
reaches the ocean, it will flood and the ocean area will become larger.
18 Depends on student answers. They should cover similar points to those made in their summaries
prepared for each of units 9.1 to 9.3.
19
Q1 C
Q2 D
Q3 B
Q4 D
Page 66

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Chapter 1: Materials

Lithium ion, +1, Li+

2 protons, 2 neutrons, 2 electrons

100 = 50% gold

Litmus paper turns blue (basic/alkaline) in washing powder.

illnesses and deaths caused by smoking

cost to the community of illnesses and deaths

unpleasantness of smoke for many people

16 a The train is a repeated series of identical units (carriages).

atom: fundamental building block of all materials

17 a The likely pH of the solution is between 5 and 5.5.

Chapter 2: Reaction types

15 a benzene + oxygen gas carbon dioxide + water vapour

acid + metal a salt + hydrogen gas

Reactants: phosphoric acid and aluminium

ethanoic acid + calcium carbonate calcium ethanoate + water + carbon dioxide

water + calcium carbonate no reaction

10 a iron + hydrochloric acid iron(II) sulfate + hydrogen gas

Both processes use ATP.

Each proceeds by different steps.

Enzymes speed up photosynthesis but slow down and respiration.

4 a acid + base a salt + water

methane + oxygen carbon + water

Chapter 3: Heat, light and sound

the size of cardboard used

the thickness of cardboard used

the distance between the cardboard and the light source.

Sound is produced by vibrations: True

The ear canal is blocked with wax.

The middle ear is filled with fluid.

The eardrum has been ruptured.

Tiny hairs of the cochlea have been damaged.

The auditory nerve is defective.

is upright (normal way up)

is the same size as the object

water to glass: towards

18 Students will give different answers.

Chapter 4: Electromagnetic radiation

vi 1.0 106 Hz: radio waves

Wave A: amplitude 3 cm, wavelength 2 cm

Light undergoes interference when overlapping waves combine.

Light can be polarised. This happens because it travels as a three-dimensional wave.

use a 30+ sunscreen

put on clothing that covers your skin

seek shaded areas when outside.

5 A Geiger counter detects gamma rays.

14 The UV readings are rated:

20 Students will give different answers.

Chapter 5: Electrical energy

Current measures the flow of charge passing through the circuit.

Voltage measures the energy provided to or used by charges.

Resistance measures how difficult it is for charges to pass through a material.

3 The resistance of a material depends on:

the type of material the wire is made from

the length of the wire

the thickness of the wire.

Different batteries might have the ability to provide different currents/power.

Each globe cannot be controlled independently by a switch.

6 Electrocution is death by electricity.

Fuses and circuit breakers are both found in homes.

14 Brightest: P; next brightest: N and O; dullest: K, L and M

b The current through ammeter Q is the total of all the branches:

An electromagnet can be on or off (permanent magnets are always on).