Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ABSTRACT
This paper begins with a revisin of the learning strategy literature and
highlights the overlapping which currently characterizes the field as regards issues considered criterial for their definition. The role of consciousness in learning strategy use is discussed and the terms process, strategy and technique are
defined in the light of a classroom-based empirical study carried out with children aged between eight and ten. From verbal report data gathered individually
and in groups, a classification scheme is presented of children's metacognitive,
socio-affective and cognitive strategies and techniques.
RESUMEN
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1.
INTRODUCTION
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guishing between various types of strategies. To arrive at a comprehensive characterization of LS we will begin by reviewing current theoretical arguments on the issues highlighted above before going on to
outline our own position on these matters.
2.
One of the most glaring problems in SLA research, then, has been
the failure to make clear distinctions between the terms 'process', 'strategy'
and 'tactic' or 'technique'. These labels have been used inconsistently
by researchers to refer both to the same and to different mechanisms
of language processing. The confusin over which behaviours are to
be classified as learning strategies is indicative of the terminological and
conceptual differences which characterize both theory and research in
the Learning Strategy paradigm. These differences first emerged with
the investigations of the 'Good Language Learner' in the late 1970's.
This early work produced what initially appeared to be very different
inventories of Learning Strategies (Rubin, 1981; Naiman et al., 1978; Stern,
1983), but which on closer inspection were seen to comprise the same
basic categories of behaviour which had been classified in different
terms. Rubin's (1981) work describes general cognitive processes and
their underlying strategies, while Naiman et al. (1978) and Stern (1983)
refer to general strategies and specic, observable learner techniques.
However, as Skehan (1989) has shown, and as we shall discuss later,
the actual behaviours described are not that unalike. The principal differences between this early research lie essentially in the terms chosen
to describe more general and specic levis of learner behaviour.
For other researchers (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990)
strategy has been used as a general cover-term for different learneroperations irregardless of levis of generality/ specificity. Their approach
has been to divide strategies into different categories or groups according to the type of behaviour they represent. Since O'Malley and Chamot
(1990) are concerned primarily with strategies for learning the L2, they
describe Metacognitive, Cognitive and Socio-affective strategies. Oxford
(1990), however, aims to account for the whole repertoire of strategies
available for learning and using language, and so presents a multi-levelled classification scheme of Memory, Cognitive, Compensation, Metacognitive, Affective and Social strategies. Oxford's taxonomy is interesting,
though at times confusing, in this respect as it includes a wide range
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of both general and specific thoughts and behaviours, all of which are
termed strategies.
More recently, however, Oxford and Cohn (1992) have argued in
favour of abandoning the a priori categorization of learning strategies
into generic groups and have opted for a classification which differentiates between broad bands of strategies and their related tactics. Their
distinction, based on the difference in military usage of the words strategy
and tactic, leads them to define strategy as the 'long-range art of learning more easily and effectively by using major clusters of behaviours',
while tactic is used to refer to the 'short-term art of using specific behaviours or devices' (1992, p. 4). This return to the separation of language
processing behaviour on the general/specific dimensin would seem,
superficially at least, to coincide with the same distinction posed by
Naiman et al. (1978) and Stern (1983). A more detailed analysis of their
proposal, however, reveis that what has actually happened is that the
concept of strategy has been raised to the level of what other researchers
(for example Faerch and Kasper, 1980, 1983) have termed process (for
example 'forming concepts and hypotheses'; 'testing hypotheses'; 'embedding new material in long-term memory'), and tactics to what has
generally been thought of as strategy (for example 'inferencing'; asking
for clarification/verification'; 'repetitive rehearsaP, etc.).
In adopting this new emphasis on tactics to desribe what in previous theory and research (including their own) had been referred to
as strategy, Oxford and Cohn (1992) follow the precedent created by
Seliger (1991) and Schmeck (1988). Both of these researchers have posited
the need for a theoretical distinction between higher level, general approaches to learning and more specific learner activity, and both have
coincided in the choice of the terms strategy and tactic to label these
differences. Once again, however, we find that the actual behaviours
described as strategies and tactics in their accounts are the counterparts
of what to others are more accurately described as processes and strategies. Seliger (1991) for example talks about the strategies of 'hypothesis
testing', 'simplification', and 'overgeneralization' while Schmeck (1988)
cites those of 'conceptualizing', 'personalizing' and 'memorization', all
of which have traditionally been thought of as more general cognitive
operations.
This inconsistency in the use of the metalanguage involved in Learner
Strategy research is symptomatic of the vagueness of the constructs
themselves (Ellis, 1986). Researchers have called for theoretical accounts
of Learning Strategies to attempt to disentangle the concepts inherent
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to this rea of SLA research (Bialystok, 1983; Oxford and Cohn, 1992)
but there is still much to be resolved. A priority in any study of Learning
Strategies, then, must be to provide explicit definitions of the way in
which processes, strategies and tactics or techniques are conceptualized
and understood in the research work. The position we advcate in the
present study is that the description of children's strategies of Foreign
Language Learning can be integrated within a theoretical framework for
SLA based on cognitive accounts of language learning which describe
language learning in terms of the acquisition of a complex skill, and
highlight the learner's active role in the process.
3.
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In the present study, our use of the term process coincides with
the definitions prevalent in cognitive discussions of learning which refer
to the processes by which individuis comprehend, store and retain and
use information. In the same way, and following Willis (1989, p. 139),
we understand learning strategies to refer to the 'goal-directed thoughts
or actions used by the learner to transform language input into internally
available resources for the comprehension, retention and use of the foreign language'. However, given the context of our study -the learning
of a FL in a classroom setting; the age of the subjects involved- children
of 8-10 years; and our ultimate pedagogical motivation, we believe it
is essential to go beyond the scope of the definition cited above in our
description of learning strategies in an attempt to describe the precise
nature of the ways in which our young learners convert the input
they receive in the classroom context into knowledge of the foreign
language. For this reason, we have opted to use the construct learning
technique to arrive at a more finely-grained analysis of the strategic
behaviour involved in FL learning. Learning techniques, then, as used
throughout this study can be defined as 'specific, primarily task-related
and (mostly) observable forms of language learning'. In a classroom
setting learning techniques are those manifestations of the learning
process in action, as for example when the learner voluntarily repeats
a linguistic model or identifies content words for the understanding of
context-specific discourse.
The position we adopt in this respect coincides with that of Beltrn
(1993) who has theorized on the relationships of technique, strategy and
process as applied to general school-based learning. For Beltrn (1993)
learning strategies are central to the process of learning, their true definition lying in their mediating role between the invisible, concealed
processes of learning and specific task-related learner techniques. Strategies, in turn, are affected by the use of specific learner techniques. In
Beltrn's model techniques are said to actvate strategies in that they
are actions linked to classroom activities, which when underway, reveal
the presence of particular strategies in learners. They are distinguishable
from strategies in that they are observable learner operations ciosely
linked to the study activities suggested by the teacher in the classroom
environment.
One of the assumptions underlying our work is that this rationale,
as applied to the description of the instructional process in general, can
be adapted to provide an explanation for the learning which occurs in
the foreign language classroom. In our study of children's foreign lan429
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4.
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5.
A distinction has often been made within second language learning strategy research between Learning, Production and Communication
strategies (Tarone, 1980; Faerch and Kasper, 1983). The term learning
strategies has been used to refer to the operations by which the learner
processes the target language (TL) input for language learning (i.e. improving linguistic knowledge). Distinct from these are production and
communication strategies which are strategies of language use. Production
strategies enable the learner to use previously acquired linguistic knowledge to accomplish communication goals (Ellis, 1986). Examples include
simplification or discourse planning. Communication strategies are employed when the learner fails to achieve a communicative goal because
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Such a distinction may be appropriate in naturalistic SLA or in instructional settings which emphasize the formal study of language as a system
and where little communication takes place, but it is perhaps not the case
in classrooms where, as Faerch and Kasper (1983) have suggested, learners
engage in communicative activities expressly for the purpose of learning.
This is the position held by Willing (1989) and the one to which
we ascribe in this study. What we are suggesting is that, in the primary
classroom, the goals pursued by strategies of language learning and
strategies of language use are essentially interrelated. Willing arges the
same point by describing how communicative classroom tasks in which
learners are expected to use the FL for a particular purpose (decisionmaking, describing, exchanging information, etc.) involve the joint
operation of both cognitive and communication strategies for the actual
performance of the task itself and the linguistic resources needed for
doing so. In this sense he highlights the important links between the
processing and linguistic demands of classroom activities in which language learning and language use are part of the same phenomenon.
The classification of children's strategies we propose in our research
does not distinguish between Learning and Communication Strategies,
but suggests that in the realization of classroom activities which focus
on the use of the FL, all the strategies employed by the pupils will necessarily contribute to their FL learning.
6.
With very few exceptions the majority of research work on language learning strategies has concentrated on the strategy use of young
adolescents and adults in ESL or L2 French situations. There are only
three studies that we know of which have looked at children's use of
learning strategies, and all within an ESL context (Wong Fillmore, 1976,
1979; Chesterfield and Chesterfield, 1985; Chamot and Beard El-Dinary,
1999). Given the scarcity of research work with young learners these
studies take on immense importance for their insights into children's
second language learning in a classroom context.
In the first of these studies Lily Wong Fillmore studied five Mexican
children aged between five and seven learning English at school in the
United States. The children were each paired with a native speaking
child and their interactions were recorded for one hour every week for
a period of nine months. These interactions enabled Wong Fillmore
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7.
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Table 1.
N"
Technique
Participant
Stnicture
Focus
Activity
Stimulated
Recall
Small
group (3)
Song
Immediate
Retrospection
2 small
Oral description of Strategies used in FL oral progroups (4) model house
duction; influence of Ll on
FL production; FL rehearsal;
Ss reaction to error; etc.
Immediate
Retrospection
4 pairs
Story
Immediate
Retrospection
Individual
Immediate
retrospection
4 pairs
Board game
Delayed
Retrospection
Individual
Evaluative
Individual
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Metacognitive Strategies
Strategy
SELF MANAGEMENT
PLANNING
Strategy
Cathcart (1985)
DEVELOPING A POSITIVE ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE FL
Oxford (1990)
SELF-CONFIDENCE
INTEREST IN THE FL
CLASSROOM
OUTSIDE THE
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Cognitive Strategies
Strategy
USING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
Voluntary on task repetition of FL vocaO'Malley etal. (1985); Chamot etal. (1987, bulary and models and voluntary repeti1988); O'Malley & Chamot (1990); Chester- tion of FL input outside the class
field & Chesterfield (1985); Rubin (1989);
Oxford & Cohn (1992)
REPETUION
LANGUAGE ANALYSIS
The application of learned or self-devWong Fillmore (1976); Rubin (1981, 1989); eloped rules to understand or produce
O'Malley et al. (1985); Chamot et al. the FL
(1987, 1988); O'Malley & Chamot (1990);
Oxford (1990); Oxford & Cohn (1992);
Chamot & Beard
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9.
As far as we are aware, the typology of Learning Strategies presented in this study is the first to have highlighted the types of thoughts
and behaviours used by children as young as eight and nine years od
for learning English in a foreign language classroom setting. The analysis of the interview transcripts, coupled with the classroom observation,
has revealed a variety of techniques and strategies being put into practice by young EFL learners. The typology we present here includes
Metacognitive and Social/Affective strategies on the one hand and Cognitive strategies on the other, with the latter classified according to the
higher level processes of Comprehension, Retention and Language Use
which they work to enhance and develop. At a more specific level, most
strategy types are manifested through several different learning techniques. The following tables Ilstrate the hierarchical grouping we have
made of Process, Strategy and Technique and include examples for each
technique extracted from the interview and classroom data. The number
after each excerpt refers either to the interview or to the Teaching Unit
from which the example was taken.
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SELF
MANAGEMENT
Strategies
Examples
Deciding to pay attention to other Int: Crees que puedes aprender de los
children's oral productions to Yol: S.
learn from them
Int: Por qu?
Yol: Porque hay algunos que son ms
son ms listos pues, si yo no s decir
ellos bien pues yo, como lo he odo
cirla. (6)
compaeros?
Deciding to pay attention to the Sor: Pues yo intento, intento lo posible para poder entender todas
teacher in class
las pala... todas las palabras en ingls, intento cada vez aprender
ms.
JV: (Referring to the teacher) Cuando dice algo que no hemos dado
entonces presto ms atencin. (6)
Making an effort to carry out Int: Qu haces para caerle bien a tu profesor?
classroom activities well
El: Yo intento hacer todos los deberes
Int: Y en clase qu haces?
El: Pues inento hacerlo dentro de lo mejor posible... Porque yo
quiero que me vea que soy listo. (6)
Deciding in advance to use the Sil: Si hablamos en espaol es bajito para que no nos oiga.
FL in the classroom
Eloy: Sers t la que hablas en espaol.
Ent: T no hablas en espaol nunca Eloy?
Eloy: Al principio cuando era ms pequeo y empezbamos a
dar ingls s, pero ahora ya no. Ahora ya sabemos bien y lo que
no entendemos se lo decimos a Don Matas y l nos lo explica en
ingls. (5)
Tech iques
Metacognitive Strategies
J8
>
z,
n
O
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SELF
MONITORING
PLANNING
Correcting your own mistakes in Int: Sabrais decir en ingls cules han sido los problemas?
the comprehension/produc- San: Dolor de estmago, stomachache. La cabeza, mm, Headache.
tion/pronunciation of the FL
JV: /Hill/ ill. (3)
50
t-1
z
o
A
>
50
SO
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DEVELOPING
A POSITIVE
ATTITUDE
TOWARDS
LEARNING
THEFL
REGULATING
CLASSROOM
BEHAVIOUR
COOPERATING
WITH OTHERS
Examples
Techniques
Strategies
>
se
en
2
2
O
O
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SHOWING
INTEREST
IN THE FL
OUTSIDE THE
CLASSROOM
SELF
CONFIDENCE
Sor: Digo en casa todo lo que s, todo lo que puedo para poder
esforzarme para aprobar la asignatura, y tambin para... para... en
mi casa, yo muchas veces estoy sola y luego, llegan mis padres y
todo eso, y yo empiezo a hablar en ingls, empiezo a decirles los
animales que he aprendidio nuevos, empiezo a cantarles canciones,
empiezo a contarles muchas cosas y eso a mis pad... A mis padres
les da mucho gusto, por que mis padres quieren que yo saque la
carrera de... de profesora. (6)
Int: Fuera de clase te interesa ver cosas en ingls?
Eloy: S por que mira un amigo mo me dejo una cinta que todo
era... que todo era en ingls y yo la escuch.
Son: Tambin cuando hay pelculas. Es que yo tengo un canal ingls. (6)
2?
z
z
jo
>
50
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00
Int: (Asking how thepupil had understood the story The Very Hungry Caterpillar) Esto te lo sabas porque ya sabas lo que pasaba a una oruga?
El: Ah pero eso yo ya lo saba.
Int: Dnde lo habas estudiado?
El: Pues es que tambin yo cuando es el tiempo de los gusanos,
pues yo cojo gusanos, y luego hacen el, el capullo y luego sale la
mariposa y y pone huevos.
Int: Y cmo se dice capullo en ingls?
El: Cocoon. (3)
Guessing meanings from pictu- JP: Don M estuvo poniendo en la pizarra algunas cosas.
res, objects blackboard drawings, Sor: Dibujando... yo me acuerdo de muchas: saw, plyers, screwdriver,
video sequences
hammer.
JP: Y Don M nos lo pona el dibujo y luego nosotros tenamos que
decirlo. (1)
Guessing meanings from the Int: (Checking their comprehension of a song they have learned in
teacher's gestares, modulated out- class) Y eso qu es de 'peep inside'?
put (intonation; volume; pauses; JP: Porque es una palabra y luego dice que entre o algo as.
stress)
Sor: Entonces Don M se pone as (circles her eyes with her hands).
JL: El agujero y ver lo que hay dentro. (1)
USING
PRIOR Ll
KNOWLEDGE
INFERENCING
Examples
Techniques
Strategies
COMPREHENSION
Cognitive Strategies
<
pe
>
c
2
n
O
<
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VISUAL,
AUDITORY,
KINETIC
IMAGERY
Strategies
Int: Y cmo os acordis del cuento, t que lo has contado sin mirarlo cmo te acuerdas de todo?
Sor: Pues yo me acuerdo porque lo vimos dos veces yo lo vi
dos veces en el video y Don M a veces nos pone, como a veces
no nos acordamos bien de las cosas nos pone el video y lo recordamos y luego yo me acuerdo, porque cuando yo doy algo
de ingls se me aprende, y se me mete en la cabeza y no se me
olvida. (3)
El: Otra cosa que nos ayud a recordar era cuando Don M. coga
un nombre si t lo decas y lo acertabas luego lo ponas en el papel, eso tambin nos ayud, ayud ms. (3)
Associating vocabulary and lan- JP: Adems Don M, cuando cantaba la cancin, cuando deca 'build'
guage models with the teacher's haca as (pretends to dig with a spad). (2)
gestures
Techniques
so
O
O
S
C/J
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REPETITION
Strategies
Examples
Voluntarily repeating the teacher's T: For example if I want to buy stamps to send letters, where do I go?
corrective feedback
JL: post office
T: I go to the post office
JL: I go to the post office (TU3)
Playfully repeating to onesself or JL: yo muchas veces yo voy pensando en los nmeros, cuento, mira
with friends outside class (new (se levanta) voy haciendo pensando, one two three four five, voy
words, numbers, songs, etc.)
cantndolos. (1)
Techniques
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BUILDING
AUTONOMOUS
DISCOURSE
LANGUAGE
ANALYSIS
Strategies
Examples
Tech iques
O
O
Ti
>
Z
O
pe
r.
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Using gestures
Son: {Describing a model house they have made in groups) JP, JL and
me is the cement
Sor: The chimney, the chimney, the colour black is me... (2)
Int: Do you remember the story of the caterpiUar? Can you tell me
a bit of the story?
El: One one day, on Monday one strawberry, Tuesday two bananas,
on Wednesday four tomatoes, on... on Thursday four eggs, on Friday five lollypop...
Int: and what happened?
El: On Saturday? On Saturday leaf, is big and cocoon... on Sunday?
butterfly (6)
OVERCOMING
LIMITATIONS
INFL
KNOWLEDGE
BUILDING
AUTONOMOUS
DISCOURSE
Examples
Techniques
Strategies
5
>
n
O
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OVERCOMING
LIMITATIONS
INFL
KNOWLEDGE
Int: Cuando no sabis decir las cosas en ingls cmo las decs?
Yol: Algunas veces cuando no s decir una cosa pues la digo en
medio ingls medio espaol. (5)
Int: Are you the oldest or the youngest in your family?
JV: One od and one small.
Int: And you? In the middle?
JV: Yes. (7)
Int: What about your bedroom? What furniture can you find?
El: Two bed... a wardrobe two.
Int: Anything else.
El: No, a link, a lit.
Int: Light.
El: Yes. (7)
Int: What food do you not like?
El: Legum and fish and pizza. (7)
Int: (Asking about bis mother) What colour is her hair?
El: Me no remember.
Int: What is it in Spanish?
El: Castao.
Int: Brown. (7)
Code-switching
Paraphrasing
Foreignizing
TI
The children who took part in the research had been identified by
their teacher as 'good language learners', and so the techniques and
strategies they reported to be using can provide us with useful information about the cognitive processes involved in initial EFL learning.
It would appear that effective learners are good at managing their own
learning both inside and outside the classroom, since they tend to plan
for learning activities and monitor their use of the FL. Similarly they
enjoy cooperating with peers either helping with problems, correcting
mistakes or simply insisting that classroom rules are respected by all.
Affectively, these children are highly motivated by their English classes
and confident in their ability to use the FL, extending their enthusiasm
for learning to the world outside the classroom, where many of them
pay attention to the English they hear in songs or on televisin and
they actively seek out opportunities to try out their growing knowledge
of the language with friends and family. It is significant that there is a
certain amount of overlapping between the social and affective strategies shown by these children and the Attitudinal Contents contained
in the Official Curriculum for foreign languages at primary level, indicating, consequently, that one way of developing this rea of the
curriculum would be by explicitly promoting such strategy use in the
classroom.
Indeed, an important finding, coinciding with Nisbet & Shucksmith
(1986), was that the learning techniques reported by these effective
learners appeared to be closely linked to the classroom methodology
they experienced, that is to the type of communicative activities they
experienced and more importantly, to the way in which they were presented and carried out. Since English was the mdium of instruction
used in this classroom, these children relied on their background knowledge and inferred meanings from pictures, gestures, intonation and contextual information which helped them both understand and remember
the FL models and vocabulary, as did self initiated repetition in class
and home. Since oral production was a high priority in this classroom,
the children's speech revealed strategic interlanguage use in the form
of unanalysed formulas, recombinations of known patterns and vocabu-
lary, use of content words or compensatory techniques to convey messages with their limited linguistic resources. Interestingly, some children
also showed evidence of having explicitly begun to form hypotheses
about the rules underlying their use of English. The question then is
not so much whether teachers can help children to learn or not, the
results of our research suggest that, at primary level, they already do,
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CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Aprendizaje,
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