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Lesson 5: Academic Essay Writing

Conventions of academic texts
Academic texts in English are linear, which means it has one central point or theme
with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or
repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. There are eight main
features of academic texts. Academic texts are to some extent: complex, formal,
objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language precisely and
accurately.

I) Complexity
Academic text language is relatively more complex than spoken or other forms of
written language. It is lexically denser and has a more varied vocabulary. It uses
more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Academic texts also usually use
more complex sentence structure and use reported speech.
Example :

Frequently, Unfortunately (complex) vs Often, Sadly (spoken)

These antibodies were shown to respond to the human malaria parasite,
indicating that the vaccine would be likely to trigger an immune reaction if it
were used in people. (complex sentence, reported speech)

II) Formality
Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you
should avoid colloquial words and expressions.
Example :
No contractions (Its conducted It was conducted)
Less common words (difficult complicated)

Less phrasal verbs (fill in complete)

Complete sentences (Great job It was conducted successfully)

No abbreviations (Sept. September)

III) Precision
In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely.
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IV) Objectivity
Academic texts in general are objective rather than personal. These texts therefore
have fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main
emphasis should be on the information that is given and the arguments that the
writer wants to make. For that reason, academic texts tend to use nouns (and
adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs).
Example :

The vaccine, based on a genetically modified cold virus, was developed in

the lab of Zhou Xing. ()
We developed the vaccine, based on a genetically modified cold virus, in
the lab of Zhou Xing. (X)

V) Explicitness
The language in academic texts is explicit about the relationships in the text.
Furthermore, the writer makes it clear to the reader how the various parts of the
text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different
signaling words.
Examples : Despite, Firstly, On the first hand, On the other hand, However, Because,
In retrospect, In hindsight, former, latter, likewise, furthermore, etc.

VI) Accuracy
Academic texts use vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow
specific meanings. Scientific terms may be prevalent.
Example :

Experts believe the findings might lead to a more customized vaccine for
certain patients, which potentially might permit them to come off
antiretrovirals. ()
Experts believe the findings might lead to a more customized vaccine for
certain patients, which potentially might permit them to come off the drugs
used to treat HIV. (X)

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VII) Hedging
In any kind of academic texts, the writer makes decisions about his stance on a
particular subject, or the strength of the claims he is making. Different subjects
prefer to do this in different ways.
A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a
hedge.
Example :

HPV infection can cause cervical cancer as well as other cancers such as
anal and vulvar cancers (hedged stating that theres a possibility that it
may cause)
HPV infection causes cervical cancer as well as other cancers such as anal
and vulvar cancers (not hedged stating that it definitely causes)

VIII) Responsible
Academic texts are responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and
justification for, any claims made. The texts are also responsible for demonstrating
an understanding of any source texts used.

Classification Style
The patterns of exposition are really ways to organize thought, to develop ideas in
an
organized fashion so the reader can follow them easily. One common pattern of
exposition is classification and division. This pattern is used for analyzing topics.
When analyzing a subject, you break it down into parts to study or determine
the
relationship among the parts to determine the nature of the parts. For example,
analyzing a human body involves examining the parts to see how they make the
body
function.

If you were studying psychology and were interested in dreams, you

would
probably begin by sorting the dreams into categories that share common
characteristics, and by so doing you might learn something about the various kinds
of

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dreams. Taking one thing such as the human body and breaking it down into
parts is
analyzing by divisions; taking a large group of things such as animals and
separating

the

group

into

categories

is

analyzing

by

classification.

Since

classification
and division are very similar processes of analysis, and since as patterns of
exposition
they are even more similar, the general rhetorical term classification is used in this
module to refer to the general pattern.

The Principle of Classification

When you classify, you divide the members of a group into categories whose
members
share similar characteristics. But on what basis do you assign the members to
categories? When you classify, you need a principle of classification a guideline for
your classification procedure. For example, the students in your class might be
classified
according to their birth states: Selangor, Sabah, Kedah, Johor, and so on. However,
including a group such as city disrupts the classification by switching principles of
classification. Members of the city group could also be members of other groups.
Using more than one principle in this way causes categories to overlap, that is,
the
members of one category could fit into one or more of the other categories. Just
what
principle of classification to choose is up to you. There are any number of principles
available; the important thing to remember is to use one principle of classification in
an
essay.

Example
Any number of principles of classification are available for a given subject. To
illustrate, consider the subject food. This subject could be classified according to:
SUBJECT : Food
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Principle of

Categories

classification
How many calories the

below 50, between 50-

food contains

100, more than 100

Way of cooking

boiling, frying, baking

Nutrients in food

carbohydrate, protein,
vitamins

Style of cooking

Indian, Chinese, Malay

Preserving food

canning, drying, storing

Where to get food

restaurant, stalls, cafeteria

Courses in a meal

appetizer, main, dessert

When to eat food

breakfast, lunch, dinner

Three Steps to Effective Classification:

1. Decide on the possible categories.
2. Make sure all the categories follow a single principle of organisation.
3. Give suitable examples for each category.
How to use classification skills in an essay

1. Determine the categories. Be thorough; don't leave out a critical category.

For example, if you are writing about food groups in general and state that food
groups include fruit and lean meats, but leave out vegetables, grains and milk,
your essay would be incomplete because you have not included the other food
groups. On the other hand, don't include too many categories as this will cause
your entire essay to lose focus. Bear in mind the purpose of your essay and
leave out categories that can be written in an entirely different essay. For
example, if your topic is treatment of cancer, you may want to focus on modern
treatments such as radiation, chemotherapy and surgery and not include
alternative treatments such as acupuncture, aromatherapy and music therapy.

2. Classify by a single principle. Once you have categories, make sure that
they adhere to the same organising principle. The organising principle is how
you sort the groups. Do not allow a different principle to pop up unexpectedly.
For example, if your unifying principle is "methods of preserving food", don't
bring in another unifying principle midway, such as "reasons for preserving
food," as this would introduce different categories not related to methods of
preserving food.
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3. Support equally each category with examples. Be balanced in categorising

the items i.e. give equal weightage to each category in terms of depth of
explanation. One important way to do this is to give the same number of
examples for each category. The most important category, usually reserved for
last, might require more elaboration.

Developing the thesis statement

Thesis Statement
The essay is controlled by one central idea. In the essay, the sentence containing
the central idea is called the thesis statement. The thesis statement contains an
expression of an attitude, opinion or idea about a topic. The thesis statement is
broad enough to cover to cover the controlling idea for the entire essay. From the
thesis statement, each of the body paragraphs in the essay develops its controlling
idea that is written as a topic sentence.
Here are a few points to remember about the thesis statement:
1. The thesis statement should be expressed in a complete sentence. Since the
thesis statement is the main statement for the entire essay, it should express a
complete thought; therefore it should be expressed in a complete sentence. And
since it makes a statement, it should not be written as a question.
Example:
My fear of crowds. (X)
My fear of crowds has made my life miserable. ()

2. A thesis statement expresses an opinion, attitude, or idea; it does not simply

announce the topic the essay will develop.
Example:
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I am going to discuss the effects of radiation. (X)

The effects of radiation are often unpredictable. ()
3. A thesis statement should express an opinion; it should not express a fact. Since
the thesis statement expresses an attitude, opinion, or idea about a topic, the
thesis statement is really a statement that someone could disagree with.
Therefore, the thesis statement is a statement that needs to be explained or
proved.
Example:
Cows produce milk. (X)
The milk cows produce is not always fit for human consumption. ()

There are many advantages and disadvantages to dieting. (This is not an arguable
point)
The disadvantages of dieting far outweigh the advantages. ()

4. A thesis statement should express only one idea about one topic; if a thesis
statement contains two or more ideas, the essay runs the risk of lacking unity
and coherence.

Living in the city can be stressful, and I have found that staying in a condominium in
the city is the worst experience that contributes to this stress. (X)
Living in the city can be stressful ().

Thesis statement for classification essay

The thesis statement of a classification essay usually includes the topic and how the
writer has classified it in the study. Sometimes the categories are named:
(topic)...(classification principle)...(category) (category) (category)
Example:

Outbreaks of Avian Influenza in poultry may raise global public health

concerns due to their effect on poultry populations, their potential to cause
serious disease in people, and their pandemic potential.
Another example:
(classification principle)..(topic).(category) (classification principle) (category))
Example:
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While the global public health concerns have mobilized plans to contain
Avian Influenza amongst poultry, specific plans have also been implemented
to contain the spread amongst humans.

Understanding synthesising skills

Synthesis skills
Writing a research paper or a dissertation will require you to synthesise information
from different sources as you consider past and current debate and discussion on
the topic before bringing in your viewpoint.
Your viewpoint is a carefully considered opinion or argument based on what you
have discovered and thought about on the topic so far.
When using synthesising skills, you should be able to draw relationships and make
conclusions and inferences based on available research up to the present time. You
are not simply parroting what has been said or reporting what has been discovered.
You are summarising and paraphrasing in order to provide background information
for your own thesis or in order to support your own hypothesis. You should be able
to comment on what has been reported in the light of what was reported on the
same topic at some other time. You should be able to show the relationship between
two pieces of information: in what way are they similar, to what extent do they
differ, how credible is one compared to the other etc.
Synthesis skills are required when writing a literature review, which considers
relevant available information on a topic of interest to the writer. Go to the library
and look for one in a journal related to your programme.
When you are asked to write a review article, you may or may not be given a
research angle or research purpose. Customarily, you are expected to find your own
research purpose, and therefore, you will need to formulate a thesis or thesis
statement of your own. For this module you have an assignment, which
requires you to write an academic essay using synthesis skills. You will refer to
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several articles on a given topic. Once you have read the articles, you are required
to formulate a thesis statement based on the question. You are not required to
provide your own or new ideas. However, remember that a synthesis is NOT a
paraphrase or a summary. You are to consider what you have read; this means that
you should make connections and draw conclusions about the subject matter. Your
tone should be analytical, not reporting.
Synthesis writing skills will equip you to write good full research or review papers in
the future.

Steps for synthesising

The techniques for successful synthesising may be picked up quickly if you know a
few strategies. You can use a step-by-step approach. The order of each step is fairly
intuitive.

1. Read widely from your texts on the topic.

2. Take notes in your own words from each listed source. Put all
notes on a single page.
3. Link common ideas to make sets of information from each
source.
4. Number your sets so you have a strong logical order to
develop your review.
5. Develop your thesis statement.
6. Draft your essay from your notes. Start with a thesis
statement. Reference your sources.

EXAMPLES OF SYNTHESIS SKILLS

EXAMPLE 1
Read the excerpt (edited) from the introduction section of a journal article
and note the categories for each paragraph.
Hibiscus vitifolius Linn., commonly known as tropical rose mallow, is an
annual or biennial herbaceous bush found in the jungles and
brushwoods distributed throughout the hotter parts of India and are
commonly known as bharadwaji and bankapas. It belongs to the
Malvaceae family. This plant is known as a fiber crop in some parts of
the world and is useful for the treatment of several diseases.

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The roots of Hibiscus vitifolius are reported to be useful for the

treatment of head lice [1], inflammation [2] and pulsating anterior
fontanalle [3]. The flowers are also reported for their anti-inflammatory,
hypoglycemic [4], anti-bacterial [5] activities and also for gynecological
complaints [6].

Phytochemical investigations of the flowers of Hibiscus vitifolius

have revealed the presence of bioflavonoids such as gossypin and
glucuronides of gossypetin such as hibifolin [7].
Gossypin has been shown to suppress angiogenesis, inflammation
and carcinogenesis [8]. It is also reported to have oral anti-oxidant
property [9], anti-hypercholesterolemic property [10] and antinociceptive property [11]. Moreover, Parmer and Ghosh [12] also
reported the effects of gossypin on the formation of galactose induced
cataracts in rats.

The extract of Hibiscus vitifolius is traditionally used for the

treatment of jaundice and associated liver damages in India [13]. As a
vital organ of the body, the liver plays a significant role in the
metabolism of endogenous and exogenous agents, eliminating drugs
and detoxifying the body [14]. Hepatitis is one of the most common
liver-associated and prevalent diseases in the world. In most hepatitis
patients, the disease seems to be associated with jaundice. Then again,
drug-related hepatotoxicity is a leading cause of hepatitis. In some
instances, hepatitis progression develops into irreversible cirrhosis and
is associated with liver cancer [15].

Regardless of the fact that hepatic problems are responsible for a

significant number of deaths around the world, the current drugs
regimen in clinics is not effective enough. Thus it is crucial to develop
new effective drugs to lessen injury to the liver and to decelerate the
development of liver injury to fibrosis, cancer and death.

Adapted from
Samuel, Anbu Jeba Sunilson John, Syam Mohan, Dinesh Kumar Chellappan, Anandarajagopal
Kalusalingam, and Saraswathi Ariamuthu. "< i> Hibiscus vitifolius</i>(Linn.) root extracts shows
potent protective action against anti-tubercular drug induced hepatotoxicity." Journal of
Ethnopharmacology 141, no. 1 (2012): 396-402.
*Refer to the article for the references

Categories

Biological properties of the plant as a whole

Paragraph
2

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2
3
4

Active chemicals isolated from the plant

Biological properties of the active chemicals in the
plant
Overview of liver function and complications

3
4
5

Note the function of the first and last paragraphs.

First introduces topic, provides brief background
Last concludes by stating the problem that will be investigated /
potential gap in research that needs to be filled

EXAMPLE 2
Below is a suggested academic paragraph using synthesis skills. The paragraph is
written in classification style. Study the paragraph and consider the steps in
synthesising.

Example: Paragraph level

Begin by drawing a grid and filling in information from your sources
Next, find common ideas and number them.
Innocent, M. 2009

There are no side effects.

Medicines are cost effective.

Substances or ingredients of
'complexes' are readily available,
so you can even grow some of
your own medicines

Alternative medicines don't just

Keefer, A. 2010

cost less than prescription medications

and treatments.

have fewer or no side effects as

opposed to the frequent and sometimes
severe effects of many prescription
medications

heal ailments. In the process,

they allow for growth.

Alternative medicine also offers

treatment options to individuals who do
not have access to pain clinics under
their health insurance plans.
Alternative medicines use natural
substances processed simply

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Willingham, E. 2013
alternative therapies are
unregulated

erratic dosing

possible interactions

Palsson, J. 2009
have no side effects on the body and
hence they are considered to be great
choices for treating various kinds of
ailments.

The alternative medicines are

considered to be safer options in many
instances for curing problems of the
mind and the body.
they don't contain chemicals and drugs
at all.

You have synthesised information that is common to authors. Synthesising

evidence makes your writing more powerful as you are demonstrating that
an idea is supported by a number of authorities:
1. no side effects (Innocent, M. 2009; Keefer, A. 2010; Palsson, J. 2009)
2. overall well being (Innocent, M. 2009; Palsson, J. 2009)
3. natural components (Keefer, A. 2010; Palsson, J. 2009)
Form your thesis statement :
Using alternative therapies in treating headaches is better than consuming
prescriptive drugs.
Then, draft your synthesis and insert the in-text citations.
Remember to end with the Reference list.
Synthesis (Vancouver Style)
Using alternative therapies in treating headaches is better than consuming
prescriptive drugs. Alternative therapies have been noted to have minimum or
absolutely no side effects as compared to the unfavorable effects of prescriptive
drugs. [1-3] As such, nausea, dizziness, and diarrhoea can be avoided. Unlike
prescriptive drugs which only heal the physical aspect, the use of alternative
treatments can be beneficial as they ensure healing in the mind, body and spirit.
[1,3] This is further supported by the fact that alternative treatments use only
natural products [2,3] and work within the same biological framework as chemicals
do, for therapeutic healing. However, Willignham [4] cautions that alternative
therapies have not undergone the rigorous level of evaluation and standardization
subjected to prescriptive drugs. As such, precautions on dosing have not been
determined. Although alternative therapies have not been closely regulated, there
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has been no evidence to prove their harmfulness. With sufficient evidence to

support alternative therapies as a safe option, it can be suggested that they be
used along with prescriptive drugs to treat headaches.
Reference

1. Innocent M. Seven advantages of alternative medicine. Ezine Article [Internet], 2009

Mac 30 [cited 2013 Mac 26]. Available from: http://ezinearticles.com/?SevenAdvantages-of-Alternative-Medicine&id=2159789

2. Keefer A. What are the benefits of alternative treatment? Livingstrong.com [Internet].

2010 May 12 [cited 2013 Mac 24]. Available from:
http://www.livestrong.com/article/121642-benefits-alternative-medicines/

3. Palsson J. The Benefits of alternative medicine over conventional medicine. Article

Doctor [ Internet] 2009 Apr 19 [cited 2013 Apr 5]. Available from:
http://www.articledoctor.com/medicine/the-benefits-of-alternative-medicine-overconventional-medicine-1993

4. Willingham E. There's Nothing Special About Alternative Medicine. Forbes [serial online].
2013 Feb 28 [cited 2013 Apr 14];Sec Pharma & Healthcare. Available from :
http://www.forbes.com/sites/emilywillingham/2013/02/28/theres-nothing-special-aboutalternative-medicine/

Synthesis (APA Style)

Using alternative therapies in treating headaches is better than consuming
prescriptive drugs. Alternative therapies have been noted to have minimum or
absolutely no side effects as compared to the unfavorable effects of prescriptive
drugs (Innocent, 2009; Keefer, 2010; Palsson 2009). As such, nausea, dizziness, and
diarrhoea can be avoided. Unlike prescriptive drugs which only heal the physical
aspect, the use of alternative treatments can be beneficial as they ensure healing in
the mind, body and spirit (Innocent, 2009; Keefer, 2010; Palsson 2009). This is
further supported by the fact that alternative treatments use only natural products
(Keefer, 2010; Palsson 2009) and work within the same biological framework as
chemicals do, for therapeutic healing. However, Willignham (2013) cautions that
alternative therapies have not undergone the rigorous level of evaluation and
standardization subjected to prescriptive drugs. As such, precautions on dosing
have not been determined. Although alternative therapies have not been closely
regulated, there has been no evidence to prove their harmfulness. With sufficient
evidence to support alternative therapies as a safe option, it can be suggested that
they be used along with prescriptive drugs to treat headaches.
Reference
Innocent M. (2009, Mac 30). Seven advantages of alternative medicine. Ezine
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Article. Retrieved from http://ezinearticles.com/?Seven-Advantages-ofAlternative-Medicine&id=2159789

Keefer A. (2010, May 12). What are the benefits of alternative treatment?
Livingstrong.com. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong.com/article/121642benefits-alternative-medicines/
Palsson J. (2009, Apr 19). The Benefits of alternative medicine over conventional
medicine. Article Doctor. Retrieved from
http://www.articledoctor.com/medicine/the-benefits-of-alternative-medicineover-conventional-medicine-1993
Willingham E. (2013, Feb 28). There's Nothing Special About Alternative
Medicine. Forbes. Retrieved from
http://www.forbes.com/sites/emilywillingham/2013/02/28/theres-nothingspecial-about-alternative-medicine/

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